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08 - 11!17!09 - 00 Epithermal Environments 1B - Geothermal Systems - Modern Analogues DRC 2017
08 - 11!17!09 - 00 Epithermal Environments 1B - Geothermal Systems - Modern Analogues DRC 2017
systems
Modern‐day analogues of ancient epithermal systems
David R Cooke
Introduction to geothermal systems
Key Questions
• What are the surface features that characterise subaerial
geothermal systems?
• How do these features relate to fluid chemistry?
• How do they
relate to
hydrology?
• What are the
implications for
ore formation?
Geothermal systems
High temperature hydrothermal fluids discharge
at the Earth’s surface
Inferno Crater (30 m deep) ‐ Waimungu,
New Zealand
Geothermal systems
Meteoric convection occurs in the upper crust due to anomalously high heat flow,
generally in volcanic terrains at convergent plate margins
Champagne Pool –
Waiotapu, New Zealand
Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Taupo Volcanic Zone – New Zealand
Taupo
WHITE ISLAND
Volcanic
Auckland Zone
Bay of Plenty
0 200
km
Lake
Rotorua
Tarawera
N
White Island Volcano
BROADLANDS ‐
OHAAKI
Lake
Taupo GEOTHERMAL AREAS
Delineated by drilling
Delineated by geophysics
Other thermal area
Tongariro VOLCANO
Ngauruhoe
Ruapehu 0 25 50 75km
4
1
3 Discharge
o
Inferred • 108 m3 of 250 C fluid /
basement year
structures Extension rate
• ~ 8 mm / year
Heat flow
• >700 mW / m2
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell Rowland and Sibson (2004) • 10 x continental average
TVZ geothermal systems
– modern analogues for LS epithermal deposits
Upflow zone: Heated (250 ‐ 300°C)
chloride waters eventually focussed
into a fault or series of faults
Confining pressures
cold groundwater
recharge decrease to the
point where boiling
commences in the
upper km of the
crust
2 km
Neutral chloride
waters
400°C
2 km
Recharge zone: Ingress of groundwaters
• Magmatic heat source occurs over a large area (up to 100 km2),
(plus gases? H2S, CO2, downward percolation results in heating,
etc.) and leaching of chemical components (eg.
Magma
• Establishes and drives SiO2, Na+, K+, Cl‐, Ca2+, etc.)
meteoric convection
TVZ geothermal systems
– modern analogues for LS epithermal deposits
Steam‐heated acid sulfate waters chloride waters
– mud pools, fumaroles, steaming ground boiling springs, silica sinter
CO2‐rich steam‐
heated waters
• Chloride waters can
continue to boil all
of the way to the
surface
Neutral chloride
waters
400°C
• Peripheral • Steam can physically separated from
bicarbonate waters the boiling water
can form if CO2 (g) • Condensation of steam and oxidation
condenses into of H2S(g) can create steam‐heated acid
2 km
Magma
groundwater sulfate waters in shallow aquifers
2 km
Topographic effects
on fluid flow
Mt Ngaurahoe, New Zealand
Hydrologic Structure
Geothermal water
chemistry
• Geothermal researchers
name waters by the
dominant anion
• Boiling hot springs typically
discharge chloride waters
• These chloride waters can be
quite dilute (< 1% NaCl), but
they can still precipitate high
grade gold and silver ores
Au‐enriched floculant, edge of Champagne Pool ‐
Waiotapu, New Zealand
Geothermal systems
acid sulfate (steam‐heated) waters chloride waters
mud pools, fumaroles, steaming ground boiling springs, silica sinter
CO2‐rich steam‐
heated waters
cold groundwater
recharge
Neutral
chloride
waters
400°C
2 km
2 km
Magma
Geothermal water chemistry
pH range principal anions
Chloride water 4 ‐ 9 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Steam‐heated waters 4.5 ‐ 7 SO4‐2, HCO3‐, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate waters 1 ‐ 3 SO4‐2, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate‐chloride 1 ‐ 5 Cl‐, SO4‐2
Bicarbonate 5 ‐ 7 HCO3‐
Chloride‐bicarbonate 7 ‐ 8.5 Cl‐, HCO3‐
Dilute chloride 6.5 ‐ 7.5 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Groundwater 6 ‐ 7.5 trace HCO3‐
Chloride waters
– discharge at hot springs and geysers
Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone, USA
Rotorua, New Zealand
Geysers, boiling springs and silica sinter
High temperature (boiling) hydrothermal fluids discharging at the Earth’s surface
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Hot springs
Discharge sites for high temperature
(boiling) chloride waters
Crested Pool, Upper Geyser Basin, Yellowstone, USA
Chloride water outflow
Silica‐rich chloride water discharge from geothermal power station, Blue Lagoon, Iceland
Sinter
Precipitates (typically of SiO2)
deposited in and around hot
springs
Cross‐section through sinter sheet, outflow from
Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand
Sinter
Columnar sinter, West Thumb, Yellowstone, USA
Sinter
Plant debris coated by siliceous sinter,
Norris Basin, Yellowstone, USA.
