WRITING PARADIGMS

TWO VIEWS OF WRITING

VIEW 1: WRITING AS COMMUNICATING INFORMATION
FOCUSING ON THE READER
1. THE CONVENTIONAL MODEL
    Writing as a two step process
 First—figure out what you want to say
 Second—put it into language
In essence this model looks like:
 Figure out what you want to say
 Don’t start writing until you do
 Make a plan
 Use an outline
 Now begin writing
Writing as communicating information is most commonly represented as
2. “THE FIVE STEP WRITING PROCESS”
 Prewriting—organize your thoughts
 Writing—prepare a draft
 Revising—organizing the ideas in the draft
 Editing—correcting grammar, spelling…
 Publishing—developing a layout for the edited text
However this "communicating" model of writing is backwards
 Instead of a two-step or five-step translation of meaning into language, writing is an
organic, transactional process. You start writing at the very beginning—before you know
your meaning at all
 Only at the end will you know what you want to say and the words you want to use
 You should expect to end up somewhere different from where you started—meaning is
not what you start with but what you end up with
 Think of writing not as a way to transmit a message but as a way of allowing your
meaning to grow and evolve
 Writing is a dynamic transaction with your thoughts, intentions, and words
VIEW 2: WRITING FROM THE INSIDE OUT
FOCUSING ON THE WRITER
1. METAPHOR: SHAPING AT THE POINT OF UTTERANCE
 Preparation – reading, research, conversation, interviews,…
 Incubation – the mulling around of ideas in the head
 Articulation – the pen to paper phase of writing: drafting, amending, redrafting
SHAPING AT THE POINT OF UTTERANCE
 We focus on the end in view, shaping the utterance as we write; when a “seam is played
out” or we are interrupted, we get started again by reading what we have written,
running along tracks we have laid down
 Writers develop an inner voice capable of “dictating” in the forms of written language
 We cannot inspect the source of the words or the procedures by which they come; we just
let them come, and they arrive—we can only decide whether or not we want to use the
words we have generated after they arrive
  We have no control at the instant of word production, but we have control before and
after
Notice in this metaphor “writing” involves a transaction between drafting, amending,
redrafting and that incubation goes on throughout the entire process. What we have is a
description of the mental processes of the writer engaged in writing.
2. METAPHOR: WRITERS INSIDE THE PROCESS
 Writers aren’t outside the process but an integral, interdependent part of it
 Writing is a process of transactions—
o We enter into the act
o We are changed during it, and
o In turn we change our perceptions of the text being produced
From this perspective, writing consists of ongoing writing episodes, based on both our global
and focal intentions—our often vague inner sense of purpose, audience, possible form, and
potential meaning.
In this metaphor there is dynamic interplay among reading, collecting, writing, connecting. It
puts forth the idea that these activities occur in no particular order and each is affected by
development in the others.

 
WRITING EPISODES
 A writing episode involves physically producing words on paper or screen; it’s an
extended act of “transacription” which results in a progressive development of a piece of
text
 Each writing act/episode influences our current thinking—what is written (or revised)
becomes new information for us to reflect upon
 Writing episodes occur intermittently, although our thought is continuous—sometimes
words flow, one writing act/episode immediately following another; more usually there
are pauses of varying length between episodes because our thought is reorganizing for
forthcoming episodes or because of interruptions or distractions
 Writing is a learning experience—we discover what we “mean” through the act of
writing
SPECIFICATION OF INTENTIONS
 Intentions are the basis upon which a text is formed
 We have
o Global intentions—involving the purpose and overall form of a text
o Focal intentions—about the next word, phrase, sentence to be written
 
 None of these intentions is part of the text itself; the text remains to be produced
 These intentions are not a model of what the text will be like—many aspects of a text may
be different from our original intentions
 We often have no intentions for what a text will be like until particular parts of the text
are actually produced
  All the intentions represent the specification for the text
o The specification does not set out in detail what a text will be like
o The specification will be sketchy
o It includes:
 Some general expectations or intentions for what the finished text will be
like
 Some guidelines about its form
 
o Some parts of the specification may be quite detailed and specific (certain points
will be covered ina certain order, even certain words or phrases that will be used)
o In general, many details (whether something should be explained, how it should
be explained) will be left until the actual moment of writing
 
 The specification lays out the writer’s “problem”—the emerging text is a solution to the
problem if it meets our intentions and expectations
 The specification is never complete, it often has many blanks
 The specification must always be flexible; at no point will we know everything about
what we are likely to write—
o We may have general ideas about a particular paragraph, but we can’t find the
words or get the sentences ordered satisfactorily
o Sometimes words flow but take us in directions we don’t intend
o We must let the words come because they are relevant to the general concerns
although we don’t know how to organize of constrain a particular paragraph
 
 The specification is not an outline—it does not set out in detail the content and
organization of a particular text; the specification for a text sets out the problems a writer
has to solve in the process of writing
THE TRANSACTION BETWEEN SPECIFICATION AND TEXT
Composition is not simply a matter of translating a specification into words—the specification itself
develops and changes as a text unfolds.
MYTHS OF WRITING
Adapted from
Frank Smith, 1983, Myths of Writing
In: Essays Into Literacy
Exeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books: 81-88
1. Writing is for the transmission of information.
Reality: While in the end the writing may convey information, it’s major
function is to explore ideas. The danger of the information-transmission
myth is that it focuses on how texts are presented from the point of view
of the reader rather than on what the act of writing can accomplish for the
developing thought of the writer. The writer is overlooked.
 
2. Writing is for communication.
Reality: The writer is always the FIRST reader and may often be the only
reader.
 
3. Writing involves transferring thoughts from the mind to paper.
 Reality: Thoughts are created in the act of writing, which changes the
writer and changes the emerging text.
 
4. Writing is permanent.
Reality: Speech, once uttered, can rarely be revised; writing can be
reflected upon, altered, and even erased at will.
 
5. Writing is a linear process.
Reality: Writing can be done in several places and directions concurrently
and is as easily manipulated in space as it is in time. Texts can be
constructed from writing done on separate pieces of paper; words,
sentences, paragraphs, whole sections can be shuffled into different
sequences. Writing is recursive.
 
6. Writing is speech plus spelling and punctuation.
Reality: Every kind of writing has its own conventions of form and
expression quite different from speech. Spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, paragraphing, indentation, word-dividing, layout, and so
forth, are necessary aspects of transcription necessary to make written
language readable for readers. For all writers, undue concern with
transcription can interfere with the exploratory aspects of writing.
 
7. You must have something to say in order to write.
Reality: We need to write in order to have anything to say! Thought
comes with writing, and writing may never come if it is postponed until
we are satisfied we have something to say. Write first, see what you had to
say later.
 
8. Writing should be easy.
Reality: Writing is often hard work—it requires concentration, physical
effort, and a tolerance for frustration and disappointment.
 
9. Writing should be right the first time.
Reality: Writing generally requires many drafts and revisions to get ideas
into a form that satisfies the writer. A separate editorial polishing is
required to make any text appropriate for another reader.
 
10. Writing should be unambiguous.
Reality: There is no way writing can be unambiguous. “The” meaning of a
text is not embedded in the words on the page but constructed by readers.
The sense a reader constructs depends on what the reader knows and
brings to the text. There is no way for any writer to know exactly what any
reader brings to a text.
 
11. Writing can be done to order.
Reality: Writing is most often reluctant to come when it is most urgently
required, yet quite likely to begin to flow at inconvenient or impossible
 times.
 
12. A fixed period of “prewriting” should precede composing.
Reality: Writing involves a lifetime of preparation—of experience,
reading, reflecting and arguing. It is only from a transcription point of
view that an author can say that work began on a particular text at a
particular time. In fact, writing itself can be prewriting. As we draft one
part of a text, we reflect on what we might write next or on what we have
written already.
 
13. Writing is a solitary activity.
Reality: Writing often requires other people to stimulate discussion, to
listen to choice phrases, to provide feedback of various kinds.
 
14. Writing is a tidy activity.
Reality: Writing is messy, it spreads itself all over the writing surface, in
many different files.
 
