International Journal of Sustainable Development &

World Ecology

ISSN: 1350-4509 (Print) 1745-2627 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsdw20

Sustainable consumption: the effects of

knowledge, cultural values, environmental
advertising, and demographics

Brahim Chekima, Sohaib Chekima, Syed Azizi Wafa Syed Khalid Wafa,
Oswald @ Aisat Igau & Stephen Laison Sondoh Jr.

To cite this article: Brahim Chekima, Sohaib Chekima, Syed Azizi Wafa Syed Khalid Wafa,
Oswald @ Aisat Igau & Stephen Laison Sondoh Jr. (2015): Sustainable consumption: the effects
of knowledge, cultural values, environmental advertising, and demographics, International
Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, DOI: 10.1080/13504509.2015.1114043

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2015.1114043

Published online: 23 Nov 2015.

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 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2015.1114043

Sustainable consumption: the effects of knowledge, cultural values, environmental advertising,

and demographics
Brahim Chekimaa*, Sohaib Chekimab, Syed Azizi Wafa Syed Khalid Wafaa, Oswald @ Aisat Igaua
and Stephen Laison Sondoh Jr.a
a
Faculty of Business, Economics & Accountancy, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia;
b
Department of Languages, Literatures & Cultures, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Ave., Albany,
NY 12222, USA

(Received 15 August 2015; final version received 24 October 2015)

Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 02:41 24 November 2015

As a result of human lifestyles and unsustainable consumption patterns, the environment continues to deteriorate and thus
inhibit sustainable development. In order to curb this situation and promote a sustainable economy, one of the solution is to
reduce conventional products consumption and shift to green products. Over the past 20 years, marketing managers keenly
seek to understand the green market; however, inadequate information on how to promote consumers’ green behavioral
intentions is slowing the growth of green markets and becomes a barrier for firms when developing segments and
communicating strategies for effective promotion of green products in countries like Malaysia where the trend is fairly
new. Therefore, this study attempts to examine the impact of environmental knowledge, cultural values, and environmental
advertising and determine the moderating effect of income level, education level, and gender on consumers’ green purchase
intentions. A survey was administered, and a total of 405 valid questionnaires were obtained. Structural equation modeling
technique was used to evaluate the causal model by using SmartPLS 2.0 software. The finding results suggest that cultural
values and environmental advertising are the main influences in building green purchase intentions, while environmental
knowledge is not significantly related. The results also indicate that education level and gender have a significant positive
moderation effect while income did not. This suggests that green purchase intentions’ motivational factors are greater among
highly educated individuals, with females in particular. The discussions and implications of these findings are further
elaborated.
Keywords: green purchase intention; environmental knowledge; cultural values; environmental advertising; demographics;
structural equation modeling (SEM)

1. Introduction In recent years, environmental problems have resur-

Rapid economic development, technological advances,
unsustainable consumption, and the increasing global
population can no longer be separated from the negative
impacts on the environment. This has led to major envir-
onmental degradation and disasters. Drastic changes in
climate, water and air pollutants, damage to flora and
fauna, ozone layer depletion, acid rain, and deforestation
are among the so often occurring negative environmental
disasters. Ecological destruction continues unabated due to
human activities and economic growth (Selles 2013). In a
global report of over 100,000 cities surveyed in 2012,
Hoornweg et al. (2013) warned that the amount of global
solid waste generation in 2010 is 3.5 million tonnes per
day and expected to double by 2025, to over 6 million
tonnes per day. This also increases the global cost of
managing the waste from $205 billion per year in 2010
to $375 billion by 2025.Through sustainable consumption,
the amount of nonrecyclable and hazardous waste/materi-
als as well as noxious emissions of air pollution resulted
from usage of conventional products will be reduced ulti-
mately making societies and regions more sustainable.
faced as the main issues for media and green marketing
research field. Marketing managers, academics, and firms
have been pulled into spotlight to look for factors that
might encourage or motivate consumers to buy green
products. This gives an opportunity for marketers to ven-
ture into a new category of green products to increase and
maximize profits while expanding their market share, but
in the meantime, they are facing a big challenge as they try
to develop and communicate strategies effectively to
arouse intentions to buy green products and ensure optimal
sales. Gleim et al. (2013) estimated the market share for
green products was less than 4% worldwide. The men-
tioned finding confirms the finding of Godelnik (2012)
who stated that while consumers’ spending increased,
including for green products, the ‘green glass ceiling’ is
still unbreakable, and its market share is still very small.
For the past two decades, numerous investigations have
been carried out to identify and understand the factors that
promote proenvironment behavior among consumers
(Thongplew et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2015); however, they
have mostly addressed marketing strategies rather than con-
sumer behavior. Without an in-depth understanding of

