STRUCTURAL SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT OTHER METHODS OF LOCOMOTION

MUSCLES AND MYOSTATIN • Elastic tissue in a kangaroo’s hind legs compresses

• Protein filaments inside a muscle fiber
- Continually built and broken down
• Exercise makes a muscle bigger and stronger
• Hormones affect muscle mass
- Testosterone encourages muscles cells to
build more proteins
- Human growth hormone functions the same
way
when landing
- Compression stores energy used in the next
hop
• Bird wing typically has same shape as airplane wing
- Gliding: wing shape produces lift
- Getting off the ground: bird flaps its wings,
forcing air downward
THE VERTEBRATE ENDOSKELETON

MYOSTATIN ABNORMALITIES • Hydrostatic skeleton

- System of fluid-filled internal chambers
• Myostatin - Found in soft-bodied invertebrates
- Regulatory protein that discourages growth of • Earthworm movement
skeletal muscle - Muscles exert force against the fluid chambers
• Myostatin related Muscle Hypertrophy - Circular and longitudinal muscles coordinate to
- Caused by a mutation, making a person move the earthworm through soil
myostatin-deficient
• Muscle mass and athletic ability in animals INVERTEBRATE SKELETONS
- Affected by myostatin mutations
- Examples: dogs and horse bred for racing • Exoskeleton
- Cuticle, shell, or other hard external body part
ANIMAL MOVEMENT - Receives the force of a muscle contraction
- Arthropod exoskeleton also protects the
• Locomotion animal’s soft body tissues
- Self-propelled movement from place to place - Cannot grow with the animal
• Sessile animals (those fixed in place) • Must periodically molt
- Also move some body parts • Endoskeleton
- Example: barnacles wave feathery legs to - Internal framework of hard parts
capture food around them - Example: sea starts have hard calcium plates
• For animal to move in one direction, it must exert a
force in the opposite direction
- Example: Jet-propelled squid
longitudinal A The fly’s wings pivot down
METHODS OF MOVEMENT muscle contracts when vertical muscle relaxes and
longitudinal muscle contracts,
• Swimming animals more typically use fins or flippers to
push the water pulling the sides of the thorax
• Land animals move by pushing against land surfaces inward.
• Friction and gravity
- Affect how much energy must be used to move
- Moving through water takes more energy than vertical
moving through air
• Aquatic animals are somewhat buoyant B The wings pivot up when
and have streamlined bodies. longitudinal longitudinal muscle relaxes
muscle and vertical muscle
MINIMIZING FRICTION relaxes contracts, flattening the
thorax.
• Snails, snakes, and other creeping or slithering animals
- Typically have methods to reduce friction thorax
between their bodies and the ground surface
- Examples: snails’ mucus and snakes’ smooth
scales vertical muscle
• Running contracts
- Minimize surface area in contact with the
ground
 VERTEBRATE SKELETONS
BONE MAROW
• All vertebrates have an endoskeleton
- Mostly made of bine tissue • Cavities inside a bone contain bone marrow
- In sharks, endoskeleton is made of cartilage o Red marrow
• Vertebral column (backbone) functions - fills the spaces in spongy bone
- Support the body - major site of blood cell formation
- Serves as an attachmentspacepoint for the muscles o Yellow marrow
A The
- Protects the spinal cordoccupied
that runs - fills central cavity of an adult femur
by inside it femur
- Made up of bony segments - consists mainly of fat
living called vertebrae
bone cell contains
• Intervertebral disks between vertebra both
absorb shock compact blood vessel
space occupied by
and spongy living bone cell
SKELETAL COMPONENTS nutrient canal

