Chapter 3

Geometrical Attributes

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3.1. Introduction:

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Every day and every moment we search for relive seismic interpretation and give

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it new soul but attributes can determine the types of structures? And the attributes give
use pictures of stratigraphic environment?, and where attributes drives us?, all these

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question must have answer all our logic is serve the geologic pictures, but are we can

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make mixed between all logic and all our experiences and create new picture of seismic
interpretation.

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The phase component of seismic data contains an expanse of useful information.

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This information can be obtained if the seismic trace is considered either as a complex
entity, or as an analytic function consisting of the recording of the potential and the kinetic

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components of the energy flux at the surface of the earth. While the measurement of the
phase and its time derivative gives direct information to the state and variation of energy
in a temporal sense, the measurement, extended to include the spatial information, yields
information on the wave number and the visible direction of propagation. It is well known

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that, wave propagate in two separate mode, phase and group. In dispersive medium
these two modes will have different propagation velocities. Here, we assume a non-

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dispersive mode and consider the phase component only. Separate computation of phase

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and group propagations has been discussed by Barnes (1994).

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A further, and perhaps more important benefit, comes from the redundant information
contained along the wave front which helps to reduce the effects of noise. One of the

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more useful attributes, the instantaneous frequency, suffers from the influence of noise,
which breaks the spatial continuity. This appears, even in time averaged frequency

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displays, as trace wide color streaks. O'Doherty (1992) has shown that by including the

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spatial information in the averaging process, the instantaneous frequency and dip
computations can be stabilized to the degree that the events can be tracked with more
confidence.

In the privies chapters we can identify the types of attributes and the some of
quantitative interpretation of attributes like AVO but are attributes help the quantitative
only? Of course not attributes now is the magic tool to predict or make sure of seismic
stratigraphic or structure. Geometrical Attributes
We will discuses in this chapter geometric attributes and how it helps us in seismic
interpretation and first we must determine the definition of geometric attributes I believe
geometric attributes the attributes that can give us ability to image the shape of reflector
and attempt to constrict the logic of features result from that shapes of reflection.

3.2. Modern volumetric geometric attributes:

· 3D dip and azimuth:
· estimate of reflector dip and azimuth
· Curvature and rotation:
· estimates of reflector shape
· Coherence
· a measure of waveform similarity along a reflector

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· Amplitude gradient
· the inline and cross line changes in the amplitude along a reflector

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· Spectral components
· the amplitude

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3.3. dip attributes:

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3.3.1. 3-D estimate of and dip/azimuth:

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1. 3-D Complex trace analysis

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2. Gradient Structure Tensor (GST)
3. Discrete scans for dip of most coherent reflector

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• Cross correlation
• Semblance (variance)

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• Eigenstructure (principal components)

3.3.1.1. 3-D Complex Trace Analysis (Instantaneous Dip/Azimuth):

In fig3.1 Complex trace attributes, including the real trace, its quadrature, its

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envelope, and its instantaneous phase and instantaneous frequency , Waveform interference

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results in singularities in the instantaneous frequency, such as the negative excursion
indicated by the lowermost gray arrow. Such singularities can be suppressed by calculating

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a weighted-average frequency obtained by weighting the instantaneous frequency by the
envelope and smoothing over a short time window. After Taner et al. (1979).

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The next fig3.2 illustrates Computation of apparent dip using the analytic trace
and numerically, the instantaneous phase () is the angle between the seismic data and

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its Hilbert transform. We begin by computing the instantaneous frequency, which is the

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time derivative of the instantaneous phase () Next, we compute the instantaneous wave
numbers, kx and ky, which are the x- and y-derivatives of the instantaneous phase ()
Finally, we compute the apparent dips, p and q, measured in milliseconds per meter, by
forming the ratio of kx and ky with.