*Corresponding author. Email: b.chekima@gmail.com

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 B. Chekima et al.
consumer behavior for this product category, this seems to be
among the greatest barriers facing sustainable consumption
(Tseng & Hung 2013) and effective marketing strategies.
Thus, based on the mentioned alarming condition of the
environment, and the very small market share of green pro-
ducts as well as previous research findings, the main objective
of this study is to investigate the factors motivating consu-
mers’ intention to purchase green products based on the
theory of planned behavior (TPB) by Ajzen (1985).
Additionally, based on an extensive review of literatures and
to the best of author’s knowledge, only a few studies focused
on the impact of cultural values, environmental advertising,
and particular demographic characteristics on green products
purchase intentions. The TPB that has been advanced by
Ajzen is widely accepted as robust model for predicting
green intention and actions. This study focuses on purchase
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intention for intention has broader implications and often will
have a positive impact on individuals’ actions (Ajzen &
Driver 1992; Chandon et al. 2005; Schlosser et al. 2006).
This study brings new insight into understanding the role
of the culture on green purchase intentions, as for the last few
years, cultural components have been recognized worldwide
to influence individual’s behavior in the market (Yaveroglu &
Donthu 2002; Kim & Choi 2005). Culture has a strong influ-
ence on consumers’ behaviors (Schiffman & Kanuk 2010) and
the fundamental determinant of a person’s desires and beha-
vior (Kotler 2003). Strizhakova and Coulter (2013) further
suggested to investigate individuals’ cultural backgrounds
because it can aid in motivating or encouraging proenviron-
ment behavior in general and forming green purchasing inten-
tions in particular. In academics, little research focused on
investigating its effectiveness to form a positive attitude and
encourage consumers’ intentions to buy green products.
By investigating the abovementioned factors, this
research contributes to the understanding of the motivational
drivers of consumer purchasing intention and substantiates
the body of knowledge in green marketing, which upholds
sustainable development and cleaner production. The find-
ings of this research are also anticipated to provide a useful
reference for the managerial use (producers and retailers) to
further develop appropriate marketing strategies to commu-
nicate and promote green products effectively.
The paper proceeds with a literature review presenting a
summary on research findings surrounding variables such as
green purchasing intentions, environmental knowledge,
man–nature orientation, long-term orientation, environmen-
tal advertising, and demographic characteristics. Following
an overview of the methodology, the findings and discus-
sions are presented. Finally, the paper closes with implica-
tions and limitations/recommendations for future research.
2. Literature review
2.1. Green purchase intentions and underpinning
theory
Scholars by navigating the buying process, found purchase
intentions to be one of the pillars that make the process of
buying a whole. Newberry et al. (2003) observed that
purchasing intentions is a frequent tool engaged in pre-
dicting purchase behavior. Aligned with that definition,
Nik Abdul Rashid (2009) defines green purchase inten-
tions as the probability and willingness of individuals in
their purchase consideration to give preference to green
products when compared with conventional products. The
green purchase intention is described as a distinct kind of
environmentally friendly behavior that individuals perform
to express their concern to environment. Furthermore,
green purchasing intentions was confirmed as a proxy
for the actual green purchasing behavior (Ramayah et al.
2010).
Correspondingly, a comprehensive and widely used
theory to assist in explaining green purchasing intentions
is the TPB (Ajzen 1985, 1991). TPB is a commonly
applied model, which is parsimonious and successful to
predict and explain variance in volitional behavior
(Ajzen 1991) and examining the causal link between
values, beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and action (Webb
& Sheeran 2006). The theory suggests that when
exposed to behavioral options, individuals will begin to
consider alternatives and evaluate the effects involved
grounded by their beliefs related to the actions and its
effects. Ultimately, such beliefs will determine an indi-
vidual’s attitude regarding possible actions, which will
then affect the intentions to act. The TPB appears to be
powerful in explaining environmental behaviors (Tobler
et al. 2012) and to be more accurate (Steg & Vlek
2009). The impact of cultural values measured in this
study utilizing the TPB is based on studies by McCort
and Malhotra (1993) and Luna and Gupta (2001), which
postulate and confirm that cultures influence individuals
through the cognitive and affective functioning that
results in behavior.
2.2. Environmental knowledge
Previous studies examining the behavior of proenviron-
ment have indicated that consumer behaviors and inten-
tions are associated with several motivators/factors, among
which was the environmental knowledge. Chan (2001)
along with Haron et al. (2005) refer to environmental
knowledge as an individual’s ability to understand and
evaluate the impact of ecosystem on the society as well
as the amount of information he or she has regarding
environmental issues. Werner and Alvensleben (2011) sta-
ted that knowledge creates a positive influence on a per-
son’s viewing habits of buying and using eco-friendly
products. Environmental knowledge itself involves rela-
tionships leading to environmental features or effects, joint
responsibilities required for sustainable development, what
people know about the environment, and appreciation of
‘whole systems’ (Mostafa 2006). By employing the TPB,