• Axial skeleton location of yellow

- Bones that make up the body’s main axis marrow
compact bone
• Appendicular skeleton
tissue
- Bones of the appendages and bones that
connect them to the axial skeleton spongy bone
tissue
BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
one osteon
• 206 bones in the human body 55 µ m
- Range in size from two pounds (femur) to
middle ear bones the size of a grain of rice
- Different shapes: long, flat, square
- Each bone wrapped in dense connective tissue
sheath
• Nerves and blood vessels run through
it
• Bone cells
- Bone tissue and extracellular matrix
spongy bone
BONE CELL TYPES tissue
• Types of bone cells compact outer layer of dense
o Osteoblasts bone tissue connective tissue
blood vessel
- bone builders which secrete
components of the matrix
B Cross-section through a femur showing osteons. These
o Osteocytes
cylindrical structures consist of concentric layers of compact
- former osteoblasts surrounded by
bone.
matrix they secreted
o Osteoclasts BONE FORMATION
- secrete enzymes that break down
the matrix • Cartilage skeleton forms in all vertebrate embryos
- It remains cartilage in sharks and other
COMPONENTS OF A LONG BONE cartilaginous fishes
- In other vertebrates, osteoblasts move in and
• Long bone such as a femur contains convert most of it to bone
o Compact bone • Many bones continue to grow in size into adulthood
- forms shaft and outer layer
- consists of many functional units BONE MASS
called osteons
- nerves and blood vessels run • Bones are in a continual state of remodeling
through canal in osteons’ center
• Bone mass increase until age 24
o Spongy bone - Later in life, bone mass gradually declines
- fills the shaft and knobby ends
• Osteoblasts become less active
- strong and lightweight
• Joint
- Area of contact (or near contact) between
bones
 - Three types of joints
• Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

JOINTS

• Fibrous joints
- Contain fibrous connective tissue
- Connect bones of the skull
- Hold teeth in their sockets
• Cartilaginous joints
- Pads or disks of cartilage connect bones
- Flexible connection allows some movement
- Connect vertebra
- Connect some ribs to the sternum

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

• Cartilage
- Covered bone ends are separated by a small
space
• Ligaments
- Cords of dense, regular connective tissue
- Hold the bone in place
• Most joints are synovial
- Knees, hips, shoulders, wrist and ankles
- Allow variety of movements
BONE AND JOINT HEALTH

• Osteoporosis
- Bone loss outpaces bone formation
femur - Bones become more porous and likely to break
- Most common in postmenopausal women
• Bone health
patella - Diet including calcium and vitamin D
- Exercise
- Smoking, caffeine and alcohol can slow bone
renewal
cartilage
JOINTS AND INJURY
cruciate ligaments • Joints are frequent site of injury
- Sprained ankle
• Ligaments holding bones together at
the ankle overstretch or tear
• Tear of cruciate ligaments in knee joint may require
Menisci surgery
• Torn meniscus
Tibia - Common knee injury
- Meniscus: C-shaped cartilage wedge that
reduces friction between and cushions bones

fibula DISLOCATION AND ARTHRITIS

• Dislocation
- Occurs when bones of a joint slip out of place
- Highly painful and required immediate
treatment
• Arthritis
- Chronic inflammation of a joint
- Most common type is osteoarthritis
- Decrease in cartilage allows damage to bones
of the joint
 • Sphincter
- Ring if muscle in a tubular organ or at a body
opening
• Tongue: boneless muscular organ

HOW MUSCLE CONTRACTS

• The sliding filament model
- Explains how interactions between thick and
thin filaments bring about muscle contraction
- Filaments do not change length or position
- Myosin heads bind to actin filaments and slide
them toward the center of sarcomere
• As actin filaments are pulled inward,
the sarcomere shortens
1 muscle in
2 bundle of 3 skeletal muscle
connective
muscle fibers fiber
tissue sheath

nucleus

tendon

ARTHRITIS TREATMENT

• Rheumatoid arthritis 4 myofibril

- Autoimmune disorder that targets fluid- mitochondrion
secreting lining of synovial joints sarcomere
• Arthritis treated with drugs that relieve pain and
minimize inflammation
• Joints can also be replaced with prosthetic joints
- Knee and hip replacements are common

SKELETAL MUSCLE FUNCTION Z line Z line

• Skeletal muscles sometimes called voluntary muscles 5 one

- Also used in involuntary movement (reflexes) sarcomere
- Muscles play a role in thermoregulation,
releasing heat
• Tendon thick filament
- Sheath of dense connective tissue thin filament
(myosin)
- Often connects muscled between two bones (actin)
• One bone fixed, the other moves when 6 thin filament 7 thick filament
muscle contracts

