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CONTENTS SUB-TROPICAL MOIST PINE FORESTS ............ 18
SOILS ............................................................................ 2
SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS ..... 18
SOIL TYPE – SANDY, CLAYEY, LOAMY ................2
MONTANE WET TEMPERATE FORESTS .......... 18
FEATURES OF SOIL ............................................2
HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS .... 19
SOIL PROFILE .....................................................2
HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS ........ 19
FACTOR INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION.........4
ALPINE FORESTS................................................. 19
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS IN INDIA .........................4
GREEN COVER IN INDIA ............................................. 20
ALLUVIAL SOILS .................................................... 5
MAJOR FINDINGS ........................................... 21
BLACK SOILS ......................................................... 6
FOREST CONSERVATION ............................................ 23
RED & YELLOW SOILS ........................................... 7
SOCIAL FORESTRY .......................................... 23
LATERITE – LATERITIC SOILS ................................. 7
FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS ................................ 7
ARID – DESERT SOILS............................................ 8
SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS ..................................... 8
PEATY – MARSHY SOILS........................................ 8
SOIL DEGRADATION ..................................................... 9
SOIL EROSION....................................................9
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION ............................. 10
SOIL SALINISATION ..........................................10
SOIL CONSERVATION ................................................. 10
MAJOR BIOTIC REGIONS ............................................ 11
FOREST BIOME ................................................11
TYPES OF FORESTS & THEIR DISTRIBUTION ....... 11
SAVANNAH BIOME ..........................................13
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME ....................13
DESERT BIOME ................................................14
VEGETATION IN INDIA................................................ 14
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN
INDIA ............................................................... 14
MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS ................................. 14
TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS ............ 14
TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS ........... 15
TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS ........ 15
LITTORAL AND SWAMPS ................................ 16
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS ..................................... 16
TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS ............. 16
TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS............. 16
TROPICAL THORN FORESTS ............................ 17
MONTANE FORESTS ........................................... 17
1|P a g e W W W . E D U T A P . C O . I N QUERY? HELLO@EDUTAP.CO.IN / 8146207241
SOILS FEATURES OF SOIL
▪ Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust SOIL TEXTURE
comprising rock particles mixed with organic ▪ Textures range from clay (<0.002mm), silt
matter. (0.002mm-2mm) and sand (>2mm) at the
▪ Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic extremes, to a loam which has all three sized
materials which covers the earth’s surface. fractions present. The main influence of
▪ Soils are formed over millions of years of texture is on permeability which generally
weathering of rocks, deposition of the residue decreases with decreasing particle size.
and action of climate and living organisms on
that residue. SOIL AIR
Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil ▪ A certain amount of air is contained between
formation that includes a variety of processes such the individual soil particles except for the
as weathering, leaching, calcification etc. waterlogged soils.
▪ Soils are crucial for survival and growth of
SOIL MOISTURE
plants and for maintaining various bio-
▪ In damp climates, especially in high latitudes
geochemical cycles like nitrogen cycle, sulphur
where the evaporation rate is low, water tends
cycle, phosphorus cycle, carbon cycle etc.
to move predominantly downward,
SOIL TYPE – SANDY, CLAYEY, particularly in coarse-grained sandy soils. This
LOAMY dissolves the soluble minerals in the soil,
together with soluble humus material and
▪ Based on the proportion of particles of various carries both downward, a process called
sizes, soils are classified as: leaching or eluviation.
✓ If soil contains greater proportion of big ▪ In a hot & arid climate, evaporation exceeds
particles it is called sandy soil. precipitation, so the water tends to move
✓ If the proportion of fine particles is upward, and the soil dries out.