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.1. illustrate complex trace attributes where using Hilbert transform

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Figure 3.2 illustrate computation of apparent bed
by helping complex trace analysis

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Example of complex trace attributes

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In the next example we illustrate the effect of dip and azimuth in illustrate salt
dome where (fig3.3) illustrate time slice and depth slice appear in it salt dome and by

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applying the equation in the (fig3.3) we can use dip attribute to illustrate it in (fig3.4),
we can make smoothing to illustrate salt by envelope weighted in (fig 3.5).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.3. A vertical slice and a horizontal depth slice through a seismic
data volume gathered over a salt dome. Note the characteristic “cut
onion” appearance on the depth slice. After Barnes (2000a).

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Figure 3.4. Vertical and horizontal slices corresponding to those shown in the

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previous figure through instantaneous dip magnitude, given by the equation
in Figure 3.3 The “speckled” appearance of adjacent conflicting dip magnitude
is the result of singularities in the complex-trace analysis estimation of kx, ky,
and . After Barnes (2000a)

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Figure 3.5 Vertical and horizontal slices corresponding to those shown in
previous figure, here through a smoothed instantaneous dip magnitude.
Smoothing was performed using an envelope-weighted running mean filter
(composed of 5 inlines, 5 crosslines, and 7 depth samples) on each of the Geometrical Attributes
constituent kx, ky, and components. Note that the singularities seen in the
previous figure are diminished. After Barnes (2000

3.3.1.2. Gradient Structure Tensor (GST):

Second methode to calculate dip is gradient structure tensor Construction of the
gradient structure tensor (GST) from the seismic data (u); first, we compute a series of
directional derivatives, du/dx, du/dy, and du/dz, Next, we cross correlate these derivatives
with themselves and each other within a small volumetric analysis window, thereby
generating the elements of the matrix shown in figure 3.6 (a). The 3 1 principal-component
eigenvector of this matrix will be aligned parallel to the direction of maximum change in
the wavefield, which in general is a good approximation to the normal to the reflector dip,
such as that indicated by the white arrows in (b).

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Figure 3.6. illustrate gradient structure tensore todetrmine dip attribute

3.3.1.3. Discrete scans for dip of most coherent reflector:

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Fig 3.7. illustrate a schematic diagram showing a 2D search-based estimate of

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coherence; First, the algorithm estimates coherence using semblance, variance, principal

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component, or some other statistical measure along a discrete number of candidate dips
(shown in magenta and green). In this example, the maximum coherence is calculated

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along the dip shown in dark green. Next, the algorithm passes an interpolation curve
through the coherence measures estimated by the peak value and two or more neighboring

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dips (here, shown in light green). The peak value of this curve gives an estimate of

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coherence, whereas the dip value of this peak gives an estimate of instantaneous dip.
After Marfurt et al. (1998).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.7 use to determine instantaneous dip.

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3.3.2. 3-D estimate of dip and azimuth:
We can define local volume-dip and azimuth attributes in 3D as parameters that

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characterize the local (p; q; f) power spectrum. The average in-line dip p is given as the

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mean dip of the sliding window (p; q; f) power spectrum, i.e.

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In the same way we can determine the cross-line dip (q), The volume-dip is now

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given by norm of the dip vector,

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(1)

The azimuth is found as the angle between in-line and cross-line dip, i.e.

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(2)

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Figure 3.8. A schematic diagram showing a 3D search-based
estimate of coherence, in which p indicates the inline and q Geometrical Attributes
the crossline components of vector time dip. The technique is
analogous to that shown in (a). After Marfurt et al. (1998).

Examples of 3D coherence and dip and azimath

Fig3.9. illustrates the attribute extraction on a synthetic data set. The data volume
is a complex sinusoid with a constant volume dip (Figs. 3.9a and 3.9b). From the local
Radon transform the in-line and cross-lines dips are computed separately. The result is
shown in time slice view in (Figs. 3.9c and 3.9d). The volume dip and the azimuth is
then computed using Eqs. (1) and (2)

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Figure 3.9 data example of dip/azimuth estimation. The 3D
data volume with dimensions 64x64x64 samples is a sinusoid
with constant volume-dip. (b) And (c) show the dip in the
x and y directions respectively. The volume dip (e) is constant
expect for the center where conflicting x and y dips add
up to zero.