Sinter
Sinter sheet, Champagne Pool
Waiotapu, New Zealand
Sinter
Overhanging Sinter, Pocket Basin, Yellowstone, USA.
Sinter
Sinter‐Encrusted Elk Skull,
Pocket Basin, Yellowstone, USA
Orakeikorako
boiling springs
chloride waters
silica sinter
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Anthropogenic sinter
Siliceous sinter deposited as scale on outflow from
Broadlands geothermal power station, New Zealand
Geysers
• Special class of boiling hot
spring that intermittently
discharge turbulent mixtures
of water and steam
Old Faithful Geyser, Upper Geyser Basin,
Yellowstone, USA.
Geysers
Geysir, Iceland
Orakei korako Rotorua
silica sinter terrace
CO2‐rich steam‐
heated waters
cold groundwater
recharge
Neutral
chloride
waters
400°C
2 km
2 km
Magma
Geothermal water chemistry
pH range principal anions
Chloride water 4 ‐ 9 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Steam‐heated waters 4.5 ‐ 7 SO4‐2, HCO3‐, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate waters 1 ‐ 3 SO4‐2, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate‐chloride 1 ‐ 5 Cl‐, SO4‐2
Bicarbonate 5 ‐ 7 HCO3‐
Chloride‐bicarbonate 7 ‐ 8.5 Cl‐, HCO3‐
Dilute chloride 6.5 ‐ 7.5 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Groundwater 6 ‐ 7.5 trace HCO3‐
Acid sulfate waters – mud pools and fumaroles
Boiling mud pool, Waiotapu, NZ
Boiling mud pools
Boiling mud, Waiotapu, New Zealand
Boiling mud pools
Boiling mud, Waiotapu, New Zealand
Surface features related to gas discharge
Fumaroles
Geothermal fumarole and
native sulfur crystals,
Waiotapu, New Zealand
Surface features related to gas discharge
Steaming ground
– acid gases rising to surface
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Surface features related to gas discharge
Collapse Craters
Collapse Crater – vent fragment (ejecta) Norris Basin, Yellowstone, USA
Acid sulfate waters – collapse craters
Corrosion & collapse of siliceous sinter due to acid sulfate water, Yellowstone, USA
Waiotapu
Champagne Pool
chloride waters
collapse craters
acid sulfate waters
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Waiotapu
mud pool
mud pool
collapse crater
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Surface features related to gas discharge
Kaipohan, Palinpinon, Philippines
Advanced argillic alteration
Advanced argillic alteration of basalt, Seltun, Iceland
Advanced argillic
alteration
• Large blankets of clay alteration
typically form above boiling
geothermal systems
• Acid waters are produced when
H2S(g) is condensed into shallow
groundwaters, making sulfuric
acid H S + 2O H SO
2 2 2 4
STEAM‐HEATED
Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,
Yellowstone, USA
Lewis‐Crofoot, NV Steam‐heated overprint on LS veins due to falling water table;
similar blankets can form over any epithermal deposit
Ebert and Rye, 1997
Geothermal water chemistry
pH range principal anions
Chloride water 4 ‐ 9 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Steam‐heated waters 4.5 ‐ 7 SO4‐2, HCO3‐, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate waters 1 ‐ 3 SO4‐2, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate‐chloride 1 ‐ 5 Cl‐, SO4‐2
Bicarbonate 5 ‐ 7 HCO3‐