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil. SOIL COLOUR
✓ If the amount of large and fine particles is ▪ Soil colour is determined by the amount of
about the same, then the soil is called organic matter and the state of the iron.
loamy soil. ▪ Free draining, well aerated soils (with pore
▪ Water can drain quickly through spaces space dominated by oxygen) have rich brown
between the sand particles. So, sandy soils are colours.
light, well aerated and dry. ▪ In contrast, poorly drained soils, often referred
▪ Clay particles are much smaller and are not to as gleys, develop under anaerobic
well aerated. They have high water-retention, conditions (the pore space dominated by
as water can be held in the tiny gaps between water) and have grey or blue-grey colours.
the particles.
SOIL pH
▪ Best topsoil for growing plants is loam. Loamy
▪ Acidic: It is common in region where
soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt (occurs
precipitation is high. The high precipitation
as a deposit in river beds). The size of the silt
leaches appreciable amounts of exchangeable
particles is between those of sand and clay.
bases from the surface layers of the soils.
The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the
▪ Alkaline: Alkali soils occur when there is
right water holding capacity for the growth of
comparatively high degree of base saturation.
plants.
When salts of strong base such as sodium
▪ Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for
carbonate go into soil solution and hydrolyse,
growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such
consequently they give rise to alkalinity.
soils are good at retaining water.
▪ For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter SOIL PROFILE
and having a good capacity to retain water are ▪ A vertical section through different layers of
ideal. the soil is called the soil profile.
B-HORIZON OR SUBSOIL
▪ It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or
physical alteration of parent material.
▪ This layer accumulates all the leached minerals
from A and E horizon.
▪ Thus iron, clay, aluminium & organic
compounds accumulate in this horizon
resulting in formation of hard pans. (Process of
Illuviation).
C-HORIZON OR PARENT ROCK
▪ Weathered parent material accumulates in
this layer, i.e. the parent material in
sedimentary deposits.
Figure 1 – Soil Profile ▪ It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
R-HORIZON OR BEDROCK
▪ Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
▪ Some O-layers consist of un-decomposed or ▪ Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong
partially decomposed litter (such as leaves, similarities to this bedrock layer.
twigs, moss, and lichens).
A-HORIZON OR SURFACE SOIL
▪ It is the part of top soil.
▪ This layer consists of both organic materials
and other decomposed minerals.
▪ This layer is soft enough to hold water and air.
▪ The germination of seeds takes place here.
▪ It also supports organisms like earthworms,
fungi etc.
▪ This layer is depleted of iron, clay, aluminium,
organic compounds & other soluble
constituents.
CLIMATE
▪ Temperature & rainfall determine the MAJOR SOIL GROUPS IN INDIA
effectiveness of weathering of parent ▪ In earlier times, soils used to be classified into
material, the quantity of water seeping two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which
through soil & the type of micro-organisms were fertile and sterile (or saline) respectively.
present therein.
ALLUVIAL SOILS
▪ They are the largest soil group covering about
15 lakh km2 or about 45.6 per cent of the total
land area of the country.
▪ Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt
deposited by Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent
material.
▪ They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where
they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal
alluvium).
▪ Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada,
Tapti valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
▪ They support more than 40% of India’s
population by providing the most productive
agricultural lands.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALLUVIAL SOILS
▪ They are immature and have weak profiles
due to their recent origin.
▪ Alluvial soil vary in nature from sandy loam to
clay. Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar
▪ They are mostly flat and regular soils and are ▪ In the rainy season, the soil gets very sticky and
best suited for agriculture. hence ploughing, and other agricultural
▪ They are best suited to irrigation and respond activities demand more effort.
well to the canal and well/tube-well irrigation. ▪ In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil
▪ They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, cracks which permit oxygenation of the soil
oilseeds, etc. making it more fertile. Thus, it is also known as
“self-ploughing soil”.
BLACK SOILS ▪ The black colour is due to the presence of a
▪ Spread over 5.2 lakh km2 (16.6 %) of the total small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or
land area across Maharashtra, Madhya iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana, ▪ In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. the black colour is derived from crystalline
▪ The parent material for most of the black soil schists and basic gneisses.
are the volcanic rocks that were formed in the ▪ Soil is rich in alumina, iron oxide & lime. But
Deccan Traps. In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
schists form the parent material.