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Fig3.10. shows the result of the method on a typical 3-D field data volume. The

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sliding-window Radon transform was computed using a 3 by 3 trace window and a time
window of 8 samples, corresponding to 75 [m] by 75 [m] by 32 [ms]. We computed 7

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dips in each direction, with a maximum dip of 1.E-5 [s/m]. A dip filter was applied to the
for suppression of the acquisition footprint.

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The attribute images provide an enhanced view of structural features in the data.
The volume dip image provides a clear view of the faulting pattern. Differences in reflection

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characteristics are also accentuated in the volume dip display. The azimuth and in-line
dip maps elicit the general structural geometry.

Geometrical Attributes

TIME SLICE COHERENCE AZIMATH DIP

Figure 3.10. 3-D volume attributes in time slice view.

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3.4. Coherence attribute:

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3.4.1. Estimate of coherence:

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There are four popular methods of measuring similarity that you will encounter in
commercial software – the cross correlation algorithm used to compare well logs, the

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semblance algorithm used in velocity analysis, eigenstructure analysis, that like cross
correlation, is insensitive to amplitude, and the gradient structure tensor. The ‘variance’

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and ‘Manhattan distance’ estimates of similarity are variations of semblance

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• cross correlation

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• semblance, variance, and Manhattan distance
• eigenstructure

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• Gradient Structural Tensors (GST)

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3.4.1.1. Estimate coherence by crosscorelation:

First we must know that coherence depend on crosscorelation and may be we

have high coherence near to one that mean crosscorelation is highland also/n ratio is

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high and if crossecorelation is low or near to zero that mean coherence is low and that
may indicate fault, as fig3.11 that illustrate how we can do crosscrolation and so determine

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the coherence.
Spatial (or multiracial) analysis windows commonly used in coherence calculations

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for (a) the cross correlation algorithm and (b) the semblance and eigenstructure algorithms.

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In the cross correlation algorithm, we first cross correlate the target trace (in magenta)
with the inline trace (in orange) over a suite of temporal lags. Then we repeat that process

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between the target trace and the cross line trace (in cyan). The coherence estimate is

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obtained by computing the geometric mean of the two estimates. In the semblance and
eigenstructure algorithms, we first estimate dip and azimuth, as described in Figure 3.11

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and then calculate either the semblance or a covariance matrix between the target trace
(in cyan) and its nearest neighbors. Here, we show four nearest neighbors in green and
eight nearest neighbors in green and gray. These sets of nearest neighbors give rise to
either five- or nine-trace coherence algorithms, respectively.

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.11. illustrate the thow can make crosscorelation between traces and its neighbore
traces we take middle trace and combare it with neaboring incrossline and inline

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3.4.1.2. semblance to estimate coherence:

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A semblance use to determine coherence and so as fig 3.12 schematic diagram showing
the steps used in semblance estimation of coherence. (a) First, we calculate the energy

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of the five input traces within an analysis window, (b) then we calculate the average trace,

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and (c) finally, we replace each trace by the average trace and calculate the energy of
the five average traces. The semblance is the ratio of the energy of (c) to the energy of

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(a). If each windowed trace in (a) has the identical waveform and amplitude, the semblance
= 1.0; otherwise, it is less than 1.0

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Fig 3.12 illustrate how can use semblance to determine the coherence .

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3.4.1.3 Eigenstructure estimate of coherence:

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A schematic diagram in fig3.13 showing the steps used in eigenstructure estimation

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of coherence. (a) First, we calculate the energy of the input traces within an analysis
window, (b) next, we calculate the seismic waveform that best approximates the waveform
of each input trace, and (c ) finally, we replace each trace by a scaled version of (b) that
best fits the input trace. The eigenstructure coherence is the ratio of the energy of (c) to
the energy of (a). If each windowed trace in (a) has the exact same waveform (but perhaps
a different amplitude), the coherence = 1.0; otherwise, it is less than 1.0.