MUSCLE FUNCTION
• Muscles can pull but cannot push
- Work in opposite to achieve the greatest range tropomyosin actin troponin myosin head
- of motion
• Example: biceps and triceps in upper
arm
• Some skeletal muscles pull facial skin
- To change facial expression
 NERVOUS CONTROL OF MUSCLE DISRUPTED CONTROL OF SKELETAL
CONTRACTION MUSCLE

• Signals from the primary motor cortex travel to and • Clostridium tetani
excite a neuron in the spinal cord - Type of soil bacteria
• Action potential arrives at a neuromuscular junction - Sometimes colonizes wounds
- Triggers the release of acetylcholine (ACh) - Prevents the release of neurotransmitter GABA
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum that inhibits motor neurons
- Releases calcium when triggered by an action o Nothing dampens signal to contract
potential • Tetanus symptoms
• Which activates the myosin and actin - Clenched fist and jaw
• Results in muscle contraction - Backbone may become locked in an abnormal
1 motor neuron arch
A signal travels along
the axon of a motor neuron,
from the spinal cord to a OTHER MUSCLE TOXICS
skeletal muscle.
• Clostridium botulinium
- Prevents muscle contraction by preventing
motor neurons from releasing ACh
section from spinal cord - Controlled doses of botulinium toxin (Botox)
2 used in cosmetic procedures
The signal is neuromuscular junction o Injected into facial muscles to prevent
transferred from the motor contraction and wrinkled
neuron to the muscle at • Polio
neuromuscular junctions. - Viruses that destroy motor neurons
Here, ACh released by the o Results in paralysis and sometimes
neuron’s axon terminals death
diffuses into the muscle
fiber and causes action
MUSCLE METABOLISM
potentials.
section from skeletal muscle
• Muscle contraction requires ATP
T - Muscles only store small amount
3 tubule sarcoplasmic
reticulum one myofibril - Larger stores of creatine phosphate can b used
Action potentials in muscle to form ATP
propagate along a fiber - Aerobic respiration produces most of the ATP
muscle fiber’s plasma during exercise
membrane down to T • Lactate fermentation
tubules, then to the - Muscle’s third source of energy
sarcoplasmic
reticulum, which METABOLIC PATHWAY FOR ATP
releases calcium ions. S
The ions promote muscle fiber’s
interactions of myosin plasma
and actin that result in membrane
contraction.

MOTOR UNITS AND MUSCLE

TENSION

• Motor unit
- One motor neuron and all muscle fibers it
synapses with
o All fibers contract simultaneously
• Muscle tension
- Depends on number of fibers contracting
- Small, five movements: about five muscle
fibers
- Biceps: 700 muscle fibers per unit
 MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
Vertebral Column
• Red fibers - A flexible column formed by a series of 24
- Have mitochondria vertebrae, plus the sacrum and coccyx.
- Make ATP mainly by aerobic respiration - Referred to as the “Spine’
- Colored red by myoglobin - Connects the skull to other parts of the bones;
• White fibers axial skeleton
- No myoglobin and few mitochondria
o Intervertebral Disk (Cartilage)
FAST AND SLOW FIBERS - Each vertebra in the spine is
separated and cushioned by an
• Fast fibers
intervertebral disc, which keeps the
- Myosin converts ATP to ADP quickly
bones from rubbing together.
- Contract rapidly but cannot sustain
contractions o Vertebrae
- All white fibers are fast fibers - Vertebrae are the 33 individual
o Red fibers can be either fast or slow bones that interlock with each other
• Human triceps muscle to form the spinal column.
- Predominately fast red fibers - The vertebrae are numbered and
• Back muscles used to retain posture divided into regions: cervical,
- Predominately slow red fibers thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE Three regions:

1. Cervical vertebrae- 7 vertebrae; from the
• Beneficial effects of aerobics exercise skull, neck is part of it; the main function of
- Skeletal muscle become more resistant to the cervical spine is to support the weight of
fatigue the head.
- Increases muscle’s blood supply by boosting
growth of new capillaries 2. Thoracic vertebrae- 12 vertebrae; upper
- Encourages conversion of white blood cells to back; the main function of the thoracic spine
red blood cells is to hold the rib cage and protect the heart
• Resistance exercise encourages synthesis of actin and and lungs.
myosin filaments
3. Lumbar Vertebrae- 5 vertebrae; lower back;
INACTIVITY the main function of the lumbar spine is to
bear the weight of the body.
• Detrimental effects of prolonged sitting
- Leg muscles decreases production of
• Sacrum
lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
o Raising amount of lipids in the blood - A shield-shaped bony structure that is located at
- Health risk are not canceled out with regular the base of the lumbar vertebrae and that is
exercise connected to the pelvis
- Recommendation: stand or walk at regular - Connects the spine to the hip bones (iliac).
intervals - Forms the posterior pelvic wall and strengthens
and stabilizes the pelvis.
SKELETAL SYSTEM - Has five sacral vertebrae, which are fused
together.
• Coccyx (tailbone)
Skull - Supports the theory of Charles’ Darwin; coccyx
• Cranial bones is derived from our evolution
- Has 8 bones - The four fused bones of the coccyx or tailbone
- It’s composed of the top and back of the skull provide attachment for ligaments and muscles
and enclose the brain; made up of several of the pelvic floor.
segments that protects our forehead, temple - The coccyx is a triangular arrangement of bone
and back. that makes up the very bottom portion of the
• Facial bones spine below the sacrum. It represents a vestigial
- Has 14 bones tail, hence the common term tailbone
- It makes up the face of the skull
- Help show our emotions and the features of an
individual
Ribcage
– Consists of 12 pairs of ribs
– It protects heart, lungs and diaphragm.
– It provides a framework on which the muscles of
the shoulder girdle, chest, upper abdomen and
back can attach.
– It also plays important role in the respiration.
Expands since our lungs expand; aided by
cartilage
o Sternum (Breastbone)
- Located in the middle of the chest;
protects the organs of the torso from
injury and also serves as a
connection point for other bones and
muscles
o Ribs
- Bony framework
- Has 12 pairs or 24 ribs
- Aids in respiration
Pectoral Girdle
– Where the arms attach to the axial skeleton.
o Clavicle (collarbone)
- The bone that runs horizontally
between the top of sternum and
scapula
o Scapula (shoulder blade)
- A triangular bone that serves as a
joining force between the clavicle
and the humerus.
- Plays an important role in stabilizing
the other bones involved in the
rhythm of shoulder motion; on the
back of clavicle
Upper Limb Bones
• Humerus (upper arm bone)
- Long bone of the upper arm between shoulder
and elbow
• Ulna (forearm bone)
- Underneath radius; found on the pinky finger
side.
• Radius (forearm bone)
- Top of Ulna; found on the thumb side.
• Carpals (wrist bones)
- Group of eight bones that make up the wrist that
connects the hand to the forearm.
• Metacarpals (palm bones)
- Five bones in the palm
- Form the intermediate part of the skeletal hand
located between the phalanges of the fingers
and the carpal bones of the wrist which forms
the connection to the forearm.
• Phalanges (finger bones)
- 14 bones that are found in the fingers of each
hand and also in the toes of each foot
Pelvic girdle
- Commonly known as the hips, is where the legs
attach to the axial skeleton. It’s made up of two
hipbones — one for each leg.
o Hipbones
- Flat bones; also known as innominate
or pelvic bones
- Large, flattened, irregularly shaped
bone, constricted in the center and
expanded above and below
o Sacrum
- A shield-shaped bony structure that is
located at the base of the lumbar
vertebrae and that is connected to the
pelvis
- Forms the posterior pelvic wall and
strengthens and stabilizes the pelvis.
o Coccyx (tailbone)
- Supports the theory of Charles’
Darwin; coccyx is derived from our
evolution
- provides slight support for the pelvic
organs
- The coccyx is a triangular
arrangement of bone that makes up the
very bottom portion of the spine below
the sacrum.
- It represents a vestigial tail, hence the
common term tailbone
Lower Limb Bones
• Femur (thighbone)
- The longest and strongest bone of humans
• Patella (kneecap)
- It is a small, freestanding, bone that rests
between the femur (thighbone) and tibia
(shinbone/lower leg bone).
• Tibia (lower leg bone)
- Tibia is larger than fibula
- As the second-largest bone in the body, the
tibia's main function in the leg is to bear weight
with the medial aspect of the tibia bearing the
majority of the weight load.
• Fibula (lower leg bone)
- The fibula, sometimes called the calf bone, is
smaller than the tibia and runs beside it.
• Tarsals (ankle bones)
- A set of seven irregularly shaped bones. They
are situated proximally in the foot in the ankle
area.
• Metatarsals (sole bones)
- The metatarsals are located in the forefoot,
between the tarsals and phalanges.
- Connect the phalanges to the tarsals. There are
five in number – one for each digit.
• Phalanges (toe bones)
- The bones of the toes. Each toe has three
phalanges – proximal, intermediate, and distal
(except the big toe, which only has two
phalanges).
CIRCULATION •Closed circulatory system.
- An earthworm’s hearts pump blood through a
A SHOCKING SAVE continuous system of vessels that extend through the
body.
• Heart: body’s most durable muscle - Exchanges between blood and the tissues take place
- Each heartbeat set in motion by an electrical across the wall of the smallest vessels.
signal from the heart wall
• Sudden cardiac arrest
- Electrical signaling becomes disrupted
- Heart stops beating
- Blood flow stops
- Occurs in more than 300,00 people per year