▪ These are the regions of high temperature and CROPS IN BLACK SOILS
low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical ▪ These soils are best suited for cotton crop.
to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula. Hence these soils are called as regur and black
cotton soils.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK SOILS ▪ Other major crops grown on the black soils
▪ In general, black soils of uplands are of low include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco,
fertility while those in the valleys are very castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and
fertile. sugarcane are equally important where
▪ A typical black soil is highly clayey. So, it is irrigation facilities are available.
highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly ▪ This soil has been used for growing a variety of
on accumulating moisture & becomes sticky. crops for centuries without adding fertilisers
and manures, with little or no evidence of
exhaustion.
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RED & YELLOW SOILS ▪ Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh km2.
▪ Red soils along with its minor groups occupy ▪ Humus content of the soil is removed fast by
about 3.5 lakh km2 (10.6 %) of the total area of bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
the country. ▪ Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
▪ Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and crops like cashewnut.
southern part of the Deccan Plateau. The main ▪ These soils have mainly developed in the
parent rocks are like acid granites, gneisses higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The
and quartzites. laterite soils are commonly found in
▪ Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and
soil. Assam.
▪ Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of ▪ Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on
Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the southern the summits of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
parts of the middle Ganga plain. Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyas, Satpuras and
▪ These soils are spread on almost the whole of Malwa Plateau. They are well developed in
Tamil Nadu. Other regions include parts of south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc.
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra and are widely scattered in other regions.
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; and parts of CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL
North-Eastern states. ▪ ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden
greatly on losing moisture.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RED SOILS ▪ Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay
▪ The red colour is due to presence of iron oxide. and more gravel of red sand-stones.
It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated ▪ Laterite soils are rich in aluminium and iron
form. oxides. They are very poor in lime, magnesia,
▪ The texture of these soils can vary from sand potash, phosphate, organic matter and
to clay, the majority being loams. nitrogen.
▪ On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, ▪ Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable
and porous. But in the lower areas, they are building material. These soils can be easily cut
rich, deep dark and fertile. into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed
▪ They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the to air.
parent rocks. ▪ As it is the end-product of weathering, it
▪ They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, cannot be weathered much further and is
nitrogen, potash and humus. durable.
CROPS IN RED SOILS CROPS IN LATERITE SOILS
▪ The red soils are mostly loamy and hence ▪ Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive
cannot retain water like the black soils. leaching.
▪ The red soils, with the proper use of fertilisers ▪ When manured and irrigated, some laterites
and irrigation techniques, give a good yield of are suitable for growing plantation crops like
cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut,
oilseeds, potatoes and fruits. arecanut, etc. In some areas, these soils
support grazing grounds and scrub forests.
LATERITE – LATERITIC SOILS ▪ Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
▪ These soils develop in areas with high Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree
temperature & high rainfall with alternate crops like cashewnut.
wet & dry periods. These are the result of
intense leaching due to tropical rains. FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS
▪ With rain, lime & silica are leached away, and ▪ These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh km2 or
soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium 8.67% of the total land area of India.
compound are left behind. Laterite soils are ▪ They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on
mostly the end products of weathering. the hill slopes covered by forests.
7|P a g e W W W . E D U T A P . C O . I N QUERY? HELLO@EDUTAP.CO.IN / 8146207241
▪ The formation of these soils is mainly governed Calcium content increases downwards, and
by the characteristic deposition of organic the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
matter derived from forests and their ▪ The phosphate content of these soils is as high
character changes with parent rocks, ground as in normal alluvial soils.
configuration and climate. Consequently, they ▪ Nitrogen is originally low, but some of it is
differ greatly even if they occur in close available in the form of nitrates.
proximity to one another.