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.13. illustrate eigenstructer methode fore determine

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In fig3.14. An image showing the energy of the input data falling within a 9 trace,
40ms analysis window. Yellow areas have moderate to high energy, gray to white areas

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have low energy, and red areas have very low energy, corresponding in this image to
salt and shale infill of a submarine scour.

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In fig3.14 .(B) an image showing the energy of the coherent component of the

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data falling within a 9 trace, 40ms analysis window. Yellow areas have moderate to high

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energy, gray to white areas have low energy, and red areas have very low energy,
corresponding in this image to salt and shale infill of a submarine scour.

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In fig3.14 (A) Eigenstructure coherence can be computed by forming the ratio

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between the two previous images. In this manner, we recognize that there are two reason
for zones of low coherence. The first occurrence is where the overall signal is so low

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that it falls below the level of the background incoherent noise, such as the location of

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the salt and scour features. The second occurrence is where the coherent energy falls
below the background (typically moderate value) energy; indicate faults, channel edges,
and other features of interest.

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A B

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Figure 3.14. A .Eigenstructure coherence of Time slice through total energy in 9 trace, 40
ms window ,B Eigenstructure coherence of Time slice through coherent energy in 9 trace,
40 ms window

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.15. illustrate coherence by eignstructure of ratio two previous images

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Fig3.15. Comparison of alternative coherence algorithms used on data from South
Marsh Island, Gulf of Mexico, USA. The volume shown contains both structural and

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stratigraphic features associated with deposition over a terrain influenced by salt tectonism.
(a) A time slice through the time-migrated seismic data at 1.8 s. “S” denotes a salt dome,

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and “F” indicates several radial faults. Corresponding slices through coherence cubes

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were generated using the (b) three-trace crosscorrelation algorithm, (c) a five-trace
semblance algorithm, and (d) a five-trace eigenstructure algorithm.

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All coherence computations used the same 80-ms vertical analysis window. The

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circular rings seen in (a) correspond to sediments dipping against a salt dome, which are
cut by radial faults indicated by “F.” The disorganized feature indicated by “C” in the

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northeast is interpreted to be a canyon. The salt dome and faults appear to be incoherent

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(black) in (b) through (d). Note that there is considerably less “speckle” noise in the five-
trace semblance algorithm than in the three-trace crosscorrelation algorithm. An even

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greater improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio and in lateral resolution accompanies
the five-trace eigenstructure algorithm. The structural artifacts (leakage) about the salt
dome indicated by “L” and the overall grayer level of the image in (d) are the result of a
failure, in this early work, to search over structural dip. After Gersztenkorn and Marfurt
(1996).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.16. Illustrate different between three methodes crosscrrelation and

semblanceand eign structure to estimate coherence.

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3.4.2. Factor effect in attribute coherence:

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3.4.2.1. Time slice or horizon:

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Fig3.17. (upper image) Time slices, at t = 1.200 s, through a corresponding
coherence volume calculated using an 11-trace semblance algorithm. Although channels

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(white arrows) and faults (gray arrows) can be seen on the seismic time slice, lineaments
such as that indicated by the black arrow are more ambiguous. The coherence slice

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allows us to interpret our data more confidently in the time-slice mode. The black arrow
clearly indicates the edge of a channel. Previously unrecognizable faults and channels

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now appear. After Marfurt et al. (1998).

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Fig3.17. (Lower) Horizon slices through a coherence volume along an interpreted

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Pleistocene-age horizon corresponding approximately to the time slice . The area displayed
is smaller than that seen in the upper figure, because the horizon did not exist over a salt

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diapir in the southwest and was truncated in the northeast. In general, stratigraphic
features are seen best on horizon slices, whereas structural features are seen best on
time slices. Semblance-based coherence was calculated using 11 traces and a 64-ms
vertical analysis window. After Marfurt et al. (1998).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.17. stratigraphic features are seen best on horizon slices, whereas
structural features are seen best on time slices. Semblance-based
coherence was calculated using 11 traces and a 64-ms vertical analysis
window. After Marfurt et al. (1998).