15. Writing should be the same for everyone.
Reality: Each of us develops an idiosyncratic set of strategies we’re
comfortable with and that work for us.
ABOUT WRITING
WRITING IS CREATING MEANING
The wonderful thing about writing is that, contrary to popular belief, meaning is constructed as
a result of writing not something worked out before you begin.
Writing isn't the transcription of pre-existent knowledge; every episode of writing requires an
active construction of new meaning.
PURPOSE & AUDIENCE
You may not know the purpose of a particular piece of writing at the outset, although with most
technical and business writing you usually have some general purpose as well as a specific or
generic audience in mind. Whether you're writing an email or an in-depth technical report or
proposal, at some point in the writing process you need to be able to articulate succinctly the
purpose of a given piece of writing and you need to think about the assumptions you're making
about your audience. As writing proceeds, both purpose and audience will become clearer; by
the time you're done you should be able to say what it is you want your readers to understand.
COMPOSING VS REVISING / EDITING
Composing is a constructing process; it's not transcribing thought that's already in your head.
When you begin, you may have only vague ideas about what you want to say—it's through
writing that you sort out your thoughts, flesh them out, and organize them. Only after you've
got a rough draft of your writing should you think about correctness: such things as spelling,
punctuation, and grammar. That's why writing educators make a distinction between
composing and editing—composing involves developing the material to make an argument or
presentation; revising and editing are what you do once you have a rough version of what you
want to say.
However, the act of writing really does combine all three aspects of the process. You will
certainly find yourself revising as you go along—the important thing is to resist the temptation
to make correctness your focus too early in the process.
 WRITING IS MESSY
Writing is a messy business.
I have notes to myself jotted on scraps of paper, on post-it notes, and on backs of envelopes.
When I'm composing I keep paper handy so I can jot down ideas that I'm not sure I want to use
or where I might use them. I have piles of reference material all over the desk and sometimes on
the floor—I need that information handy so I can refer to something if I need to.
I write all over printouts of text; I save the mess because I never know if something I've thought
of might be useful later. When I cut sections from a document, I paste them into an "out-takes"
file so I won't regret having lost material.
There are false starts, and I get side-tracked but it's all part of the writing process. By the time I'm done,
the document has been checked carefully for spelling, grammar and punctuation. It looks presentable; the
mess is no longer visible. It's because the mess isn't visible in final versions that we forget that writing, of
necessity, is a messy activity.
INVENTION TECHNIQUES
INITIATING AND SUSTAINING COMPOSING
There are probably an infinite number of invention techniques; some popular
ones are described below. Read about each one to see which works for you.
Experiment and try to have some fun.
FREEWRITING
 Set a timer for five to ten minutes (you can always keep going after the
beeper's gone off but an initial time limit is great for keeping you focused)
 Look at the topic and mull it over, roll it over your tongue, inhale it, let it
bounce around the neural pathways of your brain for a second or two
 Now ready? set? write! and don't stop! Keep your fingers typing or your
pen moving on paper for the entire duration
 Get it all out; a sort of intellectual diarrhea or stream-of-consciousness
writing where you write what you think as you're thinking it
 Don't worry about grammar, spelling, or forming sentences. Some of it
won't make sense and that's okay. If you find yourself drawing a blank at
some point, then just write, "I'm drawing a blank" to keep the flow going
or try and articulate why you think you can't get very far with the subject
 There are no rules for this idea-generation technique except that
1. you have to think (don't groan) and
2. you can't censor yourself or read over what you've done until the
timer has sounded (if you're doing this on a computer, a neat trick
is to darken the screen to prevent this kind of senseless cheating)
 BZZZZTTTT! Time's up: now you can finally look over your stuff.
Freewriting is great because sometimes you'll find you'll be able to lift off
entire sections and use them in your first draft
BRAINSTORMING
This is quite similar to freewriting but the organization—the way you jot down
ideas—is a bit different. Instead of an endless, non-punctuated, free-flowing
paragraph, you only note down key words or short phrases on a page.
Set a timer, take a deep breath, and go crazy. If you get stuck, look at one of the
ideas you’ve already written down and see if they don’t trigger something new.
Assume nothing is self-explanatory—at this stage stating the obvious is the best
way to tap into original territory.
When you're done, use your word processor's cut and paste features (or arrows
or color coding for you paper planners out there) to re-organize your terms and
find relationships and common threads that might form subheadings.
Two ways to approach brainstorming:
a. List Making
Here you simply jot down a stream of words or thoughts in a list format.
There are no "wrong" thoughts to be had here. Try to limit the thoughts to
a certain length. Also, try to commit to either a time or page goal—write
three pages or write for five minutes, no more, no less.
b. Diagramming
Great for people who work visually, diagramming can be a helpful way to
provide structure to papers. Ignore the top to bottom, left to write motion
of writing (or right to left, as the case may be) and simply write in a free
fashion. Draw circles around your ideas, link them together using lines.
Draw words in unusual shapes and liberally sprinkle your page with
arrows, squares, question marks, and anything else you think might help
represent your idea in a visual fashion.
The brainstorming process is about more than practicing writing, you should see
certain patterns and questions begin to emerge. Place your brainstorm writing
aside for a while and then look at it later. You might be surprised at some of the
things you've come up with. It's common for brainstorming and freewriting
practitioners to wonder aloud, "Could I really have written that?"
CLUSTERING / WEBBING / MAPPING
Basically the same as brainstorming but you start with a central word written in
the middle of an unlined piece of paper. As related concepts pop in your head,
you indicate them as branches, arrows, in bubbles, or however you like to cluster.
Some branches will lead to dead ends, others will flourish. At the end of a
successful cluster session, you'll focus on the blossoming areas and will even be
able to draw arrows between concepts to show their relationships.
Again, no self-censorship allowed but don't beat a dead horse either. If one spark
dies, return to the central or other provocative points you have scribbled in the
lower right hand corner and try again.
CUBING
The general strategy of looking at your topic as you would a three-dimensional
object with many sides. Sometimes you'll hear it called the “Many Parts Strategy”
because it asks...no, pushes....you to consider your topic from a minimum of six
different angles or avenues.
HEURISTICS
An impressive word that basically just means a learning aid or problem-solving
technique that uses "self-education." Self-education is a bizarre but appropriate
concept here because what you essentially do with any heuristic is interview
yourself, tap into your own wealth of knowledge with the right drills in the right
places, as it were. This is done by using questions as prompts.
One popular heuristic is the list of journalistic 5 Ws (and one H!): who, what,
when, where, why, and how:
 What am I writing about? (topic)
 What am I trying to say about my topic? (controlling idea)
  Why am I writing about my topic? (purpose)
 Why should my reader(s) be interested in my controlling idea? (audience)
 What knowledge do I have that makes me the right person to write about
this topic?
THE ROLE OF TALK IN WRITING
All of the above activities can be done orally with one or more colleagues—
nowhere is it cast in stone that you have to sort out your ideas entirely on your
own.
You can brainstorm or cluster/web/map with other people. Chart paper is
helpful here, but you could use an electronic notebook to jot down ideas as they
come up in discussion.
Sometimes, before attempting to capture your ideas in writing, it can be very
useful to corner a colleague and say “Listen to me—“ and quickly lay out what
you’re going to write about and how you might approach it. Having an audience
quickly forces clarity.
READING LIKE A WRITER
Not sure how you want to tackle a particular writing task?
Try “Reading Like A Writer”—Find examples of the kind writing you’re trying to
do. Notice stylistic elements (tone of the writing, sentence variation, flow of ideas,
formatting, etc….) and try reproducing them in your own writing as you write.
 
FINDING FOCUS

Sometime you’ll find you have a focus before you begin; other times your focus
will emerge during the writing; sometimes you have to stand back and play with
the emerging document to shape a focus.
FOCUSING QUESTIONS
 What’s most important?
 What will my readers be looking for?
 What will my readers want to know more about?
 Can I identify a logical progression of ideas here?
 Might there be a better order for the content?
 Have I captured enough of the specifics?
DEVELOPING FOCUS
 Get yourself a set of colored highlighter pens
 Work with a hard copy of your document
 Take one pen, quickly read through your document, highlighting
everything that seems to have some kind of common theme
 Take a second pen, again quickly read through the document marking
other paragraphs/sections that seem to have a different theme.
 Repeat a third and fourth time, if necessary
 Now lay out your pages according to the predominant highlighting color
 Open your document file, “Save As” using a new file name—now cut all
the information that’s highlighted in other than the predominant color (Be
sure to paste this material into your out-takes file—you might well want it
later!)
 Now read what you have – it will certainly be shorter, and it ought to have
 a definite focus
USE A READER: ASK FOR FEEDBACK
 Have someone read what you’ve written—it’s useful to tell him or her just
what kind of feedback you’re looking for. Another person often can see
what you’re driving at more easily than you can; you’re too close to the
writing
FOUR WAYS TO CLARIFY
You have a draft—the next step is to make it clear, first to yourself and then to other readers.
It’s important to remember you are your own first reader. You have to read your own copy to
make sure it’s clear to you, that you are saying what you want to say.
Now you must become a critical reader.
There are four main ways to clarify:
 DISCARD—You sense the writing doesn't work, it hasn't gone anywhere. Rather than
belabour it, file the draft away and start again
 
 RECONCEIVE—You've got a first draft; now you need to go back and recollect, refocus
and/or reorder. Because writing is recursive (that is, it keeps circling back on itself) you
need to stand back and consider the meaning of the whole; do a quick read with an eye to
other ways of "telling your story"
 
 REWRITE—There are two aspects of rewriting:
o Revision—finding elements that require or warrant modification or elaboration in
some way
o Editing—polishing the text to make it appropriate for readers
Revision and editing are two very different activities.
With revision, you review the draft of a text from your own point of view to discover
what the text contains. Respond to the text as if it were written by someone else. Only the
writer can do revision because what matters is the effect of the text on the writer.

The aim of editing is not to change the text but to make what is there optimally readable.
It is not necessary for a writer to do the editing; in fact, writers who publish typically are
not responsible for final editing. Editing is essentially a transcription skill. If you are
editing yourself, you must try to respond to the text as a different reader.
The mistake most people make with editing is to plunge in and start editing the language
of the text first, working from the written line back to form and then to meaning. That's
got it backwards! You need to start with the overall meaning. [See: Effective Editing]
 PROOF—When you have done all reconceiving and revising you have time to do, then it's time
to go through the text and eliminate superficial problems that will interfere with readers making
meaning

 
EFFECTIVE EDITING
WRITER AS READER
Developed from "Clarity"
by Don Murray in "Write To Learn"
1984, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 166-182
Effective Editing is usually the result of three separate and distinct readings,
each with its own pace, strategies, and techniques:
 The "First" Read is for meaning
 The "Second" Read is for order
   
 The "Third" Read is for voice, language &
conventions

EDITING PRINCIPLES
 Build on Strength—Identify what you think is working well and carry it
through the rest of the text
 
 Cut What Can Be Cut—Everything in the text must realte to the single
dominant meaning of the text. If it doesn't, it should go!
 
 Simplicity is Best—The writing should be as simple as possible; write so
your readers understand what you want them to
 
 Listen to the Writing—Your ear is a better editor than your eye. Read
aloud. The piece will tell you when it needs a definition woven in, some
additional clarification, more evidence, a change of pace

CHECKLIST FOR A "FIRST" READ

READING FOR MEANING
Read the text fast—find a comfortable chair, put your pencil down, read as if you
are a naive reader; try not to get too close to the text; instead, aim for a sense of
the overall meaning.
 Can you write a short (a sentence or two) synopsis of what the piece is
about?
 Do readers need more information?
 Is the piece too long? Is it too short?
 Does it go off on tangents that can be cut?
 Are there elements that should be cut, or developed more fully?
 Are readers' key questions answered?
 Does the piece deliver on the promise made in the title and lede?
 Is there scaffolding that was useful in shaping the piece but can now be
cut?
Now pick up a pencil and make marginal notes—think about your overall
meaning.

