SECOND QUARTER

PLARIDEL INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

EARTH
AND LIFE
SCIENCE
SUPPLEME
NT-ARY
MATERIAL
S
Prepared by:
 NIEVA O. BUENSOCESO
SHS SCIENCE T-III

WEEK 1: CONCEPT OF LIFE page 1

There were no witnesses to the origin of life. However, there are possible
explanations that attempt different possibilities on how life could have
begun:
1. Extraterrestrial origin – The hypothesis explains that life originated
Earth on a meteorite or an asteroid and colonized Earth. However,
this hypothesis has not been proven.
2. Panspermia – The theory presumes that the “seed” of life exists all
over the universe and can be propagated through space, and that
life on Earth originated from those seeds.
3. Divine Creation – Many people believe that life was put on Earth by
divine forces. Creation theories are common to many of the worls’s
religions and cultures.
4. Origin from non-living matter – Scientists believe that life arose on
Earth from inanimate matter after Earth had cooled. They stated
that random events probably produced stable molecules that could
self-replicate. Then, natural selection favored changes in the rate of
reproduction, which eventually led to the first cell.

ACTIVITY # 1:
Research and draw on how Earth looked like before life began.
Showing the conditions required for the origin of life. Explain how life
began through your drawing.

EARLY LIFE FORMS

Earth’s age, as estimated by several independent studies, is about 4.5
billions years. So far, no fossils have been found in the oldest rocks,
which are about 3.8 billion years old. The oldest fossils that have been
discovered were found in 3.5 billion-year-old rocks that were once
sediments on the ocean floor. The tiny fossils that were found in these
ancient rocks were bacteria.
Biologists separate the bacteria into two groups according to the
composition of their cell walls and cell membranes, as well as in the
structure of some of their proteins. The first group is called the
Eubacteria, also known as the true bacteria. Most living bacteria,
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including those that cause disease and decay, are eubacteria. The
second group of bacteria, the Archaebacteria or ancient bacteria , are
rare. They are found mainly in hostile environments where conditions
resemble those of early Earth(e,g., salty lakes, hot springs, swamps, and
ocean floor).
Today, biologists believe that the oxygen of early Earth’s atmosphere
was produced by bacteria. About 3BYA, a group of photosynthetic
bacteria, known as cyanobacteria, evolved. As they carried put
photosynthesis, oxygen gas is released into the oceans. After hundred
millions of years, when the oceans had soaked up all the oxygen they
could hold, the oxygen began to bubble out of the water and into the
air. Over the billions of years that followed, more oxygen was added to
the air, eventually leading to the present composition of the
atmosphere.
Life was only stable to move onto land because of a change in the
atmosphere. As cyanobacteria added oxygen gas to the atmosphere,
large amounts of oxygen began to diffuse into the upper atmosphere,
producing ozone. Before the ozone was formed, all life was restricted to
the oceans. But due the new ozone layer that acted like a shield which
blocked ultraviolet radiation, the radiation levels on Earth’s surface went
down to a level that allowed life to move onto dry land.

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More complex life forms appeared in the fossil record. These

organisms, known as eukaryotes, were much larger than prokaryotes,
and they contained a central nucleus and a complicated internal
structure. Over the past 1.5 billion years, eukaryotic cells have evolved
into organisms that are composed of many cells. It is believed that the
first single-celled eukaryote evolved around 2BYA and is the ancestor of
all plants and animals that exist today. By about 400 million years ago,
enough ozone had formed in the atmosphere to make Earth’s surface a
safe place to live in.

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The first living things to populate the surface of the land were plants
and fungi. The solution to the challenge of living on dry land was a
unique mutualistic partnership between plants and fungi called
mycorrhizae. Plants provide food to the fungi while the fungi provide
nutrients obtained from organic matter to the plants. Mycorrhizae are
close associations between the roots of the plants and fungi. Fungi
actually grow on or into the plant root and then branch out into rock or
soil.
Fossil records reveal that plants covered the surface of Earth within
80 million years of their initial invasion. Animals soon followed plants
onto land. The firs animals to leave the water were the arthropods-
animals with hard body covering and jointed legs. The first arthropods to
live on land were scorpions. They are carnivorous relatives of spiders
with two large pincers on their front legs and venomous stinger at the
end of their tails.
 Earth is much older than life. Based on radioactive decay
studies of rocks, it was revealed that Earth is around 4.5 billion years
old- 1 billion year older than the oldest fossils. So how did life begin?
Where did it come from?
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MAJOR BIOLOGICAL EVENTS SINCE 4.5 BYA

 Major Events TIME
Rapid diversification of animals; plants and fungi 0.5 BYA
appear; origin of humans (about two million
years ago)
Earliest animals; first multicellular organisms; 1.0BYA
diverse protists
First eukaryotes 1.5BYA
Diverse and abundant bacteria 2.0BYA
Photosynthesis begins 2.5BYA
Bacteria diversify 3.0BYA
First bacteria appear 3.5BYA
Oldest rocks 4.0BYA
Earth forms 4.5BYA

In the last 570 million years, there has been a rapid diversification of
multicellular life. Plants, fungi, and most major animal groups have evolved in this
relatively short period of time.
From the scorpions, a unique class of terrestrial arthropod soon
evolved: insects. Today, there are more than 200 million insects alive at any one time
for each person on Earth. In addition, more than 70 percent of the animal species
discovered are insects. Based on fossil records and studies, insects were the first
animals to develop wings.
More complex animals began to evolve. Fossils showed that worm-like
animals, the earliest known animals with notochords, existed. The notochord,
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however, exists only for a short time during the embryonic development and is
replaced by the vertebral column or backbone. Chordates, or animals with
notochords and vertebral column, are called vertebrates.
The earliest vertebrates were jawless fishes with bony skeletons. These
small fishes appear to have fed in a head-down position with their fins helping to
keep them upright while they suck up organic particles from the bottom. For over
100 million years, jawless fishes were the only vertebrates. Today, the jawless fishes
are the eel-like, parasitif lampreys, and the scavenging hagfishes. Eventually, the
jawed fishes evolved approximately 400 MYA. These are now the sharks and bony
fishes we know today.
 The first vertebrates on land were the amphibians, which evolved from
bony fishes about 350 MYA. Reptiles evolved from amphibians about 300 MYA. The
earliest reptiles gave rise to a variety of species that gradually replaced the
amphibians as the dominant terrestrial animals. The massive reptiles, known as
dinosaurs, arose about 220 MYA. For more than 150 million years, mammals and
dinosaurs coexisted. During this time, mammals were small and did not diversify.
Although most dinosaurs are now extinct, descendants of small insect-
eating dinosaurs still exist: the birds. Bird feathers evolved from the same scales that
protected the dinosaurs as well. Birds, mammals, and dinosaurs coexisted until the
sudden extinction of the dinosaurs 64 million years ago during the Cretaceous
period. This caused birds and mammals to diverge rapidly and fill the nearly-empty
Earth.