Chloride‐bicarbonate 7 ‐ 8.5 Cl‐, HCO3‐
Dilute chloride 6.5 ‐ 7.5 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Groundwater 6 ‐ 7.5 trace HCO3‐
Geothermal systems
acid sulfate (steam‐heated) waters chloride waters
mud pools, fumaroles, steaming ground boiling springs, silica sinter
CO2‐rich steam‐
heated waters
cold groundwater
recharge
Neutral
chloride
waters
400°C
2 km
2 km
Magma
Waiotapu
• Mixing of chloride and
acid‐sulfate waters
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Geothermal water chemistry
pH range principal anions
Chloride water 4 ‐ 9 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Steam‐heated waters 4.5 ‐ 7 SO4‐2, HCO3‐, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate waters 1 ‐ 3 SO4‐2, trace Cl‐
Acid sulfate‐chloride 1 ‐ 5 Cl‐, SO4‐2
Bicarbonate 5 ‐ 7 HCO3‐
Chloride‐bicarbonate 7 ‐ 8.5 Cl‐, HCO3‐
Dilute chloride 6.5 ‐ 7.5 Cl‐, lesser HCO3‐
Groundwater 6 ‐ 7.5 trace HCO3‐
Geothermal systems
acid sulfate (steam‐heated) waters chloride waters
mud pools, fumaroles, steaming ground boiling springs, silica sinter
CO2‐rich steam‐
heated waters
cold groundwater
recharge
Neutral
chloride
waters
400°C
2 km
2 km
Magma
CO2‐rich waters
Br‐6
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Bicarbonate waters – travertine springs
Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone, USA
Bicarbonate waters – travertine springs
Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone, USA
Travertine deposits from CO2‐rich waters
Pamukkale (Hierapolis), Turkey
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Bicarbonate waters
– travertine springs
Liberty Cap, Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone, USA
Mineral 100
Temperature (oC)
200 300
Water types –
pH Alunite Hydrothermal minerals
Jarosite
Halloysite Acid‐sulfate waters
Kaolinite
• Alunite
A c idi c
Dickite
Pyrophyllite • Kaolinite
Diaspore
Zunyite, topaz • Opal
Anatase
Rutile
• Pyrite
Cristobalite • Sulfur
Quartz
Pyrite
Marcasite
CO2‐rich waters
N eutral
Smectite • Calcite
Illite/smectite
Chlorite/smectite
• Illite
Illite • Smectite
Chlorite
Epidote
Biotite
Chloride waters
Adularia • Quartz, chalcedony,
A l k alin e
Calcite
Mordenite
• Adularia, albite
Laumontite • Illite, smectite
Wairakite
• Chlorite, epidote
Epithermal ore deposition • Pyrite, calcite
Hedenquist et al. (1998)
Champagne pool, Waiotapu
CO2‐rich
bubbles
orange ppt:
amorphous Au,Ag,Sb,As,Hg
and S compound silica sinter
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Champagne pool
Ore grade metals in orange
precipitate
Metal Concentration
Au 80 ppm
Ag 175 ppm
As 2 wt %
Sb 2 wt %
Tl 320 ppm
Hg 170 ppm
Pb 15 ppm
Zn 50 ppm
• 52 geothermal wells
• 400 – 2,700 m depth
• 1 – 2 ppb Au deep water
• 1 million oz Au / 6000 yrs
Simmons and Browne, 2000
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Broadlands – Ohaaki
steam‐heated
waters
chloride waters
Simmons and Browne, 2000 Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Ohaaki Pool – Sinter
0.2 g/t Au
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Broadlands ‐ Ohaaki geothermal well Br‐22
Brown, 1986
Broadlands – Ohaaki
Br‐22
chalcopyrite
Back‐pressure plate scale:
• chalcopyrite and electrum ±