CHECKLIST FOR A "SECOND" READ

READING FOR ORDER
Continue reading at a good clip. Don't stop for language problems—that will
come later. Now you're dealing with chunks to make sure each section is
developed well and is in the right place.
 Is the title on target?
 Does the lede establish the voice for the piece?
 Does the draft "show" as well as "tell"?
  Is each section an answer to readers' questions?
 Is each piece of documentation appropriate for the point being made?
 Does the pace keep readers moving but allow time to absorb your
argument?
 Does the end echo the lede and give readers a sense of completion?
 Does the argument follow logically?
 Have you tried rearranging elements?
CHECKLIST FOR A "THIRD" READ
PROOFREADING
or
READING FOR VOICE, LANGUAGE, AND CONVENTIONS
It's time to get out your sharpest pencil and be ruthless. It's generally useful to do
a "third" read with hard copy in front of you, where you can make actual marks
on the paper. It's do-able on a screen but you're more likely to miss stuff you'd
see if you were working on a printout.
 Are inportant pieces of specific information at the ends and beginnings of
key sentences, paragraphs, sections, and the entire piece itself?
 Have you used "subject-verb-object" sentences?
 Have you cut unnecessary clauses?
 Are there sentences that announce what you're going to say, or sum up
what you've already said—can you cut them?
 Do readers leave each sentence with more information than when they
began?
 Is sentence length varied, with shorter sentences usually used for
clarification or emphasis?
 Is each word the right word?
 Is each word the simplest word?
 Have you used strong verbs?
 Have unnecessary adverbs and adjectives been eliminated?
 Have you cut "to be" verbs wherever possible?
 Have you eliminated "-ings" wherever possible?
 Have you used active voice?
 Is the simplest tense used?
 Are tenses consistent?
 What about pronoun agreement?
 Have you checked for parallel structure?
 Have you checked for gender-biased or racist language?
 Have you cut unnecessary words: that, would, quite, very...
 Have sentence elements been reorderred so they read naturally and
smoothly?
 Have you used parallel structure in lists?
 Does each paragraph make one point?
 Have you developed that point fully?
 Do paragraphs vary in length, with shorter paragraphs used for
clarification and emphasis?
 Are the paragraphs in order, do transitions make sense?
 Have you cut unnecessary introductory and concluding paragraphs?
  Can you think of questions readers might still ask?
 Have you checked punctuation?
 Have you checked spelling?
 Are the numbers correct?
TIPS FOR DOING A "THIRD" READ
 Read backwards. Begin at the end and work back through the text
paragraph by paragraph or even line by line. This will force you to look at
the surface elements rather than the meaning of the text
 Place a ruler under each line as you read it. This will give your eyes a
manageable amount of text to read
 Know your own typical mistakes. Keep a running list of errors you
typically make. Before you do a "third" read, look over your list
 Read for one type of error at a time. If commas are your most frequent
problem, go through the writing checking just that one problem. Then read
again for the next most frequent problem
 Read through your writing several times fast, once looking just at spelling,
another time looking just at punctuation, and so on. This will help you
focus so you'll do a better job
WRITING FAST
Writing fast is about uninhibited invention and good organization
 Allow yourself to start anywhere; you don't have to start at the beginning
 Move to some other aspect of the topic if you find yourself bogged down
 Let digressions happen; they may prove fruitful later
 Don't try getting it right the first time—draft / rewrite as many times as you need to
make the writing clear
 Write down thoughts when they strike you even if you're doing something else
 Keep a separate "thoughts" file
 Try talking your thoughts out loud
 Write about your frustrations
 False starts and dead ends are normal; just pick up somewhere else
 Be willing to throw stuff away
 You have a reasonably good idea of what you want to write—then make an outline
 Don't let yourself be trapped by your outline; abandon it if you find it draining your
energy
 Don't edit or proofread before you have a complete draft
 You can save time by putting in a placeholder and filling in a section later
 You don't need to wait until you've "completed" your "research" before you begin—
research will still be necessary while you're drafting, rewriting, editing and even
proofing!
 Allow yourself to be messy—spread paper all over your desk and floor; scribble, use
arrows all over your printouts
 Talk out your ideas to someone else
 Just write and keep writing
 Make lists
 Use highlighters
 Always create a separate "references" file; fully record each reference (including page
numbers) as soon as you've cited it in your writing
 Save all deleted sections to an out-takes file; that material might be useful
 Brainstorm on index cards—they're easy to move around
 Don't worry about order in your writing—you'll shift elements around later
 Use point form; it forces you to be succinct and it's easy to flesh out
 Revisit your thoughts file—there may be ideas there to strengthen what you've written
 While you're inventing / drafting: If in doubt—PUT IT IN!
 During rewriting: If in doubt—TAKE IT OUT!
 Be sure to leave enough time to do a careful "third" read
 Solicit feedback from naive readers and from experts
 Develop an outline after you're finished; this lets you check the architecture of your piece
 Introductions are often best left to last! It's not until you're finished that you really know
what the piece is about
 Remember, no part is done until the whole is done! Don't "finish" one part before
working on another—the parts need to interact
 Set yourself deadlines
ON BEING STUCK
There are two kinds of writing blocks:
 Procedural Blocks — we have difficulty deciding what to write next
 
 Psychological Blocks — we cannot bring ourselves to write anything 
PROCEDURAL BLOCKS
 We can be in the position of not knowing what to write next
At a global level we know and can specify clearly what we want to write
about, and we have no trouble putting one word after another—we're lost
in between—perhaps in deciding precisely what we want in the next
paragraph
 
 Procedural blocks are particularly acute at the beginning—the problem
arises because we can visualize a set of alternatives without obvious
reason for selecting any particular one
 
 There are several reasons for procedural blocks
o Trying to pack too much information into a sentence, a paragraph,
leaving too many directions to follow at once 
o Digressions which we've been led into by our developing ideas 
o Our proliferating intentions getting ahead of us 
o Crossing into a new section of the writing 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL BLOCKS
 We can't let words come—the most difficult moment with any piece of
writing is at the beginning when the first words should come
 
 It's not a matter of having no words, but we can't bring ourselves to let
them appear on paper or screen
 
 There are three major reasons for not being able to write:
o The magnitude of the task seems overwhelming 
 o Anxiety regarding our fears that what we produce won't be good
enough 
o Being afraid we don't have anything worthwhile to say—being
reluctant to write anything
STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING BLOCKS
 Write!
 
 Write anything, no matter how irrelevant you think it is
 
 If in doubt, PUT IT IN!
 
 Open a new file and experiment
 
 Too many directions at once?
List them and flesh each one out (brainstorm, make lists...)
 
 Don't have a beginning?
Start somewhere else.
 
 Can't get what you want to say next from what you've just written?
Write what you want to say anyway (later you'll figure out how to handle
the transition)
 
 Not sure how to shape the next part?
Try a couple of alternatives
 
 Don't have the next bit sufficiently clear in your head?
Take a walk, cook a meal, watch TV, sleep on it...
Our brain doesn't solve problems under pressure, give yourself incubation
time
 
 Can't pick up from where you left off?
Begin rewriting the last paragraph, or just start somewhere else
 
 Avoiding a particular writing project by answering mail?
Stop procrastinating and make yourself write on the task you're avoiding
 
 DON'T EXPECT WRITING TO COME OUT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME
Anything you write can be thrown away (or put in an "out-takes" file for
later rescue if necessary)
 
 Deadlines help!
Set a time for completing a particular writing assignment
 
 Writing blocks are resolved ONLY by writing!
 
UNDERSTANDING READERS
 There are three important aspects of reading which writers must keep in mind:
 The Reading Process
 Interpretive Community
 Intertextuality
THE READING PROCESS
READING IS A COMPLEX CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS INVOLVING BOTH VISUAL AND
NON-VISUAL INFORMATION—WHAT'S IN FRONT OF THE EYES AND WHAT'S BEHIND
THEM. THE ESSENTIAL SKILL ALL COMPETENT READERS LEARN IS TO DEPEND ON
THEIR EYES AS LITTLE AS POSSIBLE. OF COURSE, YOUR EYES HAVE A ROLE TO PLAY
IN READING, BUT VISUAL INFORMATION IS NOT ENOUGH IN ITSELF. YOU BRING TO
ANY ENCOUNTER WITH WRITTEN TEXT YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE PARTICULAR
LANGUAGE A TEXT IS WRITTEN IN, BOTH WORD MEANINGS AND ITS GRAMMATICAL
STRUCTURE, AS WELL AS AS YOUR FAMILIARITY WITH THE SUBJECT MATTER, YOUR
EXPERIENCE WITH READING, AND ESPECIALLY WHAT YOU KNOW ABOUT READING
DIFFERENT KINDS OF WRITING.
BECAUSE READING IS INHERENTLY DEPENDENT ON WHAT READERS KNOW, THERE
CAN BE NO "LITERAL" MEANING OF ANY TEXT—THERE WILL BE AS MANY MEANINGS
AS THERE ARE READERS; NO ONE OF THEM IS LITERAL. WHEN A GROUP OF READERS
HAS COMMON KNOWLEDGE, THEIR INTERPRETATIONS OF A PARTICULAR TEXT WILL
CONVERGE, BUT THERE IS NO GUARANTEE THAT ALL READERS WILL CONSTRUCT
THE SAME MEANING.
INTERPRETIVE COMMUNITY
WHAT'S IMPORTANT FOR TECHNICAL WRITERS TO JUDGE IS THE BREADTH OF
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE SUBJECT THEIR READERS ARE LIKELY TO HAVE. IF THE
AUDIENCE IS LARGE, IT'S UNREALISTIC TO EXPECT ALL OF YOUR READERS TO COME
TO YOUR TEXT WITH THE SAME BACKGROUND. REALIZE THERE ARE LIKELY TO BE
GAPS; DO YOUR BEST TO ANTICIPATE THEM.
WHAT WORKS IN YOUR FAVOUR IS THE INTERPRETIVE COMMUNITY—THE
POTENTIAL SHARED MEANING OF A GROUP OF PROFESSIONAL READERS. YOUR
SENSE OF WHAT YOUR INTERPRETIVE COMMUNITY IS LIKELY TO KNOW ALLOWS YOU
TO MAKE SOME ASSUMPTIONS AS YOU WRITE.
BUT REMEMBER, THERE IS NO GUARANTEE ANY PARTICULAR READER SHARES YOUR
INTERPRETIVE COMMUNITY. THERE IS NO WAY YOU CAN WRITE A TEXT THAT
MAKES A PARTICULAR INTERPRETATION A CERTAINTY! SO TRY OUT YOUR WRITING
ON BOTH NAIVE AND EXPERT READERS.
INTERTEXTUALITY
WHAT'S IN ANY PARTICULAR TEXT ITSELF CAN ONLY HINT AT THE INFERENTIAL
MEANING A READER IS INVITED TO MAKE. TO PARTICIPATE FULLY IN READING ANY
TEXT REQUIRES A SENSE OF INTERTEXTUALITY. READERS RELATE THE CURRENT
PIECE THEY'RE READING TO OTHER TEXTS THEY'VE READ ON THE SAME SUBJECT, AS
WELL AS CONNECTING INFORMATION FROM THINGS THEY'VE READ ON RELATED
SUBJECTS.
READERS MUST BE FAMILIAR IN ADVANCE NOT ONLY WITH THE GENERAL
CONTENT, BUT HAVE SOME PARTICULAR BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE OF THE
SPECIFIC DOMAIN OF THE TEXT. THIS IS A KEY ASPECT OF THE TRANSACTIONAL
NATURE OF READING ALONG WITH TECHNICAL, CULTURAL, AND LINGUISTIC
CONTEXTS AND THE MORE WIDELY READ THE AUDIENCE, THE MORE LIKELY THEY
 WILL MAKE SENSE OF YOUR WRITING—ALTHOUGH NOT NECESSARILY THE SENSE
YOU INTEND THEM TO MAKE.
TO THE EXTENT THAT THE WRITER AND READER SHARE SUCH CONTEXTS, THERE
WILL BE CONVERGENCE OF INTERPRETATION. TEXTS ARE NOT TRANSPARENT; THEY
DON'T DIRECTLY REVEAL THEIR MEANING. READERS CONSTRUCT MEANING BASED
ON A LARGE NUMBER OF FACTORS. WRITERS HAVE TO REMEMBER READING IS A
PROCESS OF MAKING INFERENCES.
RESPONDING TO WRITERS
Adapted from
Writing Without Teachers
Peter Elbow, 1973, London: Oxford University Press

All writers experience trepidation when they contemplate showing their writing to someone
else! That’s a by-product of what happened to your writing in school—your teachers told you
what they thought were the weak and strong points and suggested things you should change.
However, to improve your writing you DON’T need advice about what changes to make. You
DON’T need theories of what is good and bad writing. What you need to know is what sense
your readers have made, what questions they have, where they got confused, what digressions
they took off on when they read your words. You need what Peter Elbow calls “movies of
people’s minds”.
Here are some suggestions for giving movies of your mind when reading for another writer.
This is the same feedback you’ll find helpful from your readers, as well.
 Start by simply pointing to the words and phrases which stood out for you, either
because they seemed particularly apt or because they were jarring for some reason.
 Summarize the writing:
o Tell quickly what you thought were the main points, the center of gravity of the
piece
o See if you can summarize the whole thing in a single sentence
o Don’t plan or think too much about it; the point is to help the writer see what
stood out in your head—it’s not a test to see if you got the meaning “right”!
 Tell the writer everything that happened to you when you read the writing—it’s useful to
tell it as a story: “I felt confused about …, but then I saw a connection…. I especially
liked… I found myself going back after …”
The important thing in telling is not to get too far away from talking about the actual
writing; remember the writer is interested in how his or her writing worked.
 When you read something you have perceptions and reactions that you’re not fully
aware of and therefore can’t “tell” about. However, you may be able to SHOW them:
o Talk about the writing as if you were describing voices: it lectured, it droned, it
ran…
o Talk about the writing as if you were talking about weather: it was foggy, clear,
crisp…
o Talk about the writing as if you were talking about motion: it marched, strolled…
o Describe what you think the writer’s intentions were
o Writing is like a lump of clay—tell what you’d do with that clay
o Paint the picture the writing conjured up for you
 