ACTIVITY 2:
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1. Ho w do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ?
2. Explain the importance of cyanobacteria in the development of new life
forms.
3. Arrange the following events in chronological order:
a. The ozone layer formed, and living things moved to dry land.
b. Small molecules were formed as a result of the combination of gases in
the atmosphere and minerals from the oceans.
c. Anaerobic cells appeared as the first prokaryotic cells.
d. Cyanobacteria appeared.
4. Using a flowchart, trace the evolution of life on Earth from the earliest
species to the present species.
ASSESSMENT:
 1. It is considered as the true bacteria are:
a. Cyanobacteria c. mycorrhizae
b. Eubacteria d. rhizobacteria
2. The estimated age of the Earth is about:
a. 3.8 billion years c. 4.5 billion years
b. 4.0 billion years d. 3.5 billion years
3. The first primitive form of life on Earth:
a. Fungi c. vertebrates
b. Dinosaurs d. bacteria
4. An organisms with central nucleus and complicated internal structure:
a. Plants c. fungi
b. Vertebrate d. eukaryotes
5. Considered as the photosynthetic bacteria:
a. Cyanobacteria c. pathogenic bacteria
b. Eubacteria d. prokaryotic bacteria
6. Responsible to block ultraviolet radiation to penetrate the Earth’s surface:
a. Ultraviolet ray c. magnetic ray
b. Cosmic radiation d. ozone layer
7. The first living things to populate the surface of the land:
a. Bacteria c. vertebrate
b. Dinosaurs d. fungi and plants
8. Relationship of organism having them both to benefit with each other.
a. Mutualism c. parasitism
b. Commensalism d. depensalism
9. Descendants of dinosaurs:
a. Reptiles c. amphibians
b. Birds d. snakes
10. Dominant life forms on Earth for over 150 million years.
a. Birds c. dinosaurs
b. Reptiles d. amphibians
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WEEK 2 UNIFYING THEMES IN LIFE SCIENCE

In addition to the characteristics, life science is unified by certain
themes. These six general themes are levels of organization, the flow of energy,
evolution, interacting systems, structure and function, ecology and science and
society.
Levels of Organization
There is hierarchy of increasing complexity within cells, from the
molecular level of DNA(where the chemistry of life occurs), to the organelle level
(where the cellular activities are organized), to the cellular level (the smallest level of
organization).
THE FLOW OF ENERGY
Energy is used by organisms to grow and do work. Without it ,life stops
Almost all the energy that living things need is obtained from the sun. Plants capture
the energy from sunlight and use it to make complex molecules in a process called
photosynthesis. These molecules then serve as the source of fuel for animals that
eat them.The flow of energy among organisms helps determine how organisms
interact within their environment.

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EVOLUTION
The theory of
evolution helps
explain how all
kinds of organisms
came into existence.
It explains why organisms look the way they do and how organisms of the past are
related to the organisms alive today. It also explains the relatioships among various
groups of living organisms.
Life forms are slowly changing and have apparently been changing.
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, which
presumes that organisms with more favorable traits would be more likely to survive
and reproduce in a certain environment. These favorable traits are called
adaptations. For example, the cactus plant is adapted to a dessert environment. In
time, organisms that lack the necessary adaptations would die out, and all
individuals with favorable adaptations would live. This process changes the species
overtime.

INTERACTING SYSTEMS
Living things with each other and with the environment. A living
community is highly structured and interdependence. This interdependence is the
result of a long process of evolution in which selection has favored cooperation. For
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Example, animal cells that descended from symbiotic bacteria possess organelles,
and symbiotic fungi helped plants move from sea to land. The coevolution of
flowering plants and insects has been responsible for the diversity of both species.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
A relationship exists between structure and function at all levels of
biological organization. In biology, structure is always related to function. Hence, the
hierarchy of structural levels is the basis for the biology organization. Structural
levels are built on the levels that preceed it. Within the many kinds of organisms in
the living world, body structures seem to be carefully designed to carry out their
functions. For example, hummingbird sucks nectar from a deep flower through its
long tongue.

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ECOLOGY
To fully understand the biological world, biologists have recognized and
studied the interdependence of organisms with each other and with environment.
This branch of biology is called ecology. Ecology is the study of complex communities
of organisms in relation to their environment. Organisms need the physical
environment to survive. They need substances like water, nutrients, and gases from
the environment. The stability of the environment, in turn, depends on the healthy
functioning of organisms in that environment. For example, all organisms depend on
the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle, which releases vital gases in the atmosphere.
However, this complex web of interactions is easily disrupted when the environment
is polluted and individual species become extinct, similar to what is happening in our
world today.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Knowledge from biological science can be applied to specific problems
in the society to improve human life. For example, the development of a vaccine
against poliomyelitis virus in the 1950s was a scientific breakthrough that had a large
impact on society. By producing the polio vaccine in bulk and distributing it
throughout the world, scientists, business leaders, and governments have worked
together to reduce the threat of polio.

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ACTIVITY 1:
 1. Give an example for each of the organizational levels in living
things.
2. Identify the unifying theme described by the following pieces of
evidence:
a. Plants capture the energy of sunlight in the process of
photosynthesis.
b. Living things have their own degree of organization, structure,
and function, which are different from nonliving things.
c. Life forms are slowly changing and have been apparently
changing since Earth’s formation.
d. Millions of species of living things have been identified and
ranked according to hierarchy.
e. Humans and other living things have properties based on their
organizational level.
3. Give an example of how structure is related to function.
ASSESSMENT:
1. _________ is/are the property or properties associated with living things.
a. Energy processing c. responding to the environment
b. Growth and reproduction d. all of the above
2. __________ is not a theme in the study of life.
a. Energy c. inorganic matter
b. Evolution d. interaction with the environment
3. The sequence that represents the hierarchy of biological organization from
the least to the most complex level is _________.
a. Organism,community,biosphere,molecule,tissue,organ
b. Organelle, tissue,biosphere,ecosystem,population,organism
c. Cell,community,population,organ system, molecule, organelle
d. Molecule, cell, organ system, population, ecosystem, biosphere
4. In biology, structure is almost always related to _________.
a. Adaptation c. evolution
b. Development d. function
5. An evidence of the common ancestry of all life is ________.
a. The structure of cilia
b. The structure of the nucleus
c. The structure of chloroplast
d. The universality of the genetic code.
6. The biological theme that is highlighted when studying the cell, cell
membrane, and cell organelles is ___________.
a. Ecology c. energy and life
b. Evolution d. structure and function
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7. Life forms are slowly changing and have apparently been changing since
Earth formed. This is expressed in the theme on __________.
 a. Ecology c. reproduction and development
b. Evolution d. interaction among living things
8. The science that deals with the relationship of organisms to their
environment.
a. Evolution c. level of organization
b. Ecology d. structure
9. Considered the smallest unit of life.
a. Cell c. atom
b. Organ d. organelle
10. Process of capturing sun’s energy by plants and converting them into
complex molecules.
a. Cellular respiration c. photosynthesis
b. Evolution d. ecology

WEEK 3 page 1
 METHODS OF REPRODUCTION IN SOME ANIMALS
Animals reproduce in different ways. Some animals produce other
organisms sexually, asexually, and sometimes, in a nonexclusive way, sexually and
asexually.