researchers established that the more knowledgeable the
consumers are about the environment, the more they know
about the effects of the human actions toward the environ-
ment, and the more we expect them to purchase green
 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
products (Nik Abdul Rashid 2009; Rahbar & Abdul-
Wahid 2011).
Laroche et al. (2001) suggested that eco-literacy also
known as environmental knowledge is significantly corre-
lated with attitudes and environmental behavior. In fact, a
lack of knowledge or information has been identified as an
important barrier for proenvironmental behavior (Kennedy
et al. 2009). A meta-analysis of previous studies have also
shown that people who have greater knowledge on envir-
onmental issues were more willing to engage in proenvir-
onmental behavior when compared with those who do not
have or lack such knowledge (Hines et al. 1987). As
environmental knowledge appears to be a necessary moti-
vator for ecological behavior, a close examination of con-
sumers’ environmental knowledge toward green purchase
intentions seems worthwhile. Thus, this leads to the fol-
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lowing hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Green purchase intention is positively
influenced by environmental knowledge.
2.3. Man–nature orientation
Among the objectives of this study is to investigate the
influence of culture on green purchasing intention.
Different cultural value orientations were discussed by
some social theorists over the past few decades
(Hofstede 1980, 2001; Kluckhohn 1956; Rokeach, 1973;
Schwartz 1994). Values are considered as principles that
guide the formation of attitudes to act (Rokeach 1973).
Man–nature orientation dimension is examined in this
study, which was developed in the 1940s and 1950s by
Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck (Kluckhohn &
Strodtbeck 1961) and is found in the Value Orientation
Theory.
Chan (2001) referred to man–nature orientation ‘as the
relationship between human beings and the natural envir-
onment’. Fundamentally, this cultural value is concerned
with the relationship rooted between man and nature as
well as the attitude of the former toward the surrounding
environment. Man–nature orientation considers how
human dominates the nature, lives harmoniously with
nature, or subjugated to nature (Samovar et al. 1981).
Chan (2001) put forward that man–nature orientation can
stimulate norms, where all consumer behavior rests. The
researchers, based on several previous studies, found that
norms occasionally change and are ambiguous; however,
the impact is greater in guiding the practice of everyday
life through intentions and behavior (Ajzen 1991; Chung
et al. 2012).
Man–nature orientation has been examined in clothing
fashions and impulsive buying, confirming its positive role
in facilitating buying behavior (Rajagopal 2011; Kacen
and Lee 2002). Hoyer and MacInnis (2004) recommended
cultural orientation values along with consumers’ beliefs
to be included in future research when examining the
factors of purchase intentions. Based on reviewed litera-
ture, this study aims to contribute to the very few studies
3
to measures man–nature orientation values toward green
purchase intentions. Thus, this becomes the basis of
hypothesis two in this study which is stated as:
Hypothesis 2: Green purchase intention is positively
influenced by man–nature orientation.
2.4. Long-term orientation
Long-term orientation is among the dimensions of cultural
orientation that deals with time – past, present, and future.
Long-term orientation ‘stands for the fostering of virtues
oriented toward future rewards, in particular, perseverance
and thrift’ (Hofstede 2001). In other words, it relates to how
much society values long-standing compared with short-
term values and tradition. This is an additional dimension
to Hofstedes’ initial four national culture dimensions,
uncovered by Bond (1987) and later proposed by Hofstede
(1991) as the long- versus short-term orientation, as it has
been proven to be an important, independent dimension,
particularly in Asian cultures. According to Bearden et al.
(2006), long-term orientation is a prominent facet of national
culture values and of itself influences consumers’ decision-
making process; however, research on its impact is lacking.
Based on the pertinent review of literature, this is among
the earliest researches that attempt to incorporate and inves-
tigate the influence of long-term orientation values on pur-
chase intentions of green products. While Hofstede argues
that his cultural dimensions should not be measured at the
individual or organizational level (Minkov et al. 2011), this
study adopted the Cultural Values Scale (CVSCALE) pro-
posed by Yoo et al. (2011) to capture Hofstede’s long-term
orientation at the individual level. It was developed as an
extension of Hofstede (1991) cultural scale values that were
initially designed to measure the cultural values at the
national level. Bearden et al. (2006) further explained that
long-term orientation will influence individuals’ level of
ethical values known as the extent to which one considers
accepted norms of right and wrong in their decisions. In
terms of environmental issues, Gul (2013) found that long-
term orientation was a good predictor for environmental
attitude formation in Turkey, an emerging market with col-
lectivist culture between the East and the West.
Consequently, it is expected that long-term oriented person
will lead to positive green purchase intentions, and, thus, the
next hypothesis is stated as:
Hypothesis 3: Green purchase intention is positively
influenced by long-term orientation.
2.5. Environmental advertising
Advertising is considered a business strategy aiming to
attract users to a new or existing product and generate
positive emotional attachment (Goodrum & Helen 1990).
Baldwin (1993) quoted saying that ‘environmental adver-
tisements are designed to help form a consumer’s values
and translate these values into the purchase of green
 4 B. Chekima et al.