 Try writing a quick synopsis and share it with the writer
 Telling is like looking inside yourself to see what you can report; showing is like
installing a window in the top of your head so the writer can see for him or herself.
SOME GENERAL ADVICE TO READERS
 Make sure you’ve had enough time to read the piece through twice, taking a bit of time
between each reading to let the words and ideas sink in. Don’t let yourself be hurried
 Remember no kind of reaction is wrong, insufficient, perhaps, but not wrong. So don’t
struggle with your reactions—just let them happen
 Try to avoid giving advice; on the other hand, if the interaction between you and the
words produces some suggestions, don’t hold back
 Like advice, evaluation in itself has no value; it doesn’t provide insight into your
experience as a reader
 Your job as reader is to offer the writer your immediate impressions; you’re not trying to
fix the writing but to help the writer understand your experience of it.
SOME GENERAL ADVICE TO WRITERS
 Be quite and listen!
 After you have a reader’s reactions you can explain what you intended or what you think
you’ve put into the writing
 Don’t reject what readers tell you—listen to what they say as if it were all true. You can
consider their responses later
 Listen openly and take it in, but don’t be paralyzed by what they tell you
 You’re not looking for readers to tell you HOW to write; you need them to tell you what
thought processes your writing evoked
 Remember, it’s their job to give you their experience; it’s your job to decide what to do
with that information—you don’t have to act on any response, you just have to consider
what it tells you about your writing
Make sure your readers know what you want from them—SPELL IT OUT. If there’s some particular kind
of feedback you would find helpful, ask for it.
IT DEPENDS

There are no absolute rules for writing!

The "good news" is writing is a transactional process—you are changed by what
you write just as the writing changes as you're producing it.
That means:
 You're free to experiment
 You're free to invent your own way of expressing your thoughts
 You can break the "rules" in grammar books and style guides
 The sky's the limit
The "bad news" is writing involves making decisions. When you ask yourself a
question about some aspect of writing, the answer will be "It depends...."
Your decisions are affected by many factors:
 The purpose of the writing
 Who you're writing it for
 How expert your audience is
 How widely it will be disseminated
 How much time you have to work through it
Remember, style guides only offer suggestions. Even spelling isn't absolute—are
you using American, British or Canadian English? While there is pressure
towards standard grammar and spelling, understand that these aspects of
language are constantly changing.
Your best resource is other authors. Read to see how other authors have done
what you're trying to do. There's a wide range of writing available—some of it
reader friendly, a lot of it puts obstacles in the reader's way. Try to "feel" what
those authors who make it easy for you to understand have done with their
writing. Emulate it.
COMPUTERS: HELP & HINDRANCE
Computer technology has revolutionized writing. It’s made it much easier to
generate ideas, to reorganize writing, even to check spelling and grammar.
However, computers can be both a source of help and a hindrance.
HELP
Computers can help you write in many different ways. Here are some
suggestions:
 When you begin, create three files: your working document, a references
file, and an out-takes file. You might also want a fourth—notes—which
you use as a handy notepad (it’s also a place where you can cut and paste
stuff you pick up from other sources)
 When you’re stuck it’s helpful to do one of three things:
o start a blank page and just write anything—because it’s in a
separate place you lose the inhibitions that were stopping you from
keeping ideas flowing
o go to your “notes” file and do the same thing—sometimes having
other notes nearby triggers ideas
o turn the screen off and just let ideas come—you can do this either
on a new blank page or where you happen to be writing
You can do all of the above using scrap paper or a yellow writing tablet,
but the wonderful thing about doing this writing on the computer is you
can cut and paste what you produce directly into your document—you
don’t have to type it over!
 Some writing tasks you do over and over again. Automate them by
building a template which outlines the major categories of information you
want to include. It may take some time to set up a good template but it’s
worth it in the long run
HINDRANCE
There are three major pitfalls to writing on a computer:
 A major trap is revising and editing too soon.
Rather than just letting ideas come when you’re inventing, you can find
yourself caught up by how the words on the screen look, see something
you want to change, and lose your flow of thought.
Resist at all costs the temptation to “fix” your writing when you’re
generating a draft
 A second danger is forgetting to SAVE!
Be sure to set your Autosave to backup your writing every 5 minutes or so
(in MS Word you find that function in the Preferences / Properties under
“Save”). That way you can recover most of what you’ve written. It’s worse
than discouraging to have your word processing software freeze and lose
 everything you’ve done for the last hour.
Also be careful to save the file to the location you intend. Some word
processors remember the last place you saved to—that may not be where
you wanted to save your current document.
 Be wary of the spell checker.
Either it won’t recognize the word you intend and prompt you with words
that have no relationship to the one you want, or it accepts what you’ve
written because it doesn’t differentiate homophones—words that sound
the same but are spelled differently such as “mayor” and “mare” or
“their”, “there”, and “they’re” .
On the other hand the Thesaurus is often useful, although often it won’t
give you as many alternatives as a good dictionary of synonyms will.
 
TECHNICAL WRITING
The first step in any kind of non-fiction writing is to collect information—to do research. For the
medical writer that can involve actually conducting experiments, or patient trials. It usually
involves reading relevant research papers, clinical trials, and review articles. It can also include
obtaining data from adverse event and other databases. Relevant information may come from
interviews with researchers, discussions with colleagues, or from notes made at critical
meetings....
It's a good idea to begin by asking yourself "What am I trying to achieve?" If you can't answer
that question. the chances of writing a good piece are slim. If you can identify your global
intentions, then you can evaluate your information, arguments, and recommendations against
those intentions.
You don't have to wait until all of your "research" is done before you start sorting through the
evidence/ information—start immediately to identify main issues, to think about how to
organize them, to make some notes, to brainstorm, and so on.
By focusing your thoughts, you've started to think about what your readers might want or need
to know.
SOME THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN DOING TECHNICAL WRITING
1. Understand the type of report/memo/synopsis you are writing—find examples and
notice the structure and organization other authors have used
 
2. Write down your global intentions—a phrase or two that captures the gist of your
potential writing
 
3. Tentatively identify possible sections and subsections—this is a brainstorming or
clustering activity
 
4. Try writing some headings using strong verbs and specific nouns—it may be too soon for
this activity; however, it will allow you to see where you need to do more research or
identify where you have holes you'll want to think about later. You will certainly revisit
headings and subheadings after you've got a draft
 
5. Think about your readers' knowledge and needs—this is crucial! Try to imagine what the
reader knows and expects from such a text
 
6. Keep information specific rather than general—it's the details that pursuade, so be sure
you've provided enough "data" for your readers to understand the issues as you see them
 
7. Try beginning with lists in simple English—this will likely take several attempts, the lists
may expand or become smaller on each successive go-around, items may be moved to
other lists...
 
8. Keep your list items or points short
 
9. Turn your lists into prose—keep your language as direct as you can
 
10. Use active verbs rather than passive voice constructions
 
11. Vary sentence length
 
12. Avoid jargon
 
13. Keep technical terms to a minimum (or provide an explanation in the text itself)
 
14. A helpful hint when you're drafting: If in doubt, PUT IT IN!
 
15. Another helpful hint: When you quote from other writing or make an attribution, make
sure you put the complete citation (including page numbers) in a separate file. This
"references" file doesn't have to be in any kind of order at this point—it will be easy to
order it later—but it's invaluable not to have to track down an obscure citation after
you've forgotten where you got it from!
 
16. A third hint: Instead of deleting passages from your evolving text, cut and paste them
into a separate "out-takes" file—that way you can review what you've deleted and have it
on hand should want or need it later
 
17. Once you have a draft, ask some readers for feedback—at this point you're interested in
what meaning they make, you're not interested in editing help, so be sure to let them
know what information you're looking for
 
18. Test your document with the intended audience
 
19. Revise based on their feedback
 
20. Remember that editing / revision isn't just about errors. You want to polish your
sentences at this point, making them smooth, interesting, and clear. Watch for very long
sentences, since they may be less clear than shorter, more direct sentences
 
21. Pay attention to the rhythm of your writing; try to use sentences of varying lengths and
patterns. Look for unnecessary phrases, repetition, and awkward spots
 
 22. When you're revising—if in doubt, TAKE IT OUT!
 
23. Published authors usually have access to editors; if you have to edit your own work here
are some things to think about: Effective Editing
 
