Chromosomes

By: Sofía Beller

Bacterial Chromosomes
● Most prokaryotes contain one circular chromosome.
● DNA communicates with the cytoplasm – so it allows direct connection to
transcription and translation.
● Contain only one copy of the gene (haploid).
● Non-essential genes are stored outside of chromosome – in plasmids.
● Prokaryotic genome is very compact – contain very little non-coding DNA
sequences.
Plasmids
Plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA that replicate independently from the
host's chromosomal DNA. In nature, plasmids provide one or more functional
benefits to the host such as resistance to antibiotics, degradative functions, and/or
virulence. All natural plasmids contain an origin of replication and typically include a
gene that is advantageous for survival, such as an antibiotic resistance gene.

In contrast, plasmids utilized in the lab are usually artificial and designed to
introduce foreign DNA into another cell. The ease of modifying plasmids and the
ability of plasmids to self-replicate within a cell make them attractive tools for the
life scientist or bioengineer.
How do scientists use Plasmids?
Generally, scientists use plasmids to manipulate gene expression in target cells.
Characteristics such as flexibility, versatility, safety, and cost-effectiveness enable
molecular biologists to broadly utilize plasmids across a wide range of applications.
Some common plasmid types include cloning plasmids, expression plasmids, gene
knock-down plasmids, reporter plasmids, viral plasmids, and genome engineering
plasmids.
Using autoradiography to measure DNA
molecules
● Radioactive isotopes decay slowly, releasing
particles that appear as black dots on X-ray
film. The resulting pictures are called
autoradiographs.
● In 1963, John Cairns demonstrated, using
autoradiography, that bacterial
chromosomes are circular, and that
Y-shaped replication forks are present
during DNA replication.
Measuring the length of DNA molecules
● In Cairns’ method, E. coli bacteria are cultured in a medium containing
thymidine that has been labelled with a radioactive isotope of hydrogen,
tritium (3H).
● During DNA replication, the tritiated thymidine is incorporated into the
bacterial chromosome as radioactive thymine.
● Thin sections of labelled cells are covered with X-ray film. As the tritiated
thymine decays, beta particles expose the film in patterns indicating the shape
of the DNA molecule.
● The Cairns technique (labelling with tritiated thymidine followed by
autoradiography) is used to get information about eukaryotic chromosomes
and to measure the length of DNA molecules.
Eukaryote Chromosomes
Chromosomes contain long strands of DNA containing genetic information.
Compared to prokaryotic chromosomes, eukaryotic chromosomes are much larger in
size and are linear chromosomes.

Eukaryotic chromosomes are also stored in the nucleus of the cell, while
chromosomes of prokaryotic cells are not stored in a nucleus.

In eukyryotic chromosomes we recognize a process similar to supercoiling in

Prokaryota. This is made possible by special proteins – histones - which packed the
DNA strand. Complex of DNA and these proteins is called chromatin.
Eukaryote Chromosomes
When the DNA is turning around the histones. Sometimes it is said that it looks like
the beads on a string. This is a principle, which allows to get so long DNA strand
(human DNA has more than 2 metres) into the cell and chromosomes.
Difference Between Chromosomes
Though similar in basic appearance, different chromosomes vary slightly in size and
shape. In addition, when chromosomes are stained with fluorescent dyes they
develop distinctive patterns of bright and dark bands. These subtle differences
enable cell biologists to distinguish different chromosomes from one another.

Many organisms also have a pair of sex chromosomes, which differ between males
and females. In humans, a female has two identical sex chromosomes. A male has
one sex chromosome that is like those of females, and one that is smaller and
differently shaped. In scientific shorthand, the female's sex chromosomes are
referred to as XX, and the male's as XY.
Questions
1. What are some characteristics of Bacterial Chromosomes?
2. What are some characteristics of Plasmids?
3. What's a difference between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic chromosomes?
4. What are histones?