SAVING SOMEONE WITH SUDDEN

CARDIAC ARREST

• CPR
- Mouth to mouth resuscitation with chest
compressions that keep victim’s blood moving
- Cannot restart the heart
• Automated external defibrillator (AED)
- Delivers an electric shock to the chest
- Restart the natural peacemaker in the heart wall
- Mani schools, airports, and other public places
are equipped with AED

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

• All animals must keep cells supplies with nutrients and

oxygen CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
- And dispose of cellular wastes
- Some invertebrates do this by diffusion alone
• Annelids, cephalopod mollusks, and all vertebrate have
- More complex animals use a circulatory system
a closed circulatory system
• Open circulatory system - Heart(s) pump blood through a continuous
- Arthropods and most mollusks have this type network of vessels
- Heart(s) pump hemolymph into open-ended - Closed system distributes substance faster
vessels than an open system
• Makes direct exchange with cells - Most exchange takes place in capillaries
• Very small blood vessels
OPEN AND CLOSE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
•Open circulatory system. EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATE
S CIRCULATION
- A grasshopper’s heart pumps its yellowish
hemolymph through a large vessel and out into • All vertebrates have a single heart
tissue spaces. - heart structures varies
- Hemolymph mingles with interstitial fluid, • Most fishes
exchanges materials, and then reenters the - Two-chambered heart
heart through openings in the heart wall. • Atrium receives blood
• Ventricle pumps blood out of heart
pump - Blood flows in a single circuit
- Blood pressure is low
spaces or
cavities CIRCULATORY SYSTEN OF
in body
tissues
REPTILES, BIRDS AND MAMMALS

• Amphibians and most reptiles

- Three-chambered heart
- Two partially separated circuits carry blood
• Pulmonary circuit
 • Systematic circuit • Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart in pulmonary
• Birds and most mammals veins
- Four-chambered heart - Empties into heart’s left atrium
- Twi ventricles and two atria
- Two fully separate circuits carry blood
- Example of morphological convergence

VARIATION IN VERTEBRATE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
S
A. The fish heart has one
atrium and one ventricle.
Force imparted by the
ventricle’s contraction
propels blood through a
single circuit.

B. In amphibians and
most reptiles, the heart
has three chambers: two THE SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
atria and one ventricle.
Blood flows in two • Oxygenated blood
partially separated - Travels from the heart to body tissues and
circuits. Oxygenated back
blood and oxygen-poor • Heart’s left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, the
blood mix a bit in the body’s largest artery
ventricle. • Aorta branches convey blood throughout the body
o Carotid arteries
C. In birds and mammals, - service the brain
the heart has four o Coronary arteries
chambers: two atria and - service the heart tissue
two ventricles.
Oxygenated blood and
oxygen-poor blood do not
mix.

HUMAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• Arteries
- Large diameter blood vessels that take blood
away from the heart
- Branch into smaller vessels
• Then branch into capillaries
• Capillary bed
- Network of capillaries in a tissue
• Vein
- Returns blood to the heart from the capillary
beds

THE PULMONARY CIRCUIT

• One pulmonary artery delivers blood to each lung

• As blood flows through pulmonary capillaries, it picks
up oxygen
- Gives up carbon dioxide
 FUNCTIONS OF THE VENA CAVA

• Superior vena cava

- Returns blood from the head, neck, upper
trunk, and arms
• Inferior vena cava
- Returns blood from the lower trunk and legs

THE HUMAN HEART

• Pericardium
- Sac with two layer of connective tissue
surrounding the heart
• Heart wall consists mostly of cardiac muscle cells
- Heart chambers and blood vessels lined with
endothelium
• Septum divides the heart into left and right sides

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

• Pressure-sensitive valve between the two chamber

• Cardiac cycle
- Events that occur from one heartbeat to
another
• Diastole
- Heart muscle relaxes
• Systole
- Heart muscle contracts

SETTING THE PACE FOR
CONTRACTION
• Sinoatrial (SA) node
- Clump of specialized cells in right atrium wall
- Generates action potentials
• Spread across the atria via gap
junctions
• Atrioventricular (AV) node
- Allows action potential to reach the ventricles\
VERTEBRATE BLOOD
• Functions of the blood
- Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells
- Carries metabolic wastes for disposal
- Distributes hormones
- Serves as a highway for cells and proteins that
protect and repair tissue
- Distributes heat from the muscles to the skin
• Human adults have about five liters of blood
PLASMA
• Fluid portion of the blood
- Mostly water with dissolved plasma proteins
• Albumins
• Clotting factors
• Immunoglobins
• Cellular portion of blood
- Various blood cells and platelets
- Components descend from stem cells in red
bone marro
RED BLOOD CELLS
• Functions of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- Transport oxygen form lungs
- Help move carbon dioxide away from cells
• Account for 40-50 percent of blood volume
• Shaped like a flexible disk with a depression at its
center
- Slip easily through narrow blood vessels
- Shape facilitates gas exchange
• Interior filled with hemoglobin
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Types of white blood cells
o Neutrophils
- phagocytes that engulf bacteria and
cellular debris
o Eosinophils
- attack larger parasites, such as
worms
o Basophils
- mast cells secrete chemicals that
have a role in inflammation
o Monocytes
- move into tissues where they develop
into macrophages
• Interact with lymphocytes to
bring about immune responses
PROCESS OF HEMOSTASIS
• Stops blood loss from injured vessel
• Provides the framework for repairs
• Platelets adhere to the injured site
- Platelet: a membrane-wrapped fragments of
cytoplasm from breakup of large cell
• Plasma proteins convert blood to a gel and form a clot
- Clotting involves several enzyme reactions
Stimulus
A blood vessel is damaged.
Phase 1 response the vessel constricts.
Phase 2 response
Platelets stick together, plugging the site.
Phase 3 response
Clot formation:
1. Enzyme cascade results in activation of the enzyme
thrombin.
2. Thrombin converts fibrinogen, a plasma protein, to
fibrin threads.
3. Fibrin forms a net that entangles cells and platelets,
forming a clot.
 CAPILLARY EXCHANGE
ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from interstitial fluid into the
• Arteries capillary
- Large diameter blood vessels - Other metabolic wastes transported into it
- Ringed by smooth muscle • Near venous end of capillary bed:
- Coated by highly elastic connective tissue - Water moves by osmosis from interstitial fluid
- Elastic properties keeps blood flowing into protein-rich plasma
• Even when ventricles relax • Small net outward flow from a capillary bed into
• Pulse interstitial fluid
- Bulging of an artery with each ventricular - Fluid is returned by the lymphatic system
contraction
• Arterioles FORCES AFFECTING CAPILLARY
- Blood vessel that branch from an artery
EXCHANGE
- Deliver blood to capillaries
- Diameter changes according to body’s blood
flow needs in that area
• Vasodilation or
vasoconstriction
• 20 percent of blood always flows through carotid
arteries to the brain

BLOOD PRESSURE

• Pressure exerted by blood against vessel wall

• Blood pressure is higher in arteries
- Declines over the course of the circuit
• Systolic pressure
- Highest blood pressure of a cardiac cycle
• Diastolic pressure
- Lowest blood pressure of a cardiac cycle
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO BLOOD
PRESSURE
• Blood pressure depends on:
- Total blood volume
- Cardiac output
- Degree of arteriole dilation
• Kidneys adjust blood pressure by regulating fluid
volume lost in urine
• Chronic high blood pressure
- Makes heart and kidneys work harder