HYDRA
Organisms of the genus hydra lives in freshwater lakes, ponds, and
streams. The hydra develops a bud which is attached to the parents until it is fully
formed. Once it is fully formed, it detaches from its parent. The young hydra is now
free to swim on its own until it finds support and starts to reproduce.
Hydras generally reproduce asexually during warm weather. Sexual
reproduction usually occurs in autumn when the cold climate triggers the
development of sperm and eggs. Sperm cells are released in the water. Some reach
the ovary of a nearby hydra, and one sperm fertilizes an egg cell. The fertilized egg or
zygote then divides and grows into a ball of cells with a hard cover. The cover is an
adaptation that protects the embryo until it develops into a new hydra.
SPONGES
Sponges are able to reproduce asexually
and sexually. In some sponges, the new
individual buds from the parent. In others,
the parent sponge breaks into many
fragments, and each fragment grows into
a new sponge.
Sponges can also reproduce sexually.
After the male sponges release sperm
cells in the water, water currents carry the
sperm to female sponges where
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fertization occurs. The fertilized eggs develop into larvae, which are then released.
They swim in the ocean for a few days after which, these larvae attach themselves to
a solid surface and grow into new sponges.

CNIDARIANS: JELLYFISH
The jellyfish belong to phylum Cnidaria. It has
two different body forms during their life
cycle: polyp stage and medusa stage. The
adult medusa releases either sperm or egg
into the water where fertilization occurs. The
resulting zygote develops into a blastula,
which develops into a planula. The planula
settles and attaches to the ocean floor,
becoming a polyp. As the polyp grows, it
forms into the medusa in the process called
strobilation, wherein reproductive structures
are formed. Each of these stacks from the
medusa then buds off and develops into a jellyfish.
STARFISH
Fragmentation is another type of
asexual reproduction in simple animals. In
fragmentation, an organism breaks into
two or more parts, each of which may
grow into a separate individual. Starfish
are animals that can reproduce by
fragmentation. Because starfish eat
oysters, people use to think starfish can
be killed by chopping them into pieces and
throwing the pieces back into the water.
Little did they know that they were
helping the starfish multiply.

FLATWORMS
Most living flatworms, such as
planaria, are aquatic.
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Flatworms can reproduce asexually by regeneration. When a planaria
regenerates, it is cut into two and each part regrows into a whole individual.
Flatworms also reproduce sexually. Most species are hermaphrodites.
Hermaphrodites are organisms having both male and female reproductive
organs. During mating, two flatworms exchange sperm so that the eggs of both
flatworms are fertilized. A flatworm usually does not fertilize itself.

ANNELIDS
Earthworms and leeches are
annelids. Most annelids
reproduce sexually.
Earthworms are
hermaphrodites, but an
individual worm cannot fertilize
its own eggs. For mating to
occur, two earthworms join
head to tail. Together, they
form a mucus coat around the
joined part of their bodies. Each earthworm injects sperm into the mucus.
Sperm from one worm moves to the pouchlike seminal receptacle of the other.
At about the same time, eggs are also released. After several days, a mucus and
a chitin sheath is secreted by the clitellum, a swelling around the sex organs.
Afterward, when the worm wriggles to move out of the clitellum, fertilization
occurs and cocoon is formed. Weeks later, a baby worm hatches and slips out of
the cocoon.
MOLLUSKS
Mollusks, such as land snails, are
hermaphrodite. But in most aquatic
species, the sexes are distinct. Eggs
are fertilized internally.
Cephalopods, such as squids, have
separate sexes. The male uses a
specialized tentacle to transfer
sperm from its cavity to the cavity
of the female, where fertilization
occurs. The female lays
 Page 4
a mass of fertilized eggs encashed in a gelatinous material. The female
guards these eggs until they hatch.

ARTHROPODS
Spiders, insects, centipedes,
scorpions, shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters are all arthropods. The
most numerous of these are the
insects. The growth and
development of insects usually
involve metamorphosis, which is a
process of transforming in a
different shape and form. In
incomplete metamorphosis, the
young look like the adults. These
young are called nymphs. Nymphs gradually acquire adult structures such as
wings and functional sex organs. Insects, such as bees, moths, and beetles,
undergo complete metamorphosis. These insects lay eggs that hatch into larvae
that look different from the adults. The larva changes into a pupa, afterwhich,
development into adult takes place.
.
VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates undergo sexual
reproduction, which starts with
fertilization. Depending on the
animal, fertilization ay occur either
outside or inside the female’s body.
Frogs undergo external fertilization.
The female frog releases her eggs
first, then the male frog releases
sperm over the eggs to fertilize them.
The frogs leave the fertilized eggs to
develop on their own. In about two weeks, the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Some
fishes and amphibians reproduce by external fertilization, in which the sperm
fertilizes the egg outside the female’s body. External fertilization must take place
in a moist environment so that the delicate systems do not dry out. Fish and
amphibians lay their eggs in water or in very moist areas.

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With internal fertilization , the
egg and sperm join inside the
female’s body. Reptiles , birds,
mammals and some fishes
reproduce by internal fertilization.
Reptiles lay their eggs on land. To
prevent the eggs from drying out,
the embryos within the reptile eggs
are each surrounded by a
watertight protective membrane
called chorion. The chorion allows
oxygen to enter the egg and carbon
dioxide to leave. Within the chorion is another membrane called amnion, which
encloses the embryo within a watery environment. This kind of watertight, fluid-
filled egg is called amniotic egg. Each egg is provided with a large amount of rich
food for the embryo called yolk. The zygote develops within the egg, eventually
taking the form of a miniature adult before it completely uses up the yolk. The
egg them hatches and the young develops into an adult.

Amniotic eggs also found in birds

and mammals. The shell of bird egg
is hard enough to withstand the
weight of the adult bird during
incubation. The young that hatches
from the eggs of most bird species
are not able to survive unaided,
since their development is still
incomplete. The young birds are fed
and nurtured by their parents, and
they grow to maturity gradually.
The most primitive mammals, the
monotremes, lay are oviparous and eggs like the reptiles. The living monotremes
include the duck-billed platypus and the echidna. No other mammals lay eggs.
Other mammals, such as marsupials and placental mammals, bear their young
alive.The young of these mammals are nourished and protected by their mother.
Marsupials, like the kangaroo, are viviparous and bear their young alive, At the
early stage of its development, the young crawls into its mother’s pouch called
marsupium. Inside the marsupium, the young quickly located a nipple and grabs
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onto it with its jaws. It spends the next several months attached there, growing
sufficiently large and independent so that it can leave up the pouch.

Placental mammals give birth to

their young alive. After birth, most
placental mammals provide their
young with a period of care. The
duration of this parental care varies
among different species. The young
of monkeys and humans are helpless
at birth and for quite some time.
These infants depend on their mother for food and protection, and they spend
several years growing up before they are able to live on their own.

ACTIVITY 1:
1. Compare asexual and sexual reproduction. Cite the advantages and
disadvantages of each type and reproduction.
2. Identify the animal’s type of reproduction and mode of fertilization.

Animal Reproduction Fertilization

a. sponges
b. hydra
c. earthworms
d. insects
e. frogs
3. Describe the manner of reproduction for vertebrates. Give examples.
 Page 7
WEEK # 4

GENETIC ENGINEERING
Scientists have conducted experiments on transferring genes from one organism
to another organism. These experiments fall under genetic engineering. Genetic
engineering is used to manufacture proteins, repair damaged genes, and identify
individuals who may carry an allele for a disease. Scientists have isolated the
gene that allows fireflies to glow. They inserted these genes into the DNA of a
plant. These plants glowed in the dark. This showed that plants and animals use
the same process to translate DNA into proteins. Any organism that has
modified or inserted gene ( transgene) from another species is called
transgenic. Human genes have been added to bacteria to produce human
proteins such insulin, human growth hormone, and clotting material.