galena, sphalerite, magnetite,
pyrite
electrum
• 21.2% Cu, 40.4% Fe, 28.5% S,
4.48% Au, 2.64% Ag
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Broadlands – Ohaaki mineralisation
Precipitate on wall of
silencer
well pipe
Golden Cross vein
amorpous silica, pyrite, galena,
sphlaerite, chalcopyrite, pearcite,
silencers polybasite, electrum – 150 g/t Au
Slide courtesy of Bruce Gemmell
Broadlands – Ohaaki mineralisation
production well Ohaaki Pool Mineral deposition
in open spaces
separator
steam line gold‐silver plus As – Sb – Hg – Tl
gold‐silver in silica sinter
weir box base‐metal sulfides
amorphous
0 °
150C silica
200°C
amorphous silica
Back gold
Pressure
boiling
disseminated 250°C
500 plate
base‐metal sulfides
K‐spar
Depth (m)
1000
flash level calcite 300°C
calcite
1500
quartz
2000
Modified after Simmons and Browne (2000)
Volcanic‐hydrothermal systems – modern
analogues of high sulfidation epithermal deposits
David R Cooke, J Bruce Gemmell
and Noel C White
White Island, New Zealand
Modern HS systems Intense acid leaching
Satsuma Iwojima, Japan
• Acid leaching of andesite by
magmatic volatiles
• 0.4 Mt rhyolite leached per year
• i.e., 200 m thick, 1 x 1 km in 1000 yrs
• Acid water mixes with seawater,
precipitating clays (and metals?)
Acid water mixing
with sea water
Andesitic volcanic centres – Taupo Volcanic Zone
andesite
dacite
White Island
White Island
• 48 km offshore in the
Bay of Plenty
• Andesite‐dacite
composite volcano
• Most active volcano in
New Zealand
White Island Crater
White Island
• Summit of a 16 x 18 km
submarine volcano
• Seafloor ~ 300 – 400 m depth,
summit 321 m asl
• ~ 10,000 years old
White Island
– Mining history
• Sulfur mining at
beginning of 1900s
• Drained hot crater lake
• Debris avalanche
destroyed mine works
• 11 miners killed
Hydrothermal activity
• Crater floor contains high‐T
fumaroles and acid springs
• Mixing of magmatic gases with
groundwater and seawater
• 350‐400 t/day SO2 and 2600
t/day CO2 discharge
Sulfate minerals
• Acid spring waters indicate mixing
with seawater (high Na values)
Hydrothermal alteration
• Andesitic ejecta contain pervasive and fracture‐controlled
cristobalite – quartz – alunite – dickite – anhydrite – pyrite
alteration
→ advanced argillic alteration
• Alunite, anhydrite, chlorite and pyrite in veins in altered ejecta
Mineral 100
Temperature (oC)
200 300
Hydrothermal
pH Alunite
Jarosite
alteration
Halloysite
Kaolinite
A c idi c
Dickite
Pyrophyllite
Diaspore
Zunyite, topaz White Island
Anatase
Rutile
Cristobalite
Quartz
Pyrite
Marcasite
N eutral
Smectite
Illite/smectite
Chlorite/smectite
Illite
Chlorite
Epidote
Biotite
Adularia
A l k alin e
Calcite
Mordenite
Laumontite
Wairakite
Epithermal ore deposition
Hedenquist et al. (1998)
White Island, New Zealand
– modern analogue for HS deposits?
• High‐T fumaroles and acid springs in crater floor
• Ejecta contain pervasive and fracture‐controlled cristobalite –
alunite – anhydrite – pyrite alteration
• Alunite, anhydrite, Al‐chlorite and pyrite in veins
• Anhydrite ‘seal’
Earlier profile Present Metal deposition
profile
NW Likely origin of ejecta SE
Spring
0
Pressure (bars)
50
Depth (m)
500
100
1000
Volcanic Fumarole, White Island, New Zealand