EXCHANGE AT CAPILLARIES
• Blood moves fastest in arteries
- Slowest in capillaries
• Cross-sectional area of
capillaries is far greater than
arterioles that deliver blood to
them
• Methods for moving materials at capillaries
- At capillary’s arterial end, blood pressure
forces plasma fluid out through spaces
between cells
- Along length of capillary, oxygen diffuses from
blood into interstitial fluid
• Nutrients transported by
membrane proteins
BACK TO THE HEART
• Veins hold the greatest volume of blood of all blood
vessels
- And have the lowest blood pressure
• Mechanisms that help move blood back to the heart
- One-way valves in veins prevent backflow
- Smooth muscles in vein’s walls contracts
• Raising pressure in the vein
- Skeletal muscles contract and press on
neighboring veins
 BLOOD FLOW ABNORMALITIES RHYTHMS AND ARRHTHMIAS

• Blood pooling inside a vein • Electrocardiograms (ECGs)

- May cause a clot - Record electrical activity of a beating heart
• Thrombus • Arrhythmias
- Clot that forms in a vessel and remains in place - Abnormal heart rhythms caused by
• Embolus malfunctioning of SA node
- Clot that breaks loose and travels to a new - Examples: tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, and
location ventricular fibrillation
- Dangerous: could block blood flow to lung
tissue INTERACTIONS WITH THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
BLOOD AND CARDIOVASCULAR
DISORDERS • Lymph vascular system
- Vessels that collect water and solutes from
• Anemia interstitial fluid
- Few or impaired red blood cells • Deliver to the circulatory system
- Symptoms: shortness of breath, fatigue, and • Moving fluid called lymph
chills
• Leukemia o Lymph node
- Overproduction of white blood cells - located at intervals along lymph
• Cells abnormally formed and vessels
do not function properly o Spleen
• Polycythemia - largest lymphoid organ
- Overproduction of red blood cells - filters pathogens, worn out blood
cells, and platelets
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM LYMPH VASCULAR SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
• Lymphoma
- Cancer that originates in B or T lymphocytes • Provides drainage channel for water and plasma
• Cardiovascular disease risk factors proteins that have leaked out of capillaries
- Smoking • Delivers fats absorbed form small intestine to the blood
- Family history • Transport cellular debris, pathogens, and foreign
- Hypertension substances to lymph nodes
- High cholesterol - Where white blood cells address them
- Diabetes mellitus
- Obesity
• Atherosclerosis
- Buildup of lipids in the arterial wall
- Plaque narrows diameter and slows blood flow
- High LDL level or low HDL level raises risk
- Raises the risk of clogged blood vessel
• Causing stroke or heart attack
• Drugs that dissolve clots can
minimized cell death if
administered quickly

CLOGGED ARTERIES AND

HYPERTENSION

• Clogged coronary arteries

- can be treated with bypass surgery
other methods: laser or balloons angioplasty
• insertion of a stent keeps the artery
open
• Hypertension
- Chronically high blood pressure
- Can cause heart to enlarge and function less
efficiently.
 Vessels and organs of the lymphatic system interact
closely with the circulatory system.

Tonsils
Defense against bacteria
and other foreign agents

Right lymphatic duct

Drains right upper portion of the body

Thymus gland
Site where certain white blood cells acquire means to
chemically recognize specific foreign invaders

lymph
Thoracic duct capillary interstitial fluid
Drains most of the body ________________
flaplike
Spleen “valve”
Major site of antibody production; disposal made of
site for old red blood cells and foreign debris; site of red blood cell overlapping
formation in the embryo cells at tip of
lymph
capillary bed
Some of the lymph vessels capillary
Return excess interstitial fluid and lymph trickles past organized
reclaimable solutes to the blood
arrays of lymphocytes

Some of the lymph vessels

Return excess interstitial fluid and
reclaimable solutes to the blood

Bone marrow
Marrow in some bones is production site
for infection- fighting blood cells (as well
valve (prevents backflow)
as red blood cells and platelets)
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