Transgenic plants have also been modified so that they can produce
their own insecticides or become resistant to weed killers, Some have been
engineered to produce vitamins needed for human health.
Transgenic organisms or generally-modified organisms (GMOs) have
been use to improve crop yields. One of these techniques involves choosing and
breeding an organism with the desired traits. This is called selective breeding.
Genetic engineers have developed crops that are resistant to weed killer,
enabling them to survive when farms are treated with chemical. This helpful to
prevent erosion of topsoil when weeds are removed in the traditional way.
 How is genetic engineering helpful? Since the structure of DNA is the
same for all organisms, the similarity allows genes from one organism to work in
another. When genes of one organism are put into another using genetic

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engineering, the resulting DNA is called recombinant DNA. Recombinant genes
can be used to treat diseases like diabetes, Diabetes can be treated with a
product made by using recombinant DNA. People with diabetes are unable to
produce enough amount of insulin. Without sufficient insulin, most people with
diabetes would die. To make the recombinant DNA, scientists insert a normal human
insulin gene into the DNA if certain bacteria. The bacteria become insulin factories,
producing insulin in very large amounts.
Genetic engineering techniques can also be used to produce bigger,
more productive livestock. Other advantages of using GMOs include the
following:

1. Pest – resistant crops – Crops resistant to destructive insects, such as locusts

and other pests, have been produced using genetic engineering techniques.
These plants that are resistant to pests no longer need insecticides.
Insecticides are expensive and can be harmful to other organisms in the
environment.
2. Diseases-resistant crops – The same techniques have been applied to some
plants to make them resistant to diseases. These plant diseases are caused
 by many viruses, fungi, and bacteria that attack crops. Producing plants that
are genetically disease-resistant would save a lot of money for farmers.
3. Productive Livestock – Genetic engineering techniques can also be used to
produce bigger and more productive livestock. For example, dairy cows can
be injected with growth hormones to increase their milk production. Growth
hormone is the natural signal that cows use to increase milk production. The
gene containing the instructions for producing growth hormone has been
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introduced into bacteria, These bacteria produce growth hormone that can
be added as a supplement to a cow’s diet
4.Mass-produced Drugs – Genes that produce medically-important proteins
can be inserted into bacteria. Some proteins produced by genetically-
engineered bacteria dissolve blood clots, helping to prevent heart attacks
and strokes. Genetically-engineered bacteria are also used to produce
proteins that prevent high blood pressure, and proteins that help regulate
kidney function. Vaccines have also been prepared by inserting genes from
disease-causing microbes into harmless bacteria, These harmless microbes
can be used to stimulate the body to make disease-attacking antibodies. A
vaccine against the hepatitis B virus, which cause fatal inflammation of the
liver, is also available, Scientists are now working to produce a vaccine that
will protect people against malaria.

CONCERNS REGARDING GMOs

Genetically modified organisms have the potential to solve many of the
world’s hunger and malnutrition problems, as well as help protect and preserve
the environment by reducing the use of harmful chemical, But may concerns
have been raised especially in the areas of safety testing anf food labeling. We
must be cautious to avoid causing harm to our health and our environment. In
addition, here are some of the disadvantages of using GMOs.
1. Environment hazards - Many farmers are concerned that some crops, which
are pesticides resistant may transfer their genes through cross-breeding to
weeds, making weeds pest-resistant.
2. Health risks – Some people may have allergic reactions to drugs or food that
are products of GMOs.
3. Economy – Marketing GMO products are costly and most companies
involved are concerned that the return of their investments may take time.
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4. Getting patents for the products has also been a major of those in the
agribusiness.

ACTIVITY 2:
1. How is genetic engineering different from selective breeding?
2. Name the advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering?
3. Describe how genetic engineering can benefit human health?

ASSESSMENT:
1. The sequence that shows the correct order of events that occur after an
insect pollinates a flower is _________.
a. Fertilization, germination, pollination
b. Germination,fertilization, pollination
c. Pollination,fertilization, germination
d. Pollination, germination, fertilization
2. Pollination occurs when __________.
a. Pollen lands on a stigma
b. A sperm fuses with an egg.
c. Insects sip nectar from a flower
d. A pollen grain releases sperm cells
3. ________ ensures better genetic variety among plants.
a. Cross-pollination c. self-pollination
b. Mutations d. use of fertilizers
4. Asexual reproduction in plants involves._________
a. Planting seeds c. producing runners and tubers
b. Pollination in flowers d. both pollination and fertilization
5. An example of an animal that can reproduce by fragmentation is _______.
a. Frog c. jellyfish
b. Hydra d. starfisj
6. Animals that are hermaphrodites _________.
a. Can regenerate
b. Have separate sexes
c. Fertilize their eggs internally
 d. Have both the male and female reproductive system.
7. The two stages of Cnidarian life cycles are _______.
a. Male and female c. parent and polyp
b. Parent and buds d. polyp and medusa
8. Metamorphosis is a process in the life cycle of _______.
a. Flatworms c. roundworms
b. Insects d. starfish
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9. Genetically-engineered plants will _______.
a. Not need insecticides
b. Not improve their yield
c. Reduce the use of fertilizer
d. Be resistant to chemicals that kill insects.
10. Organisms produced by genetic engineering are different from organisms
produced by sexual reproduction because ________.
a. Chemicals are used
b. Defective genes are replaced
c. They do not undergo fertilization
d. Better and more fertile offspring are produced.
 Page 1
WEEK # 5
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF SOME ANIMALS
All animals share common characteristics although they differ in shapes
and structures. The overall structure of an animal is its body plan. The body plan of
an animal determines the lifestyle it leads and the way it funtions in its environment.
The levels of organization become higher as animals become complex
in form. The essential functions of less complex animals are carried out on the cell or
simple tissue level. For these animals, individuals cells can specialize on a single task
such as digestion or reproduction. Cell specialization enables division of labor among
cells in an animal’s body. Cells in higher forms of animals are organized into different
functional units which are the organ system.

SPONGES
In invertebrates such as sponges,
digestion occurs within individual cells. Its
body is perforated by many pores through
which water enters its cavity. Between the
outer and inner cell layers are hard needles
called spicules and fibers of a of a rough
protein called spongin. They strengthen and
protect the sponge. Sponges have no guts
and are able to consume only organisms
small enough to be absorbed by the cells
lining its internal cavity.

HYDRA
 Some invertebrates, such as hydra, have an incomplete digestive
system. There is a single opening known as the gastrovascular cavity which serves as
mouth and anus.
The cells of hydra are organized into tissues. The inner gut cavity or its
gastrovascular cavity is specialized for extracellular digestion. Its outer cell lauer
contains stinging cells called nematocysts.

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The hydra takes in food by paralyzing its prey with its stinging cells found in the
tentacles. The prey is then drawn into the gut to be digested. The inner layer is
specialized for releasing digestive enzymes and absorbing nutrients from the
digested food.
EARTHWORMS
Earthworms are one of the most common
organisms on Earth. You find them in most
tropical soil or decomposing organic matter,
deriving their nutrition from bacteria and
fungi. Earthworms are the first segmented
worms to evolve. Their body is partitioned
into segments. In each segment, parts of
excretory, circulatory, and nervous systems
are repeated. The front segments contain a
small brain and the sense organs. Each
segment is controlled by an individual nerve
center. A nerve cord that runs along the underside of the worm connects the nerve
centers with the brain to coordinate all body activities. Its digestive tract extends
from the mouth to anus. It is suspended within the larger tube of the coelom.