products’. The most significant difference between con- Hypothesis 8: Income will moderate the influence of
ventional advertising and green advertising is that the environmental advertising on green purchase intention.
latter is associated with environmental sustainability. If
‘green advertising messages appeal’ match with consu- 2.6.2. Education
mers’ thoughts and thinking process, this will enhance
In terms of education, majority of studies that tested the
their attitude toward purchase intentions, brands, and
level of formal education/literacy found a positive rela-
brand selection (Ruiz & Sicilia 2004; Kao et al. 2011).
tionship between education and green consumer beha-
Regarding correlation between environmental advertising
vior (Schwartz & Miller 1991; Zimmer et al. 1994). In
appeals and consumer green purchase attitude, Litvine and
Hungary, for instance, Zsóka and colleagues (2013)
Wüstenhagen (2011) by applying the TPB, established that
discovered that most of their respondents who were
increasing environmental messages allows consumers to
university students acquire more knowledge on envir-
recognize the advantage to purchase green power, and it
onment in the university, possess a satisfactory level of
would significantly enhance green power market. In short, it
environmental knowledge, and are highly aware of the
is established based on the TPB that people’s behavioral
need for change in consumer behavior in effort of
intentions (green purchase intentions) are a function of their
tackling environmental problems compared with high-
positive attitudes toward a specific behavior or subject (envir-
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school students. In another study, households in