24. Think about layout
 
25. Use examples and illustrations; consider tables and visuals that might explain your
arguments
 
26. Use diagrams, flowcharts, and graphs
 
27. Don't forget to proofread: Checklist for a "Third" Read
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
The audience of a technical report—or any piece of writing for that matter—is the intended or
potential reader or readers. For most technical writers, this is the most important consideration
in planning, writing, and reviewing a document. You "adapt" your writing to meet the needs,
interests, and background of the readers who will be reading your writing.
The principle seems absurdly simple and obvious. It's much the same as telling someone, "Talk
so the person in front of you can understand what you're saying." It's like saying, "Don't talk
rocket science to your six-year-old." Do we need a course in that? Doesn't seem like it. But, in
fact, lack of audience analysis and adaptation is one of the root causes of most of the problems
you find in professional, technical documents—particularly instructions where it surfaces most
glaringly.
TYPES OF AUDIENCES
One of the first things to do when you analyze an audience is to identify its type (or types—it's
rarely just one type). Audiences are commonly categorized as:
 Experts:These are the people who know the theory and the product inside and out. They
designed it, they tested it, they know everything about it. Often, they have advanced
degrees and operate in academic settings or in research and development areas of the
government and business worlds. The nonspecialist reader is least likely to understand
what these people are saying—but also has the least reason to try. More often, the
communication challenge faced by the expert is communicating to the technician and the
executive.
 Technicians: These are the people who build, operate, maintain, and repair the stuff that
the experts design and theorize about. Theirs is a highly technical knowledge as well, but
of a more practical nature.
 Executives: These are the people who make business, economic, administrative, legal,
governmental, political decisions on the stuff that the experts and technicians work with.
If it's a new product, they decide whether to produce and market it. Executives are likely
to have as little technical knowledge about the subject as nonspecialists.
 Nonspecialists: These readers have the least technical knowledge of all. Their interest
may be as practical as technicians', but in a different way. They want to use the new
product to accomplish their tasks. Or, they may just be curious about a specific technical
matter and want to learn about it—but for no specific, practical reason.
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
It's important to determine which of the four categories the potential readers of your document
belong to, but that's not the end of it. Audiences, regardless of category, must also be analyzed
in terms of the following characteristics:
 Background-knowledge, experience, training: One of your most important concerns is
just how much knowledge, experience, or training you can expect in your readers. If you
expect some of your readers to lack certain background, do you automatically supply it
in your document? Consider an example: imagine you're writing a guide to using a
software product that runs under Microsoft Windows. How much can you expect your
readers to know about Windows? If some are likely to know little about Windows,
should you provide that information? If you say no, then you run the risk of customers'
getting frustrated with your product. If you say yes to adding background information
on Windows, you increase your work effort and add to the page count of the document
(and thus to the cost). Obviously, there's no easy answer to this question—part of the
answer may involve just how small a segment of the audience needs that background
information.
 Needs and interests: To plan your document, you need to know what your audience is
going to expect from that document. Imagine how readers will want to use your
document; what will they demand from it. For example, imagine you are writing a
manual on how to use a new microwave oven—what are your readers going to expect to
find in it? Imagine you're under contract to write a background report on global warming
for a national real estate association—what do they want to read about; and, equally
important, what do they not want to read about?
 Other demographic characteristics: And of course there are many other characteristics
about your readers that might have an influence on how you should design and write
your document—for example, age groups, type of residence, area of residence, gender,
political preferences, and so on.
Audience analysis can get complicated by at least two other factors: mixed audience types for
one document, wide variability within audience, and unknown audiences.
More than one audience. You're likely to find that your report is for more than one audience.
For example, it may be seen by technical people (experts and technicians) and administrative
people (executives). What to do? You can either write all the sections so that all the audiences of
your document can understand them (good luck!). Or you can write each section strictly for the
audience that would be interested in it, then use headings and section introductions to alert
your audience about where to go and what to stay out of in your report.
Wide variability in an audience. You may realize that, although you have an audience that fits
into only one category, there is a wide variability in its background. This is a tough one—if you
write to the lowest common denominator of reader, you're likely to end up with a cumbersome,
tedious book-like thing that will turn off the majority of readers. But if you don't write to that
lowest level, you lose that segment of your readers. What to do? Most writers go for the
majority of readers and sacrifice that minority that needs more help. Others put the
supplemental information in appendixes or insert cross-references to beginners' books.
AUDIENCE ADAPTATION
Okay! So you've analyzed your audience. What good is it? How do you use this information?
How do you keep from writing something that will still be incomprehensible or useless to your
readers?
The business of writing to your audience may have a lot to do with in-born talent, intuition, and
even mystery. But there are some controls you can use to have a better chance to connect with
your readers. The following "controls" have mostly to do with making technical information
more understandable for nonspecialist audiences:
 Add information readers need to understand your document. Check to see whether
certain key information is missing—for example, a critical series of steps from a set of
instructions; important background that helps beginners understand the main
discussion; definition of key terms.
 Omit information your readers do not need. Unnecessary information can also confuse
and frustrate readers—after all, it's there so they feel obligated to read it. For example,
you can probably chop theoretical discussion from basic instructions.
 Change the level of the information you currently have. You may have the right
information but it may be "pitched" at too high or too low a technical level. It may be
pitched at the wrong kind of audience—for example, at an expert audience rather than a
technician audience. This happens most often when product-design notes are passed off
as instructions.
 Add examples to help readers understand. Examples are one of the most powerful ways
to connect with audiences, particularly in instructions. Even in noninstructional text, for
example, when you are trying to explain a technical concept, examples are a major help—
analogies in particular.
 Change the level of your examples. You may be using examples but the technical
content or level may not be appropriate to your readers. Homespun examples may not be
useful to experts; highly technical ones may totally miss your nonspecialist readers.
 Change the organization of your information. Sometimes, you can have all the right
information but arrange it in the wrong way. For example, there can be too much
background information up front (or too little) such that certain readers get lost.
Sometimes, background information needs to woven into the main information—for
example, in instructions it's sometimes better to feed in chunks of background at the
points where they are immediately needed.
 Strengthen transitions. It may be difficult for readers, particularly nonspecialists, to see
the connections between the main sections of your report, between individual
paragraphs, and sometimes even between individual sentences. You can make these
connections much clearer by adding transition words and by echoing key words more
accurately. Words like "therefore," "for example," "however" are transition words—they
indicate the logic connecting the previous thought to the upcoming thought. You can also
strengthen transitions by carefully echoing the same key words. In technical prose, it's
not a good idea to vary word choice-use the same words so that people don't get any
more confused than they may already be.
 Write stronger introductions—both for the whole document and for major sections.
People seem to read with more confidence and understanding when they have the "big
picture"—a view of what's coming, and how it relates to what they've just read.
Therefore, make sure you have a strong introduction to the entire document—one that
makes clear the topic, purpose, audience, and contents of that document. And for each
major section within your document, use mini-introductions that indicate at least the
topic of the section and give an overview of the subtopics to be covered in that section.
 Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups. It can help readers
immensely to give them an idea of the topic and purpose of a section (a group of
paragraphs) and in particular to give them an overview of the subtopics about to be
covered. Roadmaps help when you're in a different state!
  Change sentence style and length. How you write—down at the individual sentence
level—can make a big difference too. In instructions, for example, using imperative voice
and "you" phrasing is vastly more understandable than the passive voice or third-
personal phrasing. For some reason, personalizing your writing style and making it more
relaxed and informal can make it more accessible and understandable. Passive, person-
less writing is harder to read—put people and action in your writing. Similarly, go for
active verbs as opposed to be verb phrasing. All of this makes your writing more direct
and immediate—readers don't have to dig for it. Obviously, sentence length matters as
well. An average of somewhere between 15 and 25 words per sentence is about right;
sentences over 30 words are to be mistrusted.
 Work on sentence clarity and economy. This is closely related to the previous "control"
but deserves its own spot. Often, writing style can be so wordy that it is hard or
frustrating to read. When you revise your rough drafts, put them on a diet-go through a
draft line by line trying to reduce the overall word, page or line count by 20 percent. Try
it as an experiment and see how you do. You'll find a lot of fussy, unnecessary detail and
inflated phrasing you can chop out.
 Use more or different graphics. For nonspecialist audiences, you may want to use more
graphics—and simpler ones at that. Writing for specialists and experts tends to be less
illustrated, less graphically attractive—even boring to the eye! Graphics for specialists
tend to be more detailed, more technical. In technical documents for nonspecialists, there
also tend to be more "decorative" graphics—ones that serve no strict informative or
persuasive purpose at all.
 Break text up or consolidate text into meaningful, usable chunks. For nonspecialist
readers, you may need to have shorter paragraphs. Notice how much longer paragraphs
are in technical documents written for specialists. (Maybe a 6- to 8-line paragraph is the
dividing line.)
 Add cross-references to important information. In technical information, you can help
nonspecialist readers by pointing them to background sources. If you can't fully explain a
topic on the spot, point to a book or article where it is.
 Use headings and lists. Readers can be intimidated by big dense paragraphs of writing,
uncut by anything other than a blank line now and then. Search your rough drafts for
ways to incorporate headings—look for changes in topic or subtopic. Search your writing
for listings of things—these can be made into vertical lists. Look for paired listings such
as terms and their definitions—these can be made into two-column lists. Of course, be
careful not to force this special formatting—don't overdo it.
 Use special typography, and work with margins, line length, line spacing, type size,
and type style. For nonspecialist readers, you can do things like making the lines shorter
(bringing in the margins), using larger type sizes, and other such tactics. Certain type
styles are believed to be friendlier and more readable than others. (Try to find someone
involved with publishing to get their insights on fonts.)
These are the kinds of "controls" that professional technical writers use to finetune their work
and make it as readily understandable as possible. And in contrast, it's the accumulation of lots
of problems in these areas—even seemingly minor ones—that add up to a document being
difficult to read and understand. Nonprofessionals often question why professional writers and
editors insist on bothering with such seemingly picky, trivial, petty details in writing—but they
all contribute to making your document readable.
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are visual illustrations of verbal or written statements. One
common trait found among graphic organizers is that they show the order and
completeness of a writer’s thought process. Many graphic organizers show
different aspects of an issue or problem—in close and also the big picture. Since
many graphic organizers use short words or phrases, they are ideal for many
types of writing and reading tasks.
Graphic organizers show at a glance the key elements of the whole and their
relationships. They are very useful for sorting out the structure of an argument or
the architecture of a piece of writing. They represent a handy tool when your
read—you can quickly sketch an outline of a piece.
They’re helpful if you’re reading for someone else, they focus you directly on
questions about content. They are useful at various points during your own
writing, most particularly when you’ve just finished a draft, to check that you’ve
included all the elements you need to make your arguments clear.
Here are the seven structural patterns commonly used in technical writing
showing their “generic” graphic forms.
 
Pattern Clues to Pattern Strategies Suggested Diagram
 Enumerati  introductory 1. look for topic
on statement 2. look for sub-
contains a topics
number word or 3. organize
words like details related
"many" or to topics
"several"
 subtopics
signalled by
"first", "second",
"third", "more",
"also", etc.
  Question/  introductory 1. look for
  Answer question question
 answer signalled 2. note words
by words like that signal
"first", "second", answers
"one", "another" 3. isolate
answer
 General      most common 1. look for
Statement/ pattern generalizatio
 Elaboratio  offers n
n generalization 2. look for
followed by supporting
supporting specifics
examples
 Cause /  causes leading to 1. look for effect
Effect effects 2. look for cause
 words like (must answer
"cause", "reasons "why" about
for", "first", the effect)
"second",
"finally", etc.
  Sequence  steps in a 1. look for
process introduction
 chronology which sets
 events leading to purpose and
a specific lists steps to
outcome follow
2. look for steps
3. look for order
of steps
____________
4. look for steps
in sequence
5. separate
background
information
from steps
6. look for
meaning of
sequence

 Comparis  always more  

on/ than one topic
Contrast  uses cues: "in the
same way", "on
the other hand",
"although", "yet",
"however", "even
though"
 Problem  lays out details 1. look for the
Statement of a problem problem
2. look for
significant
details

MANAGING INFORMATION
 We’re all swamped with information during the day – email, memos, ordinary
mail, articles, synopses, instructions, manuals… the list goes on and on. It’s not
all equally important—the challenge is prioritizing what comes in and deciding
what to do about it.
A useful system is comparable to the “triage” system used by the medical
community:
1. TRIAGE
 Urgent: Deal with it immediately
 Important: Put it in a dated TO DO pile/folder/bin and deal with it when
you have time
 Unimportant: Discard – if it is really important it will come back to you
Here’s another way of handling information:
2. SIX THINGS TO DO WITH ANY PIECE OF INFORMATION
 Discard: Get rid of it
 Delegate: Pass it on to someone else
 Do: Take care of it immediately
 Date: Put it aside in a daily file so you can get to it later
 Drawer: Store it
 Deter: Keep it from getting to you in the first place
The point is, you need some system for managing information. The hardest thing
is to discard stuff for fear it might be important. DISCARD as much as you can—
if you’ve made an error, whatever it is will come back to you! You’ll have a
second and third chance to deal with it.
 