MOLLUSKS
Mollusks have organ systems for
circulation, respiration, digestion,
excretion, nerve impulse conduction, and
reproduction. There are three body parts
shared by all mollusks: the muscular foot,
the head, and the visceral mass. The
muscular foot is used for locomotion. The
head contains the mouth, sense organs,
and cerebral ganglia. The visceral mass
contains the heart and the organs of
digestion, excretion, and reproduction.
Covering the visceral mass is the mantle, an epidermal layer that, in most species,
secretes a shell.

Page 3

INSECTS
Insects or arthropods have a coelom , segmented bodies, and hointed
appendages. The body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax and
abdomen. Each region is further divided into segments that fuse during
development. Arthropods have an external skeleton, or exoskeleton, made of chitin.
In addition, these insects have a complex muscular system and wings to move
quickly from place to place.
Insects have a thick, waxy exoskeleton that prevents water loss. Three
pairs of legs and wings are attached to the thorax. Insects require a respiratory,
nervous, circulatory, and digestive systems to function. Like other terrestrial
arthropods, insects have evolved mechanisms for gas exchange and water
conservation. They breathe through tiny openings on their abdomen and thorax
called spiracles. As air flows through the spiracles, it enters a network of tubes called
the tracheae. Insects treacheae are extremely efficient in delivering oxygen directly
to the body’s cells. Insects have a complex internal nervous system connected to the
external sensory organs. Nerve impulses travel up the nerve cords to the nerve
ganglia that form the brain. Messages from the ganglia travel rapidly down other
nerve cords to the sensory organs. Digested food and other materials travel through
their open circulatory system.
 ECHINODERMS
Echinoderms beat an important
evolutionary relationship to vertebrates.
Evidences indicate that the echinoderms
may share a common ancestor with the
lower chordates. Most echinoderms have
an internal skeleton called endoskeleton,
composed of calcium plates, which may
include protruding

Page 4
spines. They have a water-vascular system, which is a network of water-filled canals.
They have numerous tube feet that aid in movement, feeding, respiration and
excretion. Digestion takes place in its stomach. Enzymes secreted by the stomach
digest the food, usually clams, while they are still in their shell.
Starfish have no circulatory, respiratory or excretory systems. Gas
exchange and waste excretion take place by diffusion through the thin walls of the
tube feet and through hollow tubes called skin gills that project from the coelom
lining. They have a nervous system but have no head nor brain. A nerve ring
surrounds the mouth and branches off into nerve cords that extend into each arm.
Each arm has an eyespot that responds to light and a tentacle that responds to
touch. The tube feet also respond to touch.

FISH
All fishes have gills that are
composed of tiny filaments which are
richly supplied with blood. Gills
provide a large surface area for the
rapid uptake of oxygen and the
release of carbon dioxide.
Fishes have well-developed sense
organs. Fishes are also able to see.
They are animals with backbones that
live in water. They usually have paired fins, scales, and gills. Gills have many tiny
blood vessels. This provides a large surface area for oxygen and carbon dioxide to be
exchanged. Fishes have a closed circulatory system and that pumps blood in a single
loop from the heart to the gills, to the body, and back to the heart. Most fishes get
rid of wastes as ammonia. Some wastes pass through the gills into the water. Other
wastes are removed from the blood by the kidneys. Kidneys are also helpful in
controlling the amount of water in their bodies. Fishes have a well-developed
nervous system- the brain has olfactory bulbs, cerebrum, optic lobes, and
cerebellum. The olfactory bulbs and cerebrum are involved with the sense of smell.
The optic lobes process information from the eyes. The cerebellum coordinates body
movements. Most fishes have a lateral line system that sense currents and vibrations
in the water.

Page 5 AMPHIBIANS

Amphibians include frogs, toads,

and salamanders. Most
amphibians, except salamanders,
have lungs for gas exchange. Gas
exchange occurs across their thin,
moist skin.
In adult amphibians, the
circulatory system forms a double
loop. The first loop carries oxygen
poor (deoxygenated) blood from
the heart to the lungs. It returns
oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood
from the lungs to the heart. The
second loop carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body, and returns
deoxygenated blood to the heart. The amphibian heart has three chambers: the left
atria, right atria, and ventricle.
Digestion is performed by the following digestive organs: esophagus
brings food to the stomach sac, which is connected to the small intestines where
most digestion and absorption take place. Kidneys remove wasted from the blood.
Urine passes to the cloaca. From there, it either passes directly to the outside or is
stored in a small bladder.
Amphibians have well-developed nervous and sensory systems. Frogs
have keen vision for spotting moving insects. Although their ears have no external
sound collectors, they are often very sensitive. Many amphibians have lateral line
system that detects water movements. They can also respond to the adverse
conditions in their environments by hiding.
 REPTILES
Reptiles have a body covering of
horny scales or plates for protection.
These scales prevent water loss and
protect reptiles from the wear and
tear associated with living in rugged,
terrestrial environments. All reptiles,
after they hatch, breathe air through
lungs, eliminating respiration through
gills. Thus, their tissues involved in gas
exchange are located inside the body, where they can be kept moist. Reptiles have a
circulatory system with a three-chambered
Page 6
heart However, a partial division of the ventricle separates the deoxygenated blood
from the oxygenated blood. In alligators and crocodiles, the heart has four separate
chambers allowing total separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
The excretory system of reptiles is also well-adapted to life on land.
Snakes, lizards, and other land-dwelling reptiles conserve water by excreting
nitrogenous wastes in dry or pasty forms as crystal of uric acid.
The rate of metabolism in the body of an organism is controlled in part
by body temperature. Therefore, regulating body temperature is very important. In
reptiles, as well as fish and amphibians, body temperature is largely determined by
their surroundings. Animals whose body temperature is determined by the
environment are called ectothermic or cold-blooded. Thus, reptiles cannot maintain
their body temperature unlike birds and mammals, which are endothermic of warm-
blooded. Reptiles regulate their temperature by their behavior. For example, they
may bask in the sun to warm up, to increase their metabolic rate of they may seek
shade to prevent overhearing.
BIRDS
All birds have feathers, and almost all
birds are capable of flying. Birds need
a lightweight body to stay aloft. Their
flight muscles need a constant supply
of oxygen-rich and nutrient-rich
blood. The organ systems of birds are
adapted to meet these needs.
Birds have air sacs that store inhaled
air which is pushed into the lungs
constantly filled with oxygenated air.
The lungs also contain millions of tiny
passages that create a very large surface area for gas exchange with the blood. Birds
have a relatively large, four-chambered heart. The heart beats rapidly to keep
oxygenated blood flowing to muscles and other tissues.
Birds have a sac-like structure called crop to store and moisten food
that is waiting to be digested. They also have an organ called a gizzard that contains
swallowed stones. The stones make up for the lack of teeth by grinding food, which
can then be digested more quickly. Both structures make it easier for the digestive
system to produce a steady supply of nutrients from food. Birds have a large brain
relative to the size of their bodies, and the part of the brain that controls flight is the
most-developed.