CROPS IN ARID – DESERT SOILS
▪ In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly
found in valleys, less steep and north facing ▪ Phosphates and nitrates make these soils
slopes. The south-facing slopes are very steep fertile wherever moisture is available.
and exposed to denudation and hence do not ▪ There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if
support soil formation. proper irrigation facilities are available.
▪ In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, ▪ In large areas, only the drought resistant and
they experience denudation, and are acidic salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton,
with low humus content. The soils found in the millets, maize, and pulses are grown.
lower valleys are fertile.
SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS
▪ Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern ▪ Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 km2 of
Ghats also. area. These soils are found in canal irrigated
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS areas and areas of a high sub-soil water table.
▪ The forest soils are very rich in humus. ▪ It is found in parts of Andhra Pradesh,
▪ They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
lime. Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper or
excess irrigation), Rajasthan, Gujarat and
CROPS IN FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS Maharashtra.
▪ They require a good deal of fertilisers for high ▪ These soils have more salts, largely because of
yields. dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in
▪ They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, arid and semi-arid regions, and in
spices and tropical fruits in the peninsular waterlogged and swampy areas.
forest region. ▪ Thus, areas around the Gulf of Khambhat
▪ Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are (affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden
grown in the Himalayan forest region. deposits), estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Mahi and the Sabarmati have these soils
ARID – DESERT SOILS ▪ Along the coastline, saline sea waters infiltrate
▪ They occur in arid & semi-arid regions of into coastal regions during storm surges (when
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, & cover a total cyclones make landfall) and make the soil unfit
area of 1.42 lakh km2 (4.32%). for cultivation. The low-lying regions of coastal
▪ The sand here is blown from the Indus basin Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind
and the coast by the prevailing south-west of soil degradation.
monsoon winds.
▪ Sandy soils without clay factor are also CHARACTERISTICS OF SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS
common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil ▪ In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the topsoil is
Nadu and Kerala. saturated with saline and alkaline
▪ The desert soils consist of aeolian (wind efflorescence of sodium, magnesium and
carried) sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to calcium salts and sulphurous acid.
10 per cent). ▪ The accumulation of these salts makes the soil
▪ The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
Desertification of neighbouring soils is
common due to the intrusion of sand. PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
▪ They are found in areas of heavy rainfall & high
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARID DESERT SOIL humidity, where there is a good growth of
▪ They are poor in organic matter. vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead
▪ Some desert soils are alkaline with varying organic matter accumulates in these areas,
degree of soluble salts like calcium carbonate.
8|P a g e W W W . E D U T A P . C O . I N QUERY? HELLO@EDUTAP.CO.IN / 8146207241
and this gives a rich humus and organic Q. With reference to agricultural soils, consider
content to the soil. (upto 40-50 per cent). the following statements: (2018)
▪ It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, 1. A high content of organic matter in soil
southern part of Uttarakhand and the coastal drastically reduces its water holding
areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. capacity.
In Kerala’s Kottayam & Alappuzha districts, it is 2. Soil does not play any role in the Sulphur
called kari. cycle.
3. Irrigation over a period of time can
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
contribute to the salinization of some
▪ These are soils with a large amount of organic
agricultural lands.
matter and a considerable amount of soluble
Which of the statements given above is/are
salts.
correct?
▪ The most humid regions have this type of soil.
(a) 1 and 2 only
▪ These soils are normally heavy, black in colour
(b) 3 only
& highly acidic. At many places, they are
(c) 1 and 3 only
alkaline also.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
▪ They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
Answer: B
CROPS IN PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
▪ Most of the peaty soils are under water during
the rainy season but as soon the rains cease, SOIL DEGRADATION
they are put under paddy cultivation. ▪ In a broad sense, soil degradation can be
defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the
nutritional status declines and depth of the soil
QUESTION 1
goes down due to erosion and misuse.