SUMMARIZING-GET TO THE POINT
Summarizing involves giving the "gist" of a chosen passage, using your own words and not the
author's. Summaries are generally informative and descriptive. While an effective summary
emphasizes all of the main points in a selection, it is significantly shorter than the original.
PURPOSE
Being able to summarize succinctly is a valuable skill for academic, personal, and professional
writing, and can be used for many purposes. For example, summaries can:
 convey a general idea
 give only necessary information
 shorten material
 reference material
 set up quoted material
 provide support
 add credibility
 establish background
 offer an overview of a topic
 describe common knowledge
WHAT A SUMMARY SHOULD CONTAIN
Effective summaries are made up of concise, coherent sentences that communicate the key
information of a passage. Summaries may involve simply deleting extraneous material,
highlighting key points, synthesizing the overall meaning, or miniaturizing primary ideas.
It is important to remember that a summary must remain faithful to the author's interpretation
and emphasis. Summaries should focus on what the author is saying, not on how he or she is
proving it. Also, you should not give your own opinions about the author's message; instead,
maintain a neutral tone. The only time your summary should be biased is if the original passage
is biased.
HOW TO SUMMARIZE
1. Read the passage you are going to summarize at least twice so that you fully
comprehend what the author is saying.
2. Isolate the thesis, or main idea of the passage to be summarized.
3. Work through the text to identify the portions that support the author's main idea;
highlight or underline these sections
4. Rephrase the main points into your own sentences, but remember to keep the author's
intended purpose and message. It is generally not necessary to include examples and
details.
5. Make up a new thesis that explains the essential idea of the passage. You should not
simply restate the author's thesis; you want to prove that you understand the information
in the passage by forming your own sentence. Writing in this way helps you to re-create
the meaning of the original in a way that makes sense for you.
6. While you are summarizing, you must remember to change sentence structure,
vocabulary, and the thesis in order to avoid plagiarism. Also, your summary does not
have to be in the same order as the original passage unless arrangement is necessary for
comprehension.
7. Always remember to cite the passage's original source information. You can do this
somewhere in the body or at the end of your summary.
8. Finally, revise and edit to ensure accuracy and correctness.
CHECKLIST
1. Is the main idea clear and accurate?
2. Is your summary concise?
3. Are there few (if any) details and examples?
4. Does your summary include only information found in the original?
5. Does your summary read like a unified paragraph?
6. Did you include bibliographic information?
REMEMBER
 Always write a summary with the author's purpose in mind.
 The length of a summary depends on what is being summarized.
 Summarizing can always be improved with practice!
TEMPLATES
Developing templates for different writing tasks is one way to speed up your
writing. An effective template provides you with a ready made architecture for
your document; it reminds you to include specific information. A template is
easily adapted if your categories change.
Here is an example for doing synopses of clinical trial studies:
REPRINT REVIEW FOR CLINICAL TRIALS
TITLE  
AUTHORS  
JOURNAL  
OBJECTIVE  
 DESIGN Duration of Study
PATIENTS Population
Exclusion
METHODS  
RESULTS  
ADVERSE
 
EVENTS
KEY QUOTES  
KEY
CONCLUSIO  
NS

INSTRUCTIONS
Instructions, in general, are simply steps explaining how to do a particular task. However,
instructions shape a reader's attitude toward a process, a product, or the writer of the
instructions. Therefore, good instructions are not necessarily easy to write. First, they must be
clear and able to be followed. Second, they must be correct. Third, they must contain the
appropriate amount of information.
Many people do not like reading, interpreting, and following instructions, yet you may have a
very good reason for wanting people to follow your instructions. Therefore, you must persuade
the reader to use your instructions. You can do this by creating instructions that have an
inviting and clear visual design, precise and pertinent information, and a good balance between
reading and doing.
Visual design and page layout are very important. Your instructions must be easy to read, and
readers must be able to find their places again if they set the instructions aside to perform a
step. It should be obvious where the reader is to begin and what the next step might be, and the
connections between steps should be easy to grasp. Therefore, be kind to your readers and use
plenty of white space and visual aids. Also, number the steps within your instructions clearly
and place illustrations near the text to which they are related.
Precision and correctness are also important. Once instructions are written, they must be tested.
Testing is best done by someone who is representative of your intended audience or readers.
Finally, instructions must contain the appropriate amount of information for the reader or
audience. You must carefully consider the group for whom you are writing. What do they
know? What is their background? How basic must your instructions be? What steps in a process
can you safely skip? How much detail should you include? What assumptions can you make?
How much background must you give? Sometimes, if you are writing for two very different
audiences, you must write both a detailed and an abreviated set of instructions. This is also true
if you are writing instructions intended to train a set of readers who, after training, refer to the
instructions for reminders of important steps.
INSTRUCTIONS GENERALLY CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS
 Introduction
o an announcement of the subject or topic
o a declaration of what can be achieved by following the instructions
 o a description of the intended readers (those for whom are the instructions
intended)
o information about the scope of the instructions--what they cover
o details about the organization of the instructions and how to use the instructions
effectively
 Description of the equipment (if the instructions are for running a piece of equipment)
 Background information or any necessary theory of operation
 List of materials or equipment necessary to follow the instructions
 Directions (step-by-step details--the heart of your instructions)
 Guide to troubleshooting (potential problems and their solutions)
THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN WRITING INSTRUCTIONS
 Present the steps of your directions in a numbered or bulleted list. People are accustomed
to reading about one step, performing the step, reading the next step, performing that
step, etc. If you present your instructions in a numbered or bulleted list, your readers can
read, perform, then find the next step easily.
 Number or label the sub-steps clearly. Often, a major step is numbered 1, and the sub-
steps are numbered 1.1 and 1.2. The sub-sub-steps are numbered 1.1.1 and 1.1.2, etc.
EXAMPLE
1. First Major Step
1.1 First Sub-step
1.2 Second Sub-step
1.2.1 First sub-sub-step
1.2.2 Second sub-sub-step
2. Second Major Step
2.1 Sub-step
2.2 Sub-step
2.3 Sub-step
2.3.1 Sub-sub-step
2.3.2 Sub-sub-step
 Restrict each step, sub-step, or sub-sub-step to one, individual piece of information. Steps
should never, never be multiple bits of information or paragraphs.
 Make liberal use of headings and subheadings.
 Use the active voice and imperative mood. Begin each step with a verb.
 Use illustrations to show where things are, how to perform a step, and what should
result.
 Place warnings where readers will see them--surrounded with plenty of white space--
before the step to which they apply. Use the words WARNING or CAUTION and
consider using a graphic or symbol with the warning to catch the reader's eye. Warnings
are used to signal danger to self or others, potential or real damage to equipment, and
destruction of or bad results.
 Tell your readers what to do in case of a mistake or unexpected result.
 List alternative steps if readers may take them. Place the alternative steps where readers
can find them easily.
 Provide the appropriate amount of details for your audience or readers.
 Include a troubleshooting guide at the end of your instructions. The guide will list
potential problems and their solutions. Troubleshooting guides often use a table format
with the problem in the left column and the solutions to the right
Writing Conventions

CORRECTNESS:

SPELLING, PUNCTUATION, GRAMMAR & STYLE

Spelling, punctuation, grammar and style are often the primary concern of many
writers—that's a holdover from school days where teachers emphasized
"correctness".
In actual fact, a writer's first concern should be fluency—developing the ideas of
any piece of writing. The second concern then becomes clarity—making the
writing make sense to others. Finally comes correctness—making the text
conform to the conventions of standard written English.
In other words, the developmental sequence for any piece of writing ought to be:
 fluency
 clarity
 correctness
These three dimensions, of course, continually overlap; even experienced writers
can have problems with fluency—particularly when writing on a new topic or in
a new genre. Under those circumstances, focusing on correctness won't help with
the problem; what you have to do is focus on invention and shaping ideas.
Once you have your ideas sorted out, the writing more or less clear, it does
become appropriate, even mandatory, to think about the conventions of standard
written English—to proofread to make sure spelling is correct, that grammar is
conventional, that punctuation aids in making meaning, that word usage (or
style) is acceptable.
GRAMMAR
SOME BACKGROUND
Grammar refers to the system of structural rules which describes how words combine with each
other to form sentences. In this sense, as a speaker of English, you already have an instinctive
knowledge of English grammar. It is this knowledge which enables us to distinguish a well-
formed English sentence from one which is clearly ill-formed.
For example, native speakers know that the following sentence is well-formed and
`grammatical':
David plays the piano
Native speakers can produce and understand a sentence like this without ever thinking about
its grammar. Conversely, in the course of everyday communication, no native speaker would
ever produce this:
*piano plays David the
We know there is something wrong with this second example, not least because it doesn't make
sense. It is ill-formed—we say it's `ungrammatical'.
Now if it's true that native speakers have a functional grammer, then it is reasonable to ask why
we need to study grammar at all. If we know instinctively that the first is acceptable and the
second example is nonsense, then what more do we need to know?
In the most general terms, a knowledge of grammar is part of our knowledge of the world and
of ourselves. The use of language is a distinctively human activity, so it is appropriate for us to
understand how it works. The study of grammar enables us to say why example 1 is acceptable
and the second is not. It enables us to externalise and formalise our instinctive knowledge of our
own language.
The study of grammar helps us to communicate more effectively. Quite simply, if we know how
English works, then we can make better use of it. For most purposes, we need to be able to
construct sentences which are far more complicated than David plays the piano. A knowledge
of grammar enables us to evaluate the choices which are available to us during composition. In
practice, these choices are never as simple as the choice between the first and second example
above. If we understand the relationship between the parts of a sentence, we can eliminate
many of the ambiguities and misunderstandings which result from poor construction.
In the interpretation of writing, too, grammatical knowledge is often crucially important. The
understanding of literary texts, for example, often depends on careful grammatical analysis.
Other forms of writing can be equally difficult to interpret. Scientific and academic writing, for
instance, may be complex not just in the ideas they convey, but also in their syntax. These types
of writing can be difficult to understand easily without some familiarity with how the parts
relate to each other.
The study of grammar, then, enables us to go beyond our instinctive, native-speaker
knowledge, and to use English in an intelligent, informed way.
DANGLING MODIFIERS
DEFINITION
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.
A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Consider this sentence:
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English
sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill.
She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence
therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
Now consider this sentence:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the
main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the
participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
Examples of dangling modifiers and revisions:
dangling modifier:
After reading the original study, the article remians unconvincing.
(The article--the subject of the main clause--did not read the original study.)
possible revisions:
After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
-or-
The article remains unconvincing in light of the original study. (no modifying phrase)
dangling modifier:
Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
(Your home--the subject of the main clause--is not relieved of your responsibilities.)
possible revision:
Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be ablet o relax at home.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DANGLING MODIFIERS
They most frequently occur at the beginning of sentences (often as introductory clauses or
phrases) but can also appear at the end.
dangling modifier at end of sentence:
The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
(The experiment--the subject of the main clause--is not supposed to study the lab manual.)
possible revision:
They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
They often have an -ing word (gerund) or a to+verb (infinitive) phrase near the start of the
sentence.
Squinting modifiers:
Related to dangling modifiers, squinting modifiers occur when the word modified is not clear
or could be more than one word. These problems can usually be solved by rearranging the
elements already present in the sentence.
squinting modifier:
The mystery has been solved after ten years of the missing portrait.
possible revisions:
After ten years, the mystery of the missing portrait has been solved.
-or-
The mystery of the missing portrait has been solved after ten years.
STRATEGIES FOR REVISING DANGLING MODIFIERS
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
dangling Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
modifier: Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To
revise, decide who actually arrived late.
 