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MAMMALS
Mammals share common features such as presence of hair, warm-
bloodedness, a four –chambered heart, presence of muscles, a diaphragm that aids
breathing, four different types of teeth, a highly-developed brain and viviparous
females who can give birth to their young alive.
Mammals have organ systems that have evolved into many shapes for
adaptation to their various environments. Variations in kinds and amount of hair also
reflect their adaptations. The four-chambered heart and diaphragm are also
adaptation for endothermy. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle below the rib cage
that aids in efficient breathing.The four-chambered heart pumps blood efficiently,
These adaptations result in high metabolic rate, which helps mammals maintain a
constant body temperature.
Most mammals have specialized types of teeth. These teeth allow
mammals to explore a wide variety of food sources.
 All organ systems do not function alone. For example, when a large
meal is eaten, the digestive system requires more blood. To compensate, it enlists
the aid of the cardiovascular system and the nervous system. Blood vessels of the
digestive system widen to transport more blood. Nerve impulses are sent to the
brain, notifying it of the increased work. The digestive system even directly
stimulates the heart through nerve impulses and chemicals released into the
bloodstream. The heart responds by pumping more blood. The brain responds by
perceiving less hunger, more fullness, and less interest in vigorous activity.

Page 8

ACTIVITY
A. Write the organ system found in the following animals:
1. Hydra
2. Earthworms
3. Frogs
4. Fish
5. Birds
B. Select two animals from the animals in (A) above and describe how the organ
systems in these animals function.

ASSESSMENT:

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer. Select from the terms below.

Blood cardiovascular system digestive system

Heart small intestine blood vessels
Digestion enzymes pancreas
 Stomach
An example of an organ system is the (1) _________, which includes
the (2) __________ and (3) ____________. It is responsible for pumping and
circulating the (4) ____________. The (5) ___________, extending from the mouth
to the anus, is responsible for receiving and digesting food and excreting waste. This
system which move and absorb food, but also organs, such as the (8) _________,
liver, and gallbladder, which produce digestive (9) _________, remove toxins, and
store substances necessary for (10) ____________.
2. Fill in the chart with the correct answers:

Page 9

Animals Characteristics Funcions of organs

has gut for digesting food
Round worms mouth to anus
Insects for flow of blood
has three-chambered
heart

.
 Page 1
WEEK 6
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Current studies suggest that all organisms that exist today descended
from prokaryotes. Remember that prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack a
membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. These first cells were
probably the first living organisms on Earth. Scientists have found remain of these
cells in layers of sedimentary rocks.
Evolution is the theory that species change over time. According to this
theory, new species form from existing species through variation and natural
selection. The evolutionary process is very low and the transformation of one species
into another requires thousands of years. Several evidence are used to prove
evolution and somehow reconstruct how this process occur.

FOSSIL RECORDS
Evidence of species that no longer exists have been found by scientist
through fossils. Fossils are mineralized/hardened traces of dead organisms most
commonly found in layers of sedimentary rocks. Fossils are formed when organisms,
footprints, or burrow are buried in sand or sediment. For a skeleton or shell to
become fossilized, the dead animal must be buried by sediment. This may occur on
the ocean floor, in swamps, or in muds. Over time, the calcium in bone and other
hard tissues mineralize as the sediment is converted into rock. Calcium in the bone
or in the shell is slowly replaced by other harder minerals. Unless the sediment is
very fine and no oxygen is present to promote decay, soft tissue such as those found
in skin or muscle will not fossilized. These actions can bury remains of an organism
so quickly that bacteria and other decomposers are sealed off, preventing
decomposition. After a period of time, these sedimentary layers become rock. Many
years later, geologic forces may expose these layers and the fossilized remains. The
Page 2
Fossils and the order in which fossils appear are called the fossil record. The
fossil record provides evidence of when organisms lived on Earth, how species have
evolved, and how some species have gone extinct. The fossil record also shows how
environmental conditions on Earth may have changed over time.

Fossils are not always the body parts of an organism. An imprint is a type of
fossil in which a film of carbon remains after the other elements of an organism have
decayed. A mold is a type of fossil in which an impression of the shape or track cast
forms when sediments fill in the cavity left by a fossil mold.
Relative dating and radioactive dating methods are used to determine the age of
fossils. Relative dating determines whether the fossil is older or younger than other
fossils. It is based on where fossils are found in the stratified rock layers. Fossils from
lower rock layers are assumed to be older than fossils from rock layers closer to the
surface. Index fossils represent species that have lived for a short period of time but
over a wide geographic range. They are used as indicators of a particular geologic
period.
One of the most widely employed method of radioactive dating to determine
the age of a fossils fewer than 50,000 years old is carbon-14 dating. Some
radioactive elements are found in rocks. Rocks are usually dated by measuring the
degree of radioactive decay of certain radioactive atoms among rock-forming
minerals. These elements decay or break down into another element at a steady
rate. The rate of radioactive decay of an element is called its half-life. Half-life
corresponds to the length of time required for one half of the radioactive sample to
decay. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5570 years. The atmosphere is constantly
bombarded by cosmic radiation, turning carbon-12 into carbon-14, which is
absorbed by organisms as the carbon is passed through the food chain. When an
organism dies, half of its carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 after 5,570 years. The
fossil is tested for the ratio of radioactive carbon-14 into nonradioactive carbon-12.
By using rate or decay of carbon-14 into carbon-12, the age of the fossil can be
determined.
Page 3
For fossils that are more than 50,000 years, there is too little carbon-14
remaining to measure precisely. Instead, scientist examine the decay of potassium-
40 into argon-40. Potassium-40 is an isotope which has a half-life of 1.3 billion years.
The different radioactive elements, each with its their own half-lives, provide a
useful series of natural clocks that help date the rocks in which fossils are found.
Using radioactive dating, scientists have determined that Earth is about 4.5
billion years old-ancient enough for all species to have been formed through
evolution.

HOMOLOGOUS BODY STRUCTURE

Comparing the way organisms are put together provides important
evidence for evolution. Your arm appears quite different from the wing of a bird, the
fin of a whale, or the limb of a dog. But if you examine the placement and order of
the bones, they are very similar. Biologists say that these limbs are homologous.
Homologous structures share a common ancestry.
 Compare the forelimbs of the human, bird, whale, and dog. Find the humerus,
radius, ulna, carpals, and metacarpals in each forelimb. Though the limbs look
different on the outside and though, they may vary in function, they are very similar
in skeletal structure. How the bones of the forelimbs have been modified in one way
in the wings of the bird, in a another way in the fins of the whale, and yet in another
in the limb of the dog. Although suited for flying , swimming, and grasping, the limb
of these animals are modified versions of the front fins of their common fish
ancestor.
Not all similar features are homologous. Sometimes features come to resemble
each other as a result of parallel evolution of separate lineages. These are called
analogous structure. For example the flippers of dolphins, wings of penguins, and
Page 4
fins of sharks are three very different structures, which originated from three
different ancestors, are modified through natural selection to look the same and
serve the same function.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

Some structures found in living things have no functions. These structures with
no purpose are known as vestigial structures. Vestigial organs are often homologues
to organs that are useful in other species. The vestigial tailbone in humans is
homologous to the functional tail of other primates.