onmental advertising) and vice versa. Thus, it is hypothesized
that:
Hypothesis 4: Green purchasing intentions is positively
influenced by environmental advertising.
2.6. Demographic variables
A review of earlier studies shows that demographic character-
istics are associated with green product consumption behavior.
California for choice of alternative fuel vehicles
revealed that college-educated respondents prefer elec-
trical/hybrid vehicles (Brownstone et al. 2000). On the
other hand, Straughan and Roberts (1999) observed that
education level did not relate to individual’s proenvir-
onmental behavior. In this study, education is divided
into two categories: highly educated that includes ter-
tiary-education qualifications and low educated covers
high school and below. Thus, we predict the following
hypotheses:

Hypothesis 9: Education will moderate the influence of

2.6.1. Income environmental knowledge on green purchase intention.
Engel et al. (1995) suggest based on the model of
purchasing decision process that purchasing intentions Hypothesis 10: Education will moderate the influence of
man–nature orientation on green purchase intention.
is strongly influenced by consumers’ income. Hockett
et al. (2004) report that those with higher incomes are
Hypothesis 11: Education will moderate the influence of
more likely to behave proenvironmentally. Meantime,
long-term orientation on green purchase intention.
Roitner-Schobesberger et al. (2008) study revealed that
those high earning Thai individuals are more likely to
Hypothesis 12: Education will moderate the influence of
have purchased organic food. Moreover, Csutora and environmental advertising on green purchase intention.
Mozner (2014), Abdul-Wahid et al. (2011), Mahmoud
et al. (2011), and Fotopoulos and Krystallis (2002)
have considered income as a significant factor influen- 2.6.3. Gender
cing consumers toward green product purchasing inten-
Previous studies have examined gender differences in
tions. Mahmoud et al. (2011) argue that green purchase
various environmental behavior and variables; however,
behavior depends on economic conditions of the con-
the empirical results of the effect of gender on environ-
sumer. In other words, people will be most interested
mental behavior is contradictory. Several studies found
and have intention to spend money on green products
that females are more likely to participate in proenvir-
when they have sufficient level of income and welfare
onmental behavior as well as having higher intentions
are at well-maintained level, allowing excess of money.
to purchase green products (Zelezny & Schultz 2000;
This leads to the next hypotheses:
Rezai et al. 2011). Zelezny and Schultz (2000) con-
ducted an international survey covering 14 countries
Hypothesis 5: Income will moderate the influence of
environmental knowledge on green purchase intention. regarding gender differences in proenvironmental atti-
tudes; their findings show a significant difference
Hypothesis 6: Income will moderate the influence of between the genders in behavior patterns and environ-
man–nature orientation on green purchase intention. mental attitudes, where women are more consistently
proenvironmental than men. Although many researchers
Hypothesis 7: Income will moderate the influence of have argued that women are more likely to act in a way
long-term orientation on green purchasing intention. that is more environmentally friendly than men in terms
 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
of sustainable consumption, final results are not con-
clusive. Diamantopoulos et al. (2003) concluded that
numerous authors stated that men have more knowl-
edge about environmental issues than women and act
accordingly. On the contrary, Tan and Lau (2010) found
no significant difference between male and female ‘atti-
tude’ toward green products for undergraduate students
in main private universities in Malaysia.
Guided by the past literature and findings, this study
will explore the impact of gender interaction between the
significant motivational factors toward green purchasing
and identify of which gender is significant and contributes
to proenvironmental behavior. Accordingly, it is hypothe-
sized that:
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Hypothesis 13: Gender will moderate the influence of
environmental knowledge on green purchase intention.
Hypothesis 14: Gender will moderate the influence of
man–nature orientation on green purchase intention.
Hypothesis 15: Gender will moderate the influence of
long-term orientation on green purchase intention.
Hypothesis 16: Gender will moderate the influence of
environmental advertising on green purchase intention.
Our research model included proenvironmental moti-
vational factors and their impact on green purchasing
intention. The hypotheses have been formulated based on
aforementioned research studies to define the research
framework shown in Figure 1. The research framework
was developed using structural equation modeling (SEM).
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample and data collection
A self-administered questionnaire survey was conducted
to collect the research data. This study targeted both
male and female customers aged between 18 and 65
years who have purchasing power and are active in
shopping (Salzman 2012) at major supermarkets and
malls in the cities of the three most populous states,
namely Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, and Sabah. A conve-
nience sampling technique utilized, as there was no
available access to sampling frames, databases, or
records to select individuals randomly. Additionally,
the participants were prescreened by asking if they are
aware of and/or had previously purchased green pro-
ducts to ensure participants were qualified to answer
the survey questions and meaningful data collected.
Initially, a total of 600 questionnaires were distributed,
and 405 valid questionnaires were obtained, leading to a
response rate of 67.5%, which is above the 60%
response rate recommended by Babbie (1990).
5
3.2. Measurement instruments
Previous studies have been reviewed to ensure a compre-
hensive list of measures and, consequently, have been
included. The initial instrument consists of 34 items that
were pretested on a sample of 30 subjects. The pretest was
developed and administered in a series of meetings and
interviews with postgraduate students and senior aca-
demics to review and evaluate that constructs are compre-
hensible. Based on their feedback, two items were
dropped, and some minor wording changes were made to
the final version.
The questionnaire comprised two sections. Section
A gathered demographic information of respondents,
while section B comprised 32 items examining the
factors affecting consumers’ green purchase intention.
Measurement of items was assessed using a five-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 – strongly disagree or
highly unlikely to 5 – strongly agree or highly likely.
Items were adapted from the following sources: green
purchase intention (Chan 2001; Mostafa 2006), envir-
onmental knowledge (Tanner & Kast 2003; Haron et al.
2005), man–nature orientation (Chan 2001), long-term
orientation (Yoo et al. 2011), and environmental adver-
tising (Rahbar & Abdul-Wahid 2011).
4. Findings
4.1. Respondents profile
The demographic profile of respondents includes gender,
age, educational level, employment, and yearly income
level, which is presented in Table 1.
Just over half the sample (51%) was female subjects
with a majority having tertiary education. Most respon-
dents are aged between 20 and 29 and 30 and 39 years,
with two most common annual income categories between
RM36,001 and RM60,000 (26.7%) and RM60,001 to
RM96,000 (22.2%) and the mean is RM74,726.60.
According to Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia, house-
holds with annual incomes between RM36,001 and
RM96,000 belong to middle-income group.
This study used SEM to examine the proposed model.
SmartPLS 2.0 software (Ringle et al. 2005) was used to
evaluate the relationships among the constructs of the
research model by conducting partial least squares (PLS)
analysis. PLS analysis was preferred as the methodological
choice as it allows us to simultaneously evaluate both the
measurement and structural models (Chin 1998), maxi-
mize the variance explained of the dependent variables,
and simultaneous analyze a large number of constructs,
allowing extensive examination of interactions between
latent predictor variable and moderator (Hair et al. 2012).
4.2. Assessment of the measurement model
As suggested by Hair et al. (2010), reflective measure-
ment model assessment in the PLS analysis includes
composite reliability (CR) to evaluate internal
 6 B. Chekima et al.

Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents. Table 2. Assessment of the measurement model.