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3.4.2.2. Effect of window in coherence:
Fig3.18. The impact on resolving stratigraphic features of using a smaller analysis

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window. The top image was computed with a 64 ms analysis window while the bottom

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image was computed with a 16 ms analysis window. Pink arrows indicate a shallower
channel that is mixed in with the current time slice. Note the improved lateral resolution

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and contrast by using a smaller analysis window on stratigraphic features. After Marfurt
et al. (1998).

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Figure 3.18. the improved lateral resolution and contrast by using a smaller
analysis window on stratigraphic features. After Marfurt et al. (1998).

3.5. curvature attributes:

3.5.1. Introduction for 3-D curvature attributes:

Curvature analysis of surfaces helps to remove the effects of regional dip, thus emphasizing Geometrical Attributes
small-scale features that might be associated with primary depositional features or small-scale
faults. A tilted planar surface has dip but no curvature. When a surface is steeply dipping -- for
example, on the limbs of a fold -- high dips can obscure subtle features on the surface. This
problem is commonly referred to as "dip saturation."

Curvature analysis identifies deviations from a planar surface, regardless of whether the
surface is horizontal or tilted, and is therefore often more useful than conventional dip calculations
for defining structural or stratigraphic features.

In the examples here we illustrate dip curvature draped over 3-D representations of surfaces.
Curvature in the dip direction is a particularly useful tool because it emphasizes relief on a surface.
We construct a color scale that gives approximately equal weight to both positive (concave down)

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and negative (concave up) curvatures.

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Illumination angles were adjusted to further highlight features of interest. Ideally, viewing
angle, illumination angle, zoom and color bars should all be adjusted interactively during the

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interpretation process.

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In fig3.19 The definition of 3D quadratic shapes expressed as a function of the most-
positive curvature, kpos, and the most-negative curvature, kneg. By definition, kneg -'3d kpos.

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Thus, if both kpos and kneg are less than zero, we have a bowl; if both are greater than zero, we
have a dome; and if both are equal to zero, we have a plane. After Bergbauer et al. (2003).

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Anticlinal: k > 0
Planar: k=0
Synclinal: k < 0

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Figure 3.19. illustrate mean curvature illustrated definition of 2D curvature. Synclinal

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features have negative curvature, anticlinal features have positive curvature,
and planar features have zero curvature. After Roberts (2001).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.20. illusrate relation between shape and curvature

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3.5.2. A multiplicity of curvature attributes:

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1. Mean Curvature
2. Gaussian Curvature

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3. Rotation

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4. Maximum curvature
5. Minimum curvature

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6. Most positive curvature
7. Most negative Curvature

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8. Dip curvature

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9. Strike curvature
10. Shape index

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11. Curvedness
12. Shape index modulated by curvedness

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3.5.2.1. Shape index:

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Fig3.21. The definition of the shape index in terms of principal curvatures, k1 and
k2. If the shape index, s, equals –1.0, we have a bowl. If s = –0.5, we have a synform.

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If s = 0.0, we have a saddle. If s = +0.5, we have an antiform, and if s = +1.0, we have
a dome. Modified after Bergbauer (2004).

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Fig3.22. An intensity image and (b) a range (what geoscientists would call a
“topographic”) image of a human hand. (c) Shape indices of the middle three digits. Look

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at your own fingers and try to match the details of the ridges and valleys around your

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knuckles to those in the image. After Woodward and Flynn (2004).

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.21. illustrate shape index attribute

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Figure 3.22. Shape index and biometric identification

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Fig3.23. illustrate 2D color table that displays the shape index versus curvedness.