Vestigial structures are remnants of an organism’s evolutionary past. The

whale’s pelvis is evidence of its evolution from four-legged land-dwelling mammals.
A whale propels itself with its powerful tail and has no need for hind limbs or the
pelvis. Nevertheless, whales still have a reduced pelvis that serves no apparent
purpose. Another example of a vestigial organ is the human appendix. In the great
apes, human’s closest relatives, their appendix are larger compared to humans. It is
attached to the gut tube which functions in digestion, holding bacteria used in
digesting cellulose of the digested plants. Organisms having vestigial structures
probably share a common ancestry with organisms in which the homologous
structure is functional.
SIMILARITY OF EMBRYOS
An embryo is an unborn (unhatched) animal in its earliest phases. Embryos are
studied in the science of embryology. Study Fig 14-5 showing embryos of a fish,
chicken, pig and human. What similarities do you observe in the embryos? Notice
that all the embryos have gill slits. The fill slits develop into gills in fish and disappear
in the chicken, pig, and human before birth. What does this suggest? These early
similarities are evidence that all vertebrates share a common ancestor. Although the
embryos look similar to each other in very early stages, none of them look like their
adult forms. Embryo development has evolved over millions of years, causing
embryonic structures to grow into many different species of vertebrates.
Page 5

BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE
Biochemistry reveals similarities between organisms of different species.
Closely-related species will show more similarities in the amino acid sequences of
their proteins. This is because the amino acid sequence in a protein reflects the
nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for that protein. If the genes of several
species are compared, closely-related species would show more similarities in their
nucleotide sequences than distantly-related species.
For example, scientists examined the sequence of amino acids in the protein
cytochrome c, an essential participant in cellular respiration, among chimpanzees,
dogs, rattle snakes and humans. They found that human cytochrome c is identical to
chimpanzee cytochrome c in all 104 amino acids. This indicates a high degree of
similarity between humans and chimpanzees. By contrast, a dog’s cytochrome c
differs from human cytochrome c in 13 amino acids, indicating that dogs are more
distant relatives to humans. However, dogs are more closely related to humans thar
rattlesnakes since the cytochrome c of rattlesnakes differ from humans inn 20 amino
acids.
GEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE
Do you know that dinosaur fossils have been found in Antartica? Antartica, must
have had a warm climate to support these large reptiles. This could indicate that
Antartica was once located closer the equator. This movement is explained by the
theory of plate tectonics, which states that Earth’s continents were once a huge
landmass. According to this theory, the outer crust of Earth was broken into seven
large rigid plates and several smaller ones. These plates are slowly moving, carrying
the continents on top of the plates. The movement of plates also explain why several
species are found in continents separated by vast oceans and how these species
Page 6
separated. This change in Earth’s geological environment caused changes in the
biological environment as well.

ACTIVITY
1. How does the fossil record suggest that species have changed over time? What
important findings can be obtained from fossil record?
2. How do the similarities in the forelimb bones of human, dogs ,whales, and birds
support the theory of evolution?
3. How does the similarity in embryos and genetic material determine common
ancestry for some species?
4. Fossils of some reptiles have been found only in Africa and South America.
Using what you know about plate tectonics, how would you explain this
finding?
 WEEK 7 page 1
CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION
Humans have been classifying organisms for thousands of years. Today
biologists classify organisms not by their usefulness, but by their physical, chemical
and behavioral similarities. These similarities reveal evolutionary relationships. The
branch of science concerned with classifying organisms is called taxonomy.
The modern system of classification was developed by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish
botanist. Linnaeus classified all known organism by their shared characteristics.
Linnaeus introduced a system of assigning a standard, two-word Latin name to each
organism known in his time. This system was called binomial nomenclature,
referring to the species’ scientific name. The first part of the name identifies the
genus and the second part identifies the species. Using an organism’s two-part
scientific name is a sure way for scientists to know they are discussing the same
organism.
To classify an organism, a biologist must use a system that groups organisms
according to shared characteristics and relationships. There are presently seven
levels of classification: Kingdom, Pylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
The largest and most general group is the kingdom. Biologists currently recognize six
kingdoms: two kinds of bacteria (Archaebacteria and Eubacteria), a largely
unicellular group of eukaryotes (Protista), and three multicellular groups (Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia). All the organisms in a kingdom are sorted out into several
phyla. The members of one phylum are more alike than the members of other phyla.
These organisms are them further grouped into classes. Each class is subdivided into
families and families are separated into genera, which are divided into species.
The shark and dolphins are an example of organisms showing evolutionary
convergence. In convergent evolution , organisms evolve similar features
independently, often because they live in similar habitats. Similar features that have
evolved through convergent evolution are known as analogous characteristics.
Analogous characteristics are characteristics in different characteristics which are
similar because of similar selections. However, convergent evolution creates a
problem for taxonomists because similar appearance does not guarantee common
ancestry. In the case of the shark and dolphin, the shark is a fish while the dolphin is
a mammal. They belong to two unrelated species but they have become more and
more similar as they adapt to the same kind of environment.
There are still difficulty in determining similarities when classifying organisms, as
shown by the example of shark and dolphin. To address this difficulty, one method
has been developed by scientists to determine which similarities are useful.
A branching tree that reflects the evolutionary relationship among species is
called phylogeny. The simplest and most objective way to construct a phylogeny is
to focus on key characters that some organisms share because they inherited them
Page 2
from a common ancestor, A clade is a group of organisms related by descent, and
this approach to constructing a phylogeny is called cladistics.
Cladistics determine that order in which evolutionary lines diverged or branches.
To do so, consider only a restricted set of characters of the organisms to be
classified. Organisms are assigned to a group because they share unique characters
not found in any other organisms. These unique characteristics are called derived
characters. For example, all species of mammals share the derived characters of hair
and the ability to produce milk. Using patterns of shared derived characters,
scientists construct branching diagrams called cladograms, which show the
evolutionary relationship among groups of organisms.
Cladograms are not true family trees. They do not convey direct information
about ancestors and descendants. Instead, they convey comparative information
about relative relationships. Organisms that are closer together on a cladogram
simply share a more recent common ancestor than those that are farther apart.