Demographics Frequency (N = 405) Percentage Convergent validity

Gender
Male 197 48.6 Composite
Female 208 51.4 Construct Item Loadings AVEa reliabilityb
Age (years)
Environmental EK1 0.915 0.899 0.900
18–19 5 1.2
knowledge EK10 0.842
20–29 148 36.6
EK2 0.896
30–39 128 31.6
EK3 0.884
40–49 92 22.7
EK4 0.893
51–65 32 7.9
EK5 0.869
Highest academic qualification
EK6 0.797
Secondary school or lower 26 6.4
EK7 0.824
Pre-university or 83 20.5
EK8 0.904
equivalent
EK9 0.919
Bachelor degree 244 60.2
Environmental A1 0.889 0.862 0.898
Master degree 35 8.7
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advertising A2 0.906
PhD 17 4.2
A3 0.796
Employment
A4 0.838
Government 151 37.3
A5 0.801
Private 186 46.0
A6 0.866
Self-employed 42 10.3
A7 0.862
Unemployed 26 6.4
Green purchase GPIG1 0.869 0.792 0.950
Yearly income
intentions GPIG2 0.896
RM18,000 and below 15 3.7
GPIG3 0.852
RM18,001–RM36,000 84 21.7
GPIG4 0.848
RM36,001–RM60,000 108 26.7
GPIG5 0.876
RM60,001–RM96,000 90 22.2
Man–nature MNO1 0.800 0.694 0.882
RM96,001–RM120,000 52 12.8
orientation MNO2 0.884
RM120,001–RM180,000 18 4.4
MNO3 0.767
RM180,001 and more 17 4.2
MNO4 0.775
Missing 21 5.2
Long-term LTO1 0.798 0.673 0.902
orientation LTO2 0.840
LTO3 0.785
LTO4 0.759
LTO5 0.766
consistency among items for each construct, item load- LTO6 0.733
ing, and average extracted variance (AVE) to assess con- Note: aAverage variance extracted (AVE) = (summation of the square of
vergent validity. the factor loadings)/[(summation of the square of the factor loadings) +
As shown in Table 2, the item loadings are greater than (summation of the error variances)].bComposite reliability (CR) = (square
of the summation of the factor loadings)/[(square of the summation of the
0.70 (Agan et al., 2013), varying from 0.733 to 0.919. The factor loadings) + (square of the summation of the error variances)].
results of CR for constructs were confirmed satisfactory
with values above cutoff value 0.70 (see Table 2) (Hair
et al. 2010). In terms of AVE results, convergent validity is Table 3. Discriminant validity (intercorrelations) of constructs.
acceptable, as all AVE values are greater than the cutoff
value of 0.50 (Hair et al. 2012). Therefore, convergent Latent Variables 1 2 3 4 5
validity was established. 1. Environmental advertising 0.93
2. Green purchase intentions 0.21 0.89
3. Environmental knowledge 0.32 0.17 0.95
4. Man–nature orientation 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.82
4.3. Discriminant validity of constructs 5. Long-term orientation 0.24 0.26 0.38 0.45 0.83
Discriminant validity is examined by comparing the ratio Note: Diagonals (in bold) represent square roots of average variance
between the square root of AVE and correlations (Fornell extracted (AVE), while the other entries represent the squared
correlations.
& Larcker 1981). As shown in Table 3, the diagonal
elements of the matrix, which represents the square root
of the AVEs, are higher than the corresponding intercon-
struct correlations, confirming discriminant validity (Agan 4.4. The structural model and path analysis
et al., 2013). The correlation between latent constructs’ After the measurement model was validated and con-
composite and all other constructs are also less than 0.7, firmed to be reliable, the structural model was evaluated.
indicating that constructs differ sufficiently from one The overall model (see Figure 1) explained a moderate
another (Urbach & Ahlemann 2010). significant variance of (R2 = 0.53.4) 53.4% in green
 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 7
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Figure 1. Structural model results.

Notes: T-values for one-tailed; 2.33 (**p < 0.01), 1.645 (*p < 0.05)
T-values for two-tailed; 2.58 (**p < 0.01), 1.96 (*p < 0.05)

purchasing intention by the three latent variables (man–
nature orientation, long-term orientation, and environmen-
tal advertising) and moderator variables (education level
and gender). In social science research, R2 of 0.75 is
substantial, 0.50 is moderate, and 0.25 is weak (Wong
2013).
An assessment of the path coefficient in Figure 1 and
Table 4 indicated that man–nature orientation had a sig-
nificant positive effect (β = 0.359, p < 0.01) on green
purchase intentions and so do long-term orientation
(β = 0.298, p < 0.01) and environmental advertising
(β = 0.252, p < 0.01), whereas environmental knowledge
is not a significant predictor of green purchase intention.
Thus, H2, H3, and H4 are supported whereas H1 is not. In
this study, it was found that cultural value of man–nature
orientation is the strongest predictor of green purchase
intentions, followed by cultural value of long-tem orienta-
tion and environmental advertising.
A closer examination of the moderating variables’ path
coefficients in Figure 1 and Table 4 disclosed that income
level is insignificant; thus, H5 through H8 are not sup-
ported. Results indicate that education significantly influ-
enced the effects between long-term orientation and green
purchase intentions (β = 0.212, p < 0.01) and environmen-
tal advertising on intention to purchase green products
(β = 0.256, p < 0.01), however, did not moderate man–
nature orientation. Therefore, H11 and H12 are supported
but H9 and H10 are not. Gender exhibited three significant
positive interaction effects: a positive moderating effect
between man–nature orientation and green purchase

Table 4. Summary of the structural model.