possible Having arrived late for practice, the captian of the team needed a written
revision: excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the
modifying phrase (arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of
the action in that clause:
dangling Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
modifier: Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To
revise, decide who was trying to introduce him.
 
possible Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
revision: The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of
the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
dangling To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
modifier: Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to
improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one
sentence.
 
possible
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.
revision:
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Fragments are incomplete sentences.
Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause.
One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the
main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to make
corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long
phrase that follows the main clause.
Fragment Possible Revision
(phrase or dependent clause)
Dalhousie offers many Dalhousie offers many
majors in engineering. Such majors in engineering, such
as electrical, chemical, and as electrical, chemical, and
industrial engineering. industrial engineering.
Coach Dietz exemplified this Coach Dietz exemplified this
behavior by walking off the behavior by walking off the
field in the middle of a game. field in the middle of a game,
Leaving her team at a time leaving her team at a time
when we needed her. when we needed her.
I need to find a new I need to find a new
roommate. Because the one I roommate because the one I
have now isn't working out have now isn't working out
too well. too well.
The current city policy on Because the current city
housing is incomplete as it policy on housing is
stands. Which is why we incomplete as it stands, we
believe the proposed believe the proposed
ammendments should be ammendments should be
passed. passed.
You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as
a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last
example above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For
technical writing and other more formal writing situations, however, it's a good idea to avoid
such journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they
are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.†
Fragment Possible Revisions
(incomplete main clause)
No main verb: Appositive:
A story with deep thoughts Gilman's "The Yellow
and emotions. Wallpaper," a story with
deep thoughts and emotions,
has impressed critics for
decades.
Direct object:
 She told a story with deep
thoughts and emotions.
Toys of all kinds thrown Complete verb:
everywhere. Toys of all kinds were
thrown everywhere.
Direct object:
They found toys of all kinds
thrown everywhere.
A record of accomplishment Direct object:
beginning when you were I've noticed a record of
first hired. accomplishment beginning
when you were first hired.
Main verb:
A record of accomplishment
began when you were first
hired.
No subject: Remove preposition:
With the ultimate effect of all The ultimate effect of all
advertising is to sell the advertising is to sell the
product. product.
By paying too much attention Remove preposition:
to polls can make a political Paying too much attention to
leader unwilling to propose polls can make a political
innovative policies. leader unwilling to propose
innovative policies.
For doing freelance work for Remove preposition:
a competitor got Phil fired. Doing freelance work for a
competitor got Phil fired.
Rearrange:
Phil got fired for doing
freelance work for a
competitor.
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions,
that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long
prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition
(often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so
removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.
VERB TENSE CONSISTENCY
CONTROLLING SHIFTS IN VERB TENSE
Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main purpose in
writing; sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios as illustrations or
reference points in an essay. Even an essay that does not explicitly tell a story involves implied
time frames for the actions discussed and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers
understand the temporal relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or
inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one tense for the
main discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary
tense, which is usually either simple past or simple present. Even apparently non-narrative
writing should employ verb tenses consistently and clearly.
General guideline:
Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.
Examples:
 The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.
Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down is past, but should be
present (wash down) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.
 About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces the approaching
storm.
Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces is present but should be past
(announced) to maintain consistency within the time frame.
Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announced the
approaching storm.
 Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.
Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to maintain consistency within the
time frame (yesterday); rode is past, referring to an action completed before the current
time frame.
Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode the bus home.
General guideline:
Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or state to another.
Examples:
 The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.
Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is past,
referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not still building
it.)
 Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.
Began is past tense, referring to an action completed before the current time frame; had
reached is past perfect, referring to action from a time frame before that of another past
event (the action of reaching was completed before the action of beginning.)
 Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert will need
amplification.
Are installing is present progressive, referring to an ongoing action in the current time
frame (the workers are still installing, and have not finished;) will need is future,
referring to action expected to begin after the current time frame (the concert will start in
the future, and that's when it will need amplification.)
CONTROLLING SHIFTS IN A PARAGRAPH OR EXTENDED DISCOURSE
General guideline:
Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to
indicate changes in time frame.
Hints:
Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical
entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an
author's ideas over time).
Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your
own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to
describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic
effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening now. If
you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making shifts only where
appropriate.
Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to,
are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.
USING OTHER TENSES IN CONJUNCTION WITH SIMPLE TENSES
It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or progressive
tenses from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference between simple past
progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present perfect progressive ("She has been eating an
apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in isolation is possible, but the differences between them
make clear sense only in the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by
different tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding
sentences or clauses.
Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements
On the day in question...
By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung three times. As usual, he had been listening to
loud music on his stereo. He turned the stereo down and stood up to answer the door. An old man was
standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for directions.
In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing suggest action
underway at the time some other action took place. The stereo-listening was underway when
the doorbell rang. The standing on the steps was underway when the door was opened. The
past perfect progressive verb had been listening suggests action that began in the time frame
prior to the main narrative time frame and that was still underway as another action began.
If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or present perfect
progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been underway as some other action begins.
This narrative style might be used to describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action
in fictional narratives is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the
scene in Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father or the
final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present) the day after Mookie
has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the example narrative above were a scene
in a play, movie, or novel, it might appear as follows.
Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements
In this scene...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung three times. As usual, he has been listening to
loud music on his stereo. He turns the stereo down and stands up to answer the door. An old man is
standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for directions.
In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is standing
indicate action underway as some other action takes place. The present perfect progressive verb
has been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time
frame and that is still underway as another action begins. The remaining tense relationships
parallel those in the first example.
In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates ongoing action,
that is, action underway as another action occurs. The general comments about tense
relationships apply to simple and perfect tenses, regardless of whether there is a progressive
element involved.
It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the
predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative above were spoken by a psychic, it
might appear as follows.
Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements
Sometime in the future...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already rung three times. As usual, he will
have been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up
to answer the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to speak
slowly, asking for directions.
In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening and will be
standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb will have been listening
suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that
will still be underway when another action begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense
form, but the rest of the sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that
it refers to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two
examples.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USE OF PERFECT TENSES
In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by their relationship to the tense of the
primary narration.
 If the primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of
the primary narration is described in past perfect.
 If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame
of the primary narration is described in present perfect.
 If the primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated before the time frame of
the primary narration is described in future perfect.
Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past participle) for earlier time
frames Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or have + past participle)
for earlier time frames
Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have + past participle) for earlier
time frames
The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not
completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the present or future. For example: "I
have run in four marathons" (implication: "so far... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct
from the simple past, which is used for action that was completed in the past without possible
continuation or repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in
four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more marathons").
Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others--when used to
relate two or more actions in time--can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in
a sentence.
 By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past perfect) interest.
 By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech, the audience has lost
(present perfect) interest.
 By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience will
have lost (future perfect) interest. After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course,
we offered (past) our guests dessert.
  After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (present: habitual
action) our guests dessert.
 After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future: specific one-
time action) our guests dessert.
 Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect) at the feeder.
 Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have arrived (present perfect) at
the feeder.
 Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds will have arrived (future
perfect) at the feeder.
SAMPLE PARAGRAPHS
The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are indicated in
bold.
The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as it swung into the station.
Outside the window, shadowy figures peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in
the crowd, two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son, and possibly her
husband. I could not prevent my imagination from churning out a picture of them, the town,
and the place I will soon call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images
flashing through my mind. (adapted from a narrative)
Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such as those that appear in the above paragraph, are
sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the narrative and begins to relive the
event as an ongoing experience. The inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample,
will should be would, and rise should be rose.
The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts--all appropriate--are indicated in
bold.
A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July morning. It is newly
emerged from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph, it crept over the rocks of the stream bottom,
feeding first on protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the young of other aquatic
insects. Now an adult, it will feed on flying insects and eventually will mate. The mature
dragonfly is completely transformed from the drab creature that once blended with underwater
sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and abdomen glitter; its wings are iridescent in the sunlight.
(adapted from an article in the magazine Wilderness)
This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a particular July
morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when she refers to its previous
actions and to its predictable activity in the future.
WORD CHOICE
WHENEVER POSSIBLE, USE A SHORTER, SIMPLER WORD
You can use a thesaurus to jog your memory when you are trying to come up with a better
synonym, but never use a word with which you are not already familiar. Words often have
connotations and nuances of meaning that you can appreciate only after having seen them in
context, so you are taking a great risk if you use a word that you do not know well.
Even if you do feel comfortable with more complex vocabulary, you should use the simpler
synonym if that captures your meaning just as well. For example, instead of "ameliorated the
situation," you could just as easily state "improved the situation." On the other hand, a word
such as "exasperated" is more intense than a synonym like "frustrated," and so you should use it
if that is the sense you are trying to convey.
USE PRECISE LANGUAGE
Choose words that capture your experience fully and accurately. For example:
  Vague: When we first started the business, I performed a range of duties to get the company
going.
 Precise: When we first started the business, I took the initiative to contact potential partners,
evaluate the service of our competitors, and tailor our plan to local markets.
USE NOUNS AND VERBS RATHER THAN ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES
Inexperienced writers think that using fancy adverbs and adjectives will make their writing
look more eloquent, but in fact they just bog down your rhythm and usually sound like fluff.
They also tend to make your writing sound abstract because they are not actual physical
substances. Good writers stick to concrete nouns that the reader can grasp, and even more
importantly, vivid verbs that are the lifeblood of active, engaging language.
 Before: I ran quickly to the board where the results would be posted, with many curious people