These animals are related because they are thought to have an ancestor in
common- an ancient mammal. Because of this relationship, they are grouped into
the same class-mammalia. The brown bear, lion, and house cat are more closely
related to each other than the platypus, an egg-laying mammal. The brown bear;
lion, and house cat give birth to their young alive. Thus, they are grouped in the
same order (carnivora). The characteristics of hair and mammary glands are shared
by all these animals except the egg-laying characteristics of the platypus. The house
cat and the lion are closely related because they share the most recent common
ancestor-an ancient cat.
ACTIVITY
1. Describe how the classification of living things reflects their evolutionary
history.
2. What makes convergent evolution difficult for taxonomists?
3. How does cladistics classify organisms?
Page 3
ASSESSMENT: (for WEEKS 6 & 7)
Multiple Choice. Select the best answer.
1. Fossils are commonly found in _______.
a. Sand c. igneous rock
b. Granite d. sedimentary rock
2. A human’s arm, a cat’s front leg, a dolphin’s front flipper, and a bat’s wing __
a. Are used in similar ways
b. Have nothing in common
c. Have similar kinds of bones
d. Share many similarities with insect wings and jellyfish tentacles
3. The fact that all organisms have DNA as their genetic material is evidence
that _______.
a. Natural selection occurred
b. Genetic resistance rarely occurs
c. Organisms have adapted to their environment
d. All organisms descended from a common ancestor
4. The fossil record shows how ________.
a. Species originated c. dead organisms were buried
b. Evolution occurred d. organisms have changed over time
5. The age of fossils can be determined through ________.
a. Cladogram c. fossil record
b. Time scale d. radioactive dating
6. A/an ________ is a method of grouping organisms together according to
their evolutionary history.
a. Speciation c. biological classification
b. Dichotomous key d. evolutionary classification
7. A diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of
organisms is known as a/an ______.
 a. Analogy c. geologic era
b. Cladogram d. timeline
8. The correct hierarchy of classification, going from the most inclusive to the
least inclusive ________.
a. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
b. Kingdom, species, genus, phylum, order, family, class
c. Kingdom, genus, family, class, order, phylum, species
d. Kingdom, phylum, genus, species, family, order, class
9. The more similarities two organisms share, the more recently they shared __
a. Ancestors c. habitats
b. Derived characters d. structures
10. A cladogram helps scientists classify organisms by ________.
a. Indicating a common ancestor
Page 4
b. Illustrating differences among organisms
c. Showing the complexity in structures among organisms
d. Showing the evolutionary relationships among the major divisions of
organisms

WEEK 8
POPULATION GROWTH: BIOTIC POTENTIAL
As stated in the previous section, a population is a group of individuals of the
same species that live in the same area. An increase in a population is called
population growth. The population growth rate is the change in the number of
individuals in a population over time. Population growth is influenced by both biotic
potential and environmental resistance.
BIOTIC POTENTIAL
Most populations tend to remain relatively constant in number, regardless of
how many offspring the individuals produce. However, under certain circumstances,
population size can increase rapidly for a time. The rate at which a population
increases when there are no limits on its rate of growth or its innate capacity for
increase is its biotic potential. This theoretical rate is almost impossible to calculate,
because there are limits to growth. What biologists calculate is the realized rate of
population increase (r). This is defined as the number of individuals added to the
population minus the number lost. The number added to it equals the birth rate plus
the number of immigrants, while the number lost from it equals the death rate plus
the number of emigrants. Therefore:
r = (birth + immigration) – (death + emigration)
A population’s innate capacity for growth is constant, determined largely by the
organisms’ physiology. Its actual growth, on the other hand, is not constant, because
r depends on both the birth rate and death rate, and both if these factors change as
the population increases in size. Thus, to get the population growth rate, r must be
corrected for population size:
Population growth rate = rN
Where r is the realized rate of population increase and N is the number of individuals
in the population.
In general, as a population increases, it begins to exhaust its resources. The
number of individuals grows rapidly at first. This type of growth is called exponential
growth. Soon, however, the rate of increase slows down as the death rate begins to
rise. Eventually, there are just as many individuals dying as there are being born. The
early rapid phase of population growth lasts only for a short period, usually when
Page 5
resources are abundant. Examples of this phenomenon include algae colonizing a
newly-formed pond and the first terrestrial organisms that arrive on an island
recently thrust up from the sea.
If all individuals in a population survive and reproduce at maximum capacity, this
population has reached its biotic potential. Biotic potential can be attained when the
environment of the organisms becomes suitable that all the offspring will survive..
Another factor is space and absence of hazards such as disease and predators. For
example, if one housefly lives for one generation and produces 120 eggs in one year,
assuming half of the eggs are female and each will produce 120 eggs, a total of
5,598,720,000,000 flies will exist on the seventh generation.

However , populations rarely achieve their biotic potential because of factors,

such as food shortage, lack of space, predation, and accumulation of wastes. For
example, forest managers often introduce trout into lakes that contain no large fish.
Because the trout have no competition for food or space, their population grows
rapidly- but only for a while. The number of fish soon becomes so great that
intraspecific competition for food and space ensues. Once a balance is reached
between the number of individuals and the amount of resources available, the
decline ceases and the population becomes stable.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
The presence of predators, diseases, competition, and lack of food, water, and
suitable habitat prevent the increase of population. The sum of environmental
factors that restrict biotic potential is called environmental resistance. If a
population has unlimited resources and limited predators and disease, it will grow at
a constant rate. As the population grows, the number of individuals that reproduce
keeps increasing. This causes the population to grow faster and faster. However, this
does not last very long. Resources are used up, and the presence of other
environmental resistance may slow or stop population growth. The maximum
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population size that an environment can support is its carrying capacity. The
population can then survive without depleting the resources.
When the environment is stable, the maximum number of individuals in a
population fluctuates near its carrying capacity. For example, the butterfly
population size is usually stable, although it may vary somewhat with available food
and space. Occasionally, storms may cause a sudden drop in the number of
individuals. However, because the number of butterflies is under the carrying
capacity of the ecosystem, the population will quickly increase until it approaches
the limit. Overpopulation occurs when the number of individuals becomes so large
that they cannot get all the food, water, and other resources they need on a regular
basis.
With the increase of population
density ( the number of individuals
in a population in a given area at a
given time), less food is available to
each individual. This results in
intense competition for food and the
death of some individuals.
The number of predators in an
ecosystem is another factor. Usually,
a predator population increases after
they prey population has increased.
In turn, the increased number of
predators prevents another increase in the number of prey.
Other factors that affect populations are abiotic. These include changes in
weather, temperature, and humidity, variations in the amount of sunlight,and the
amount of available energy. For example, a population may be entirely wiped out by
a forest or affected by an earthquake or a flood.
 ACTIVITY
Answer the following questions:
1. Why is biotic potential difficult to attain?
2. What are the factors that may lead to a population’s biotic potential?
3. How does environmental resistance affect populations? Give an example.

ASSESSMENT:
Multiple Choice. Select the best answer.
1. Speciation is a process by which _________.

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a. Two different species interbreed
b. Organisms reproduce their own kind
c. Populations of one species get isolated
d. A new species is formed as a result of isolation
2. Two individuals are considered members of the same species it they _____
a. Share the same habitat
b. Can mate and produce offspring
c. Are found in the same ecosystem
d. Are not isolated from one another
3. Geographic isolation occurs when _______
a. Males compete with females for space
b. No interbreeding occurs within the species
c. Members of a species interbreed with another species
d. Members of a population become isolated due to changes in the
environment.
4. Ecosystem diversity increases when ________
a. Latitude increases c. ecosystem size increases
b. Species become extinct d. humans change natural
ecosystems
5. A particular species can better survive changing conditions in their habitats
due to _________.
a. The presence of food c. their reproductive ability
b. Their ability to adapt d. their ability to obtain food
6. The biome with the greatest diversity is ________.
a. Grassland c. tropical rain forest
b. Coniferous forest d. temperate deciduous forest
7. A given species may not be able to attain its biotic potential due to ______
a. Biodiversity c. latitude
b. Environmental resistance d. temperature
8. When a population reproduces and grows, reaching its maximum capacity,
this population has reached its __________.
 a. Overpopulation c. carrying capacity
b. Biotic potential d. environmental resistance
9. The biotic potential of a species depends on the ________.
a. Number of offspring produced and had survived
b. Size of the ecosystems which provided enough space.
c. Frequency with which reproduction occurs causing population growth
d. Availability of resources and absence of environmental hazards enabling
organisms to survive