Hypotheses Hypotheses paths Path coefficients T-values Results

H1 EK > Green Purchase Intentions 0.041 1.488 Not supported

H2 MNO > Green Purchase Intentions 0.359 4.714** Supported
H3 LTO > Green Purchase Intentions 0.298 3.791** Supported
H4 EA > Green Purchase Intentions 0.252 3.213** Supported
H5 EK × Income > Green Purchase Intentions 0.091 1.239 Not supported
H6 MNO × Income > Green Purchase Intentions 0.072 0.702 Not supported
H7 LTO × Income > Green Purchase Intentions 0.043 0.381 Not supported
H8 EA × Income > Green Purchase Intentions 0.020 0.198 Not supported
H9 EK × Education level > Green Purchase Intentions 0.050 1.441 Not supported
H10 MNO × Education level > Green Purchase Intentions 0.054 1.110 Not supported
H11 LTO × Education level > Green Purchase Intentions 0.212 2.583** Supported
H12 EA × Education level > Green Purchase Intentions 0.256 3.295** Supported
H13 EK × Gender > Green Purchase Intentions 0.070 1.184 Not supported
H14 MNO × Gender > Green Purchase Intentions 0.169 2.245* Supported
H15 LTO × Gender > Green Purchase Intentions 0.148 2.224* Supported
H16 EA × Gender > Green Purchase Intentions 0.182 2.568** Supported
Note: EK, environmental knowledge; MNO, man–nature orientation; LTO, long-term orientation; EA, environmental advertising.
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
 8 B. Chekima et al.
intention (β = 0.169, p < 0.05), between long-term orien-
tation and green purchase intentions (β = 0.146, p < 0.05),
and between environmental advertising toward green pur-
chase intentions (β = 0.182, p < 0.01). Thus, H13, H14,
and H15 are supported.
5. Discussions
Sustainable consumption and development has attracted
the attention of both practitioners and academic research-
ers. Identifying and understanding how various factors
affect the intention of green purchasing is a critical topic
of green consumer behavior discipline. Accordingly, the
current study was to explain consumers’ green purchase
intention motivational drivers. Of the 16 hypotheses, 8
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 02:41 24 November 2015
hypotheses demonstrated a significant relationship toward
green purchase intentions.
The result in Table 4 shows that environmental knowl-
edge did not significantly influence green purchase inten-
tion. Therefore, this finding questions the assertion that, in
the TPB, the more knowledgeable the consumers are about
a subject, the more they know about the effects of the
human actions toward it, the more we expect them to walk
the right action and vice versa. The possible explanation
for the yielded result of this study is supported by Tanner
and Kast (2003) who found the action-related knowledge
to be positively related to green food purchases and envir-
onmental action, whereas the factual knowledge was not a
predictor of the latter. The questions in this study were
adopted from surveys administered based on factual
knowledge.
As for cultural influence, man–nature orientation was
posited to be positively related to green purchase inten-
tions. This study found that the statistical result supported
the hypothesis. This is consistent with previous studies
(Chan 2001). This finding indicates that man–nature orien-
tation is a constant part of individuals’ life, which shapes
people’s eco-friendly behavior and subsequently leads to
positive green products purchase intention. In other words,
man–nature orientation values allow and/or increase con-
sumers’ interest and desire for green products as a mean
for expressing their wish to protect the environment and
live harmoniously with nature. This may be because
Asians in general (including Malaysians) perceive them-
selves as living in harmony with nature when compared
with Westerners who see themselves as separate from
nature (de Mooij 2004).
The cultural dimension of long-term orientation was
also hypothesized to be positively related to green pur-
chase intentions. This study found that the hypothesis was
supported and underpinned previous studies (Bearden
et al. 2006; Gul 2013), which found that long-term orien-
tation is a prominent cultural facet and influence consu-
mers’ purchase decision-making as well as a good
predictors for environmental attitude formation. The
respondents in this study displayed a positive relation
long-term orientation toward green purchase intentions,
since green consumption perceived to save money and
conserve the environment in the long run to guarantee a
better living for all.
The hypothesis that environmental advertising signifi-
cantly influence green purchase intentions was also sup-
ported. This corroborates with finding from Xue (2014).
This makes sense as environmental advertising would
enhance consumers’ knowledge and attitude toward
green products conjointly recognize the advantages of
purchasing such products. This may possibly be because
messages in environmental advertising perceived to be
credible, making them more socially responsible to the
environment and distinguishes green products from ordin-
ary products, which would help avoid confusion in distin-
guishing and identifying green products in market and its
availability in the country.
In terms of moderating effect, education level and
gender, independently, moderate the relationship between
man–nature orientation, long-term orientation, and envir-
onmental advertising. However, no interaction (moderat-
ing) effect of income was discovered between the
independent variables and green purchase intentions. This
indicates that education level and gender can explain green
purchase intention and show that its interaction with cul-
tural values and environmental advertising represent more
effective antecedent variable of green purchase intention.
The relationship between man–nature orientation, long-
term orientation, and environmental advertising on pur-
chasing intention is stronger among females when com-
pared with that among males. This reinforces the findings
suggesting that women are more likely to be proenviron-
mentalists (Lee 2008; Rezai et al. 2011). Being the gate-
keepers who are more likely to be proenvironmentalists
with higher green purchasing intentions, it is important to
recognize the importance and impact of female gender on
the relationship between proenvironmental motivational