standing around waiting anxiously to see their scores.
 After: I rushed to the board to find people crowded around muttering prayers to themselves as
they awaited the deanís arrival with their score results.
The phrase "ran quickly" has become the more succinct and punchy "rushed." Instead of "many
curious people standing around," we have substituted "people crowded around muttering
prayers to themselves." Thus we gain a more vivid verb in "crowded" and a concrete image of
people muttering prayers instead of the abstract adjective "curious" and the clunky adverb
"anxiously." In focusing on nouns and verbs, we have succeeded in showing instead of telling.
AVOID REPETITION
Do not use words twice in close proximity, and avoid using the same words regularly
throughout an essay. The problem usually comes in overusing the same noun that is central to
your topic. Although precision is important when you are describing the details of experiences,
you can get away with synonyms when writing more broadly about themes and topics.
PUNCTUATION
When we talk we pause, wave our hands about, roll out eyes to let people know what meaning
we intend. When we write, however, we can't rely on such hints. So in order to give readers
clues about how to interpret the text we use punctuation.
PRINCIPLE PUNCTUATION MARKS
INTERNAL MARKS
These are used to separate, inclose, or indicate the relation between elements within a sentence:
 Comma (,) the most common mark, indicates a separation between words, phrases, and
clauses
 Semicolon (;) separates constructions of equal rank, not with the finality of a period but
more definitely than a comma
 Colon (:) is a mark of anticipation, pointing to what follows: formal quotations, series too
long or too complex to be prefaced by commas, and occationally before explanatior
statements
 Dash (—) is a mark of separation or interruption, more emphatic than a comma, less
frequently used
 Hyphen (-) is used to connect one part of a word to another, or to connect several words
 Parentheses (  ) are used to enclose explanatory statements not built into the structure of
a sentence
END STOPS
These are used to mark the end of a sentence:
 Period (.) at the end of statments, after abbreviations, in decimals, and in dollars and
cents
  Question mark (?) after direct questions (How are you?) but not after indirect questions
(He asked me how you were.)
 Exclamation mark (!) is used at the end of an exclamation or a vigorously stressed
sentence; often overused
OTHER MARKS
 Quotation Marks ("  ") are used to enclose speech in conversation and words or
statements quoted from other sources
 Apostrophe (') is used in contractions (words made up of two words pushed together:
isn't); they are used to show posession (judge's decision)
 Ellipses (...)are used when you leave words out; for example, in quotations when you
want to quote only part of what someone has said. They are also used to show a thought
has trailed off...
 Brackets ([  ]) are used to enclose words inside a quotation; they indicate that the words
enclosed are the writer's own words and not the words used in the source. They are also
used when you have parentheses within parentheses
 Slash (/) most commonly used to indicate two possible words can be used in a sentence
(and/or)
 Asterix (*) / Dagger (†) are used to signal further explanation in either a foot note or an
endnote
Most questions about punctuation arise when you have a choice of one mark or another, or
perhaps of using no mark at all.
There are no precise rules about punctuation (contrary to what you might have heard in school)
—there is some general advice, but you will find different practices in books, magazines, and
newspapers. The general practice, today, is to keep punctuation use relatively light.
Nobody remembers how to use all punctuation marks all the time. People who write a lot
become familiar with certain punctuation marks, especially the common ones such as periods,
question marks, and commas. They often have to look up how to use brackets, colons,
apostrophes, dashes, even semi-colons.
Much of the time, punctuation is a matter of common sense: use the marks to make the sentence
should closest to the way you speak.
THE COMMA
The comma was designed to help readers. Without it, sentence parts collide into one another
unexpectedly, causing ambiguity for the reader.
You should use a comma in the following situations:
 Before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses
 After an introductory word group
 Between items in a series
 Between coordinate adjectives
 To set off a nonrestrictive element
 To set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and
contrasted elements
 To set off nouns of direct address, the words "yes" and "no", interrogative tags,
and mild interjections
 To set off direct quotations introduced with expressions such as "he said"
 With dates, addresses, titles
Don't use a comma:
 Between compound elements that are not independent clauses
  To separate a verb from its subject
 Between cumulative adjectives
 To set of restrictive elements
 After a coordinating conjunction
 After "such as" or "like"
 Before "than"
 Before a parenthesis
 To set off an indirect (reported) quotation
 With a question mark or an exclamation point
THE APOSTROPHE
The apostrophe has three uses:
 to form possessives of nouns
 to show the omission of letters
 to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.
FORMING POSSESSIVES OF NOUNS
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..."
phrase. For example:
 the boy's hat = the hat of the boy three
 days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is
needed!
 room of the hotel = hotel room
 door of the car = car door
 leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create
one.
 add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
     the owner's car,  James's hat
 add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
     the children's game,  the geese's honking
 add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
     houses' roofs,  three friends' letters
 add 's to the end of compound words:
     my brother-in-law's money
 add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
     Todd and Anne's apartment
SHOWING OMISSION OF LETTERS
Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one
or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission.
Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a
contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:
 don't = do not
 I'm = I am
 he'll = he will
 who's = who is
 shouldn't = should not
  didn't = did not
 could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)
 '60 = 1960
FORMING PLURALS OF LOWERCASE LETTERS
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears
to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural
of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural
on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers,
and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:
 p's and q's = a phrase indicating politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and
thankyous"?
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
 three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.
 many &s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many &s on it.
Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.
Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns
already show possession -- they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all
possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:
 wrong: his' book
 correct: his book
 wrong: The group made it's decision.
 correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possesive
pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember
this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possesives his or hers, so don't do it
with its!)
 wrong: a friend of yours'
 correct: a friend of yours
 wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
 correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
PROOFREADING FOR APOSTROPHES
A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing. Try the following strategies:
 If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it
needs an apostrophe.
 If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it
with a rule for using apostrophes.
QUOTATION MARKS
QUOTING PROSE
Direct quotations are another person's exact words--either spoken or in print--incorporated into
your own writing.
 Use a set of quotation marks to enclose each direct quotation included in your writing.
 Use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of a whole sentence. Do not
use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of part of a sentence.
 If the quotation is interrupted and then continues in your sentence, do not capitalize the
second part of the quotation.
Mr. and Mrs. Allen, owners of a 300-acre farm, said, "We refuse to use that pesticide because it might
pollute the nearby wells."
Mr. and Mrs. Allen stated that they "refuse to use that pesticide" because of possible water pollution.
"He likes to talk about football," she said, "especially when the Super Bowl is coming up."
Indirect quotations are not exact words but rather rephrasings or summaries of another
person's words. Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations.
According to their statement to the local papers, the Allens refuse to use pesticide because of potential
water pollution.
Below are some further explanations and examples of how to integrate quoted prose into your
own writing.
QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION
Use single quotation marks for a quotation enclosed inside another quotation. For example:
The agricultural reporter for the newspaper explained, "When I talked to the Allens last week, they said,
'We refuse to use that pesticide.' "
OMITTED WORDS IN A QUOTATION
If you leave words out of a quotation, use an ellipsis mark to indicate the omitted words. If you
need to insert something within a quotation, use a pair of brackets to enclose the addition.
For example:
full quotation
The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family that we'd like to help because
we don't have the funds to do so."
omitted material with ellipsis
The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family . . . because we don't have the
funds to do so."
added material with brackets
The welfare agency representative explained that they are "unable to help every family that [they would]
like to help."
BLOCK QUOTATIONS
A quotation that extends more than four typed lines on a page should be indented one inch
from the left margin (the equivalent of two half-inch paragraph indentations). Maintain double
spacing as in the main text, and do not use quotation marks for the block quotation.
QUOTING POETRY
SHORT QUOTATIONS
When you quote a single line of poetry, write it like any other short quotation. Two lines can be
run into your text with a slash mark to indicate the end of the first line. Use quotation marks.
In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't love a wall, /
That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it."
LONG QUOTATIONS
If the quotation is three lines or longer, set it off like a block quotation (see above). Some writers
prefer to set off two-line verse quotations also, for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it
appears on the original page, and do not use quotation marks. Indent one inch from the left
margin.
In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost questions the building of barriers and walls:
Before I built a wall I'd ask to know
What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offense.
WRITING DIALOGUE
Write each person's spoken words, however brief, as a separate paragraph. Use commas to set
off dialogue tags such as "she said" or "he explained." Closely related narrative prose can be
included in a paragraph with dialogue. If one person's speech goes on for more than one
paragraph, use quotation marks to open the speech and at the beginning--but not the end--of
each new paragraph in the speech. To close the speech, use quotation marks at the end of the
final paragraph.
QUOTATION MARKS FOR TITLES OF MINOR WORKS AND PARTS OF WHOLES
Use quotation marks for:
 titles of short or minor works, such as songs, short stories, essays, short poems, one-act
plays, and other literary works that are shorter than a three-act play or a complete book.
 titles of parts of larger works, such as chapters in books; articles in newspapers,
magazines, journals, or other periodical publications; and episodes of television and
radio series.
Use underlining or italics for
 titles of major works or of works that contain smaller segments such as books; plays of
three or more acts; newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical publications;
films; and television and radio series.
Do not use quotation marks for referring to the Bible or other sacred texts or to legal
documents.
QUOTATION MARKS FOR WORDS
Use quotation marks to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual
way.
The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.
For words used as words themselves or for technical or unfamiliar terms used for the first time
(and defined), use italics.
The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."
PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS
Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase,
or a dependent clause, for example,
"He asked," "She stated," "According to Bronson," or "As Shakespeare wrote."
Use a colon to introduce a quotation after an independent clause.
As D. H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to
another."
D. H. Nachas explains cultural differences in greeting customs: "Touching is not a universal sign of
greeting. While members of European cultures meet and shake hands as a gesture of greeting, members of
Asian cultures bow to indicate respect."
Put commas and periods within closing quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference
follows the quotation.
He said, "I may forget your name, but I never remember a face."
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing"
Put colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.
Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal
commitment, and great coaching.
Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation marks when the
punctuation applies to the quotation itself and outside when it applies to the whole sentence.
Philip asked, "Do you need this book?"
Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
Sharon shouted enthusiastically, "We won! We won!"
I can't believe you actually like that song, "If You Wanna Be My Lover"!
UNNECESSARY QUOTATION MARKS
 Do not put quotation marks around titles.
 Do not use quotation marks for common nicknames, bits of humor, technical terms that
readers are likely to know, and trite or well-known expressions.
SPELLING
Standardized spelling is a convenience for reminding readers of the words they know. The chief
reason for conventional spelling is the fact that the majority of people consider it a sign of
literacy and even social respectability! People take for granted that the spelling of educated
people will be conventional; even people who are careless about their own spelling are quick to
detect and condemn misspelled words in the writing of others.
If you're one of those whose spelling is unconventional, now is a good time to analyze your
common erros and working to eradicate them. A spell checker helps but it isn't infallable. You
have to have a sense to how a word is spelled to make sure the spell checker has inferred the
word you intend.
What makes spelling in English difficult is the fact that we have only 26 letters to represent ~80
sounds. Therefore the same letter or letter combination may represent a variety of sounds
a as in aha, fare, hat, many, lay, far, was, idea...
ou as in though, bough, enough, cough, rough, through...
The converse is also true—one sound may be represented in a variety of ways:
bee, believe, precede, sea, receive...
In addition, a number of words are written with letters that are not pronounced, and others
(homophones) sound alike but are spelled differently because they have different meanings.
These inconsistencies are the result of how English has evolved—but that doesn't make them
easier to remember. Absolute correctness in spelling is impossible to achieve—the goal is to
develop a sense of what are the probabilities that a given word is spelled a particular way.
STYLE
Style means all kinds o' things.
At its grandest, it means everything about your way of presenting yourself in words, including
grace, clarity, and a thousand undefinable qualities that separate good writing from bad. At its
narrowest, it includes mechanics such as spelling, punctuation, usage, and grammar.
Questions about style have no definitive answers, only competing standards used in different
places. There are differences in spelling and punctuation in various countries. In fact, each
publishing house develops what it refers to as "house style"—the choices about (mostly minor)
matters that it sets on its own. Newspaper publishers, for instance, often use different rules than
book publishers do. It's not a question of which is "right" or "wrong"; you need to learn to suit
your mechanics to the forum for which you're writing.
Be aware that there are a good many differences within written language, just as there are in
spoken English. Words and constructions vary a good deal in what we read. It's important to
become aware of the "standards" of usage expected of a proficient technical writer; to become
sensitive to the style demands of the typical genres used in technical writing.
The best way to sensitize yourself to style is to read widely the kinds of material you find
yourself having to write so that you develop a feel for what is acceptable.
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