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Planar features will have curvedness near zero and will be displayed in black. Highly
curved features will be plotted as a pure color, thereby allowing us to differentiate between

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reflector shapes. After al-Dossary and Marfurt (2006).

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Fig3.24. Volumetric view of the shape index modulated by the curvedness, where

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the top of the image cuts the karst-dominated Ellenburger horizon at t = 1.2 s. Collapse
features appear as blue circles — such as the one indicated by the blue arrow — ringed

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by yellow ridges and green saddles. (After Guo et al., 2007).

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.23. a 2D color table that displays the shape index versus curvedness

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Figure 3.24. Volumetric view of the shape index modulated by the curvedness

3.6. Usages geometric attributes in interpretation:

We can determine the geometric attributes as the dip and azimuth , coherence ,

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curvature we must know how geometric attributes help us in seismic interpretation and
why we need it?.

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• Reflector divergence and/or parallelism

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• angular unconformities
• stratigraphic terminations?

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• Reflector curvature
• flexures and folds

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• unresolved or poorly migrated faults

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• differential compaction

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3.6.1. Attribute imaging of faults and flexures:

Are attributes helping determine faults? , Geometric attributes can gives us the
clear image of faults but problem which attributes that help in determine fault? Coherence
is very useful to determine fault image.

Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.25. Attribute sensitivity to faults, where the amount of fault throw is
measured in terms of a seismic wavelet. (a) An idealized growth fault. This
fault will be seen on both curvature and on coherence-attribute volumes.
(b) An idealized strike-slip fault. This fault will be seen on a coherence volume
but not on a curvature-attribute volume.

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Figure 3.26. Attribute sensitivity to faults, where the amount of fault
throw is measured in terms of a seismic wavelet. (a) An idealized
fault having an offset much less than one-quarter of the size of the

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seismic wavelet. This fault will be seen on curvature attribute volumes
but not on coherence attribute volumes. (b) An idealized fault with

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finite offset and no reflector rotation. This fault will be seen on
coherence attribute volumes but not on curvature attribute volumes

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.27. (a) Attribute sensitivity to folds and flexures. This “fault” will
be seen on curvature attribute volumes but not on coherence attribute
volumes. (b) Attribute sensitivity of infill/collapse features. The deeper
part of the fault will be seen on coherence attribute volumes, whereas
the shallower part of the fault and the overlying infill will be seen on
curvature attribute volumes.

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3.6.2. Detection of channels with seismic attributes:

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Figure 3.28. Coherence and most-negative curvature computed along a horizon.
Curvature attributes indicate a better focusing of the base and edges of the channels

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and other features as compared with coherence.(Data courtesy: Arcis Corporation,
Calgary).

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3.6.3. Attributes help in determine unconformity:

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.29. Time slices at t = 1.000 s, through (a) a coherence volume and (b)
a seismic data volume. The orange arrows indicate the location of the angular
unconformity, which is nearly impossible to see on the seismic time slice. In
contrast, the coherence time slice shows this unconformity as a zone of low
coherence. Note the channels to the east that drained the unconformity.

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3.6.4. Application attributes In clastic environment:

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Figure 3.30. A coherence horizon slice that shows a sinuous, meandering channel in an inner

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basin-floor fan passing into an unconfined outer basin-floor fan. On the outside of the
meander loops, the black arrows point to ridges that are sediment waves. After Saller et

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al. (2004).

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3.6.5. Application of attributes in gas chimney:

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Geometrical Attributes

Figure 3.31. A time slice cutting the seafloor at t = 0.300 s, through (a)
a seismic data volume and (b) a coherence volume, from a survey
acquired offshore West Africa. Note the circular pockmarks associated
with shallow flow of water and gas.

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3.6.6. Application attributes in reef:

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Figure 3.32. (a) A time slice at t = 1.200 s through a coherence volume,

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and (b) a vertical slice AA' through a seismic data volume, from a survey
conducted over a pinnacle reef in Alberta, Canada.

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Geometrical Attributes

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