factors and the purchasing intentions of green products.
As far as education level is concerned, the result also
suggests that individuals with higher education level (uni-
versity and college degrees) show a stronger relation
between environmental advertising and long-term orienta-
tion on green purchasing intentions when compared with
individuals with lower educational level (high school and
lower). The result suggests the potential impact of tertiary
education/knowledge on the recognition and trust of envir-
onmental advertising and nature of being long-term
oriented, which may lead to the strengthening of the
impact of both on the green purchase intention. This find-
ing supports the earlier study by Rezai et al. (2011) sug-
gesting that highly educated individuals have a stronger
intention to buy green products.
5.1. Implications
From theoretical perspectives, this study is the first to
develop a model that explains drivers of consumers’
green purchasing behavior by integrating and examined
 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
various major aspects, namely individuals’ knowledge on
environment, cultural values (man–nature orientation and
long-term orientation), marketing/organizational effort
(environmental advertising), and the moderating effects
of income, education level, and gender in a single frame-
work. The findings of this study bring new insights and
interesting findings where it has identified and confirmed
that cultural values play a significant role in green con-
sumer behavior while the premium price factor is found
not to affect green purchase intention.
Moreover, it has been experimentally verified that
overall relationships among variables were found to enrich
the explanation of TPB in predicting green purchase inten-
tions (53.4%). Developing such a model is important to fill
information gap that exists between academics (as evi-
denced by insufficient number of research and innovation
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 02:41 24 November 2015
of consumers green purchasing behavior) and practitioners
(as evident by widespread of green products).
In terms of research, this study provides further evi-
dence of the usefulness and validation of using CVSCALE
developed by Yoo and colleagues to measure the influence
of culture at the individual level. Applications of cultural
values are increasing in cross-cultural studies
(Prasongsukarn 2009). This is due to the increasing glo-
balization of markets which facilitate products crossing the
border, making cultural context as important and interest-
ing to be studied to understand the consumer behavior
(Patterson et al. 2006). By measuring the cultural values
and not equate it with the national culture, researchers can
avoid the ecological fallacy, which occurs when the eco-
logical or country-level relationships are construed as if
they apply to individuals (see Hofstede 1980).
Based on the results of the PLS technique in testing
hypotheses in this study, man–nature orientation values
exerted the most significant influence on green purchase
intentions, followed by long-term orientation and environ-
mental advertising. Cultural values of both man–nature
orientation and long-term orientation provide a stronger
effect and, therefore, more useful profile of green con-
sumption. The research findings provide managerial impli-
cations for green marketers. The results offer consumer
segments (based on cultural values and personal/demo-
graphic traits) and execution of environmental advertising
for green products in green marketing enabling green
marketers to develop customized strategies to align con-
sumer segment, thereby increasing the effectiveness and
efficiency of green sales activities.
As it is evident in this study that the influence of
culture is dynamic, it is recommended for marketers to
promote individuals toward green products through adver-
tising based on cultural reasoning; this will help to induce
their intentions to purchase green products.Findings also
suggest that managers need to constantly monitor the
credibility of green claims in green advertising accord-
ingly because it plays an important role in influencing
consumers’ green purchase intentions. Although green
advertising is widely recognized and accepted in this
study, benefits, validity, and credibility associated with it
9
are rather controversial (Pfanner 2008) due to the use of
false green claims, ambiguous information, and lurid and
exaggerate language (Polonsky and Mintu-Wimsatt 1995).
In addition, this research showed that women with
higher education expressed higher purchase intentions of
green products than did men and individuals with lower
education level (high school and lower). Therefore, it is
suggested that green product managers should give special
attention to this consumer segment. Moreover, as con-
firmed in this study, surprisingly, environmental knowl-
edge has been found to have a negative relationship
toward green purchase intention. Hence, it is strongly
suggested for green marketers to promote their green pro-
ducts based on cause-related marketing method rather than
viral marketing method.
6. Limitations and future directions
As with all research, this study also has certain limitations.
First, although the result of this study has further proven the
usefulness of the CVSCALE in measuring Hofstede’s cul-
tural dimension, the cultural assessment method for indivi-
dual-level is rather chaotic in business literature due to the
lack of universally accepted scales. Future research need to
keep validating these measures on proenvironmental beha-
vior using a larger sample, demographically diverse samples
and respondents from other countries, as well as employing
other dimensions based on CVSCALE.
Second, it would be interesting to extend this research
by examining specific green product or industry or by
analyzing different types of product/green industry.
Finally, more variables could be examined as an extension
to this study.
Despite these limitations, the study makes several con-
tributions to the field of consumer buying behavior and
green marketing.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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