Q. Which of the following statements ▪ Soil degradation is the main factor leading to
regarding laterite soils of India are correct? the depleting soil resource base in India. The
[2013] degree of soil degradation varies from place to
1. They are generally red in colour. place according to the topography, wind
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash. velocity and amount of the rainfall.
3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and ▪ Every year, India loses millions of tonnes of soil
UP. and its nutrients to the agents of its
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these degradation, which adversely affects our
soils. national productivity.
Select the correct answer using the codes given ▪ Degradation of soil can be greatly attributed to
below. soil erosion and soil salinisation.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 4 SOIL EROSION
(d) 2 and 3 only ▪ The removal of top soil cover by exogenic
Answer: C agents like running water, winds etc. is
referred to as soil erosion.
QUESTION 2
▪ The soil forming processes and the erosional
Q. When you travel in certain parts of India,
processes of running water and wind go on
you will notice red soil. What is the main
simultaneously in nature under a delicate
reason for this colour? [2010]
balance.
(a) Abundance of magnesium
▪ Sometimes, such a balance is disturbed by
(b) Accumulated humus
natural or human factors, leading to a greater
(c) Presence of ferric oxides
rate of removal of soil.
(d) Abundance of phosphates
▪ Human activities like reckless agriculture,
Answer: C
deforestation and changing land use are
QUESTION 3 responsible for accelerated erosion of soil.
DESERT BIOME
▪ This biome is associated with climate of
extreme aridity and features very thinly
dispersed vegetation consisting of grasses and
herbs.
▪ This biome includes regions ranging from hot
tropical desert to extremely cold polar deserts.
IMPORTANT TERM
Hydrophytic plants: Plants that grow partly or wholly in
water, like lotus or water hyacinth etc.
Mesophytic plants: Ordinary plants that require moderate
humidity and avoid water saturated or deficient
environment.
Xerophytic plants: Plants adapted to an arid environment, DISTRIBUTION
like cacti, pineapple etc. ▪ Located on outer fringes of wet evergreen
▪ Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, forests in western coast, Assam, lower slopes
with layers closer to the ground and are of the eastern Himalayas, Odisha and
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short Andamans.
structured trees followed by tall variety of SPECIES
trees. Trees are tall (up to 60 m) with thick ▪ Hardwood trees (similar to wet evergreen)
canopy. except that these forests are less dense with
▪ Less undergrowth (mostly climbers, epiphytes, more pure stands. This means that most of the
Figure 7 - Natural Vegetation in India trees in a single canopy are of same species.
▪ Important species include rosewood, mesua,
bamboo) because sunlight cannot penetrate laurel in Western Ghats and white cedar,
the thick canopy. Indian chestnut, champa etc. in Himalayan
region.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ The western slope of the Western Ghats. TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS
▪ In the foothills of Arunachal Himalayas & ▪ Most dominant forest type in India in terms of
Purvanchal hills of north east. area occupied are the deciduous forests.
▪ In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
CLIMATE
SPECIES ▪ Annual rainfall 100 - 200 cm.
▪ Hardwood (hard and durable timber) trees like ▪ Avg. annual temp. = 25 - 27°C.
mahogany, rosewood, aini, white cedar, ▪ Distinct dry season in summers and spring.
mesua etc.
FEATURES
TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS ▪ The trees drop their leaves during the spring
▪ Transitional forests between tropical wet and early summer when sufficient moisture is
evergreen and tropical deciduous forests. not available (April – May).
▪ Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete
CLIMATE
undergrowth.
▪ The semi evergreen forests are found in the
▪ These forests occupy a much larger area than
less rainy fringes of moist evergreen parts.
the evergreen forests, but large tracts under
▪ Annual rainfall 200 - 250 cm.
these forests have been cleared for cultivation.
▪ Avg. annual temp. = 25 - 27°C.
DISTRIBUTION
FEATURES
▪ The belt running along the Western Ghats
surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
MONTANE FORESTS
▪ In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
▪ The Himalayan ranges show a succession of
vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,
which change in with the altitude.