See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/341708517

Application of Geoelectric Methods for Mapping Soil Heterogeneity

Article  in  Eurasian Soil Science · May 2020

DOI: 10.1134/s1064229320050129

CITATIONS READS
0 113

2 authors, including:

P.A. Ryazantsev
Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences
20 PUBLICATIONS   48 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Conductive area of dilatancy-diffusion nature in Archaean crystalline basement of the Fennoscandian Shield View project

Baryatinskaya crustal high-conductive anomaly View project

All content following this page was uploaded by P.A. Ryazantsev on 12 August 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ISSN 1064-2293, Eurasian Soil Science, 2020, Vol. 53, No. 5, pp. 558–568. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2020.
Russian Text © The Author(s), 2020, published in Pochvovedenie, 2020, No. 5, pp. 535–546.

GENESIS AND GEOGRAPHY

OF SOILS

Application of Geoelectric Methods for Mapping Soil Heterogeneity

P. A. Ryazantseva, * and O. N. Bakhmeta
aDepartment for Multidisciplinary Scientific Research, Karelian Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences,
ul. Pushkinskaya 11, Petrozavodsk, 185910 Russia
*e-mail: chthonian@yandex.ru
Received November 13, 2018; revised September 24, 2019; accepted November 27, 2019

Abstract—Application of a set of electrical methods used in geophysics—direct current resistance and

induced polarization—for the purposes of mapping soil heterogeneity is considered. In the field, we measured
the parameters of specific electrical resistance (SER) and induced polarization (IP) of shungite soils of the
Zaonezhskii Peninsula (Republic of Karelia) using the A–M–N–B electrode installation with spacings of
15 cm. To ensure the interpretation adequacy, the relative soil water content and the soil texture were deter-
mined. Using the map of resistivity values, spatial variations in the soil water content and, partially, in the soil
texture were estimated. The map of IP values was used to find out spatial variations in the composition of
soils, including, in particular, the content of shungite. The analysis of the correlative dependence of the elec-
trophysical parameters on the soil water content showed that the Spearman coefficient rs is –0.426 for SER
and 0.076 for IP, which confirms the hypothesis about different levels of influence of the water content on
these parameters. In the course of studying the influence of the frequency of the generated electric signal, an
increase in the IP intensity was found in the frequency range of 0.01–0.1 Hz for the soils with elevated carbon
content. The analysis of soil samples demonstrated that the IP anomalies within the studied area may be
related to variations both in the soil texture and in the shungite material content. Hence, the electrophysical
indicators determined under natural conditions can be applied to characterize the spatial variations in soil
water content, soil texture, and some structural properties of the soils.

Keywords: specific electrical resistivity, induced polarization, moisture content, soil texture, shungite sub-
stance
DOI: 10.1134/S1064229320050129

INTRODUCTION changes in soil features (e.g., density) only for rela-

Geophysical methods are used for solving prob-
lems in soil science and agricultural engineering since
1970s. In practice, electrical survey methods studying
the resistivity and conductivity of soils are most widely
used [26, 32], mainly, for moisture control and moni-
toring [24, 30, 33, 37]. The works by Pozdnyakov are
worth noting, since he has contributed significantly to
the development of this research field in Russia [12–14].
Although the efficiency of electrical survey methods
for studying soil moisture is proved, their applicability
for determining other soil characteristics, such as soil
texture and or the degree of soil contamination with
petroleum products is not completely justified. This is
due to the fact that upon saturation of soil pores with
water, the indices of specific electrical resistance
(SER) are significantly influenced by the volumetric
water content and mineralization of pore water. For
example, as proved by laboratory tests, characteristics
of the water content, mineralization (salinity), and
regime of leaching exert a more significant impact on
SER as compared with the soil type and soil texture [41].
It is noted that SER fluctuations may mark the
tively low water saturation [36].
The aim of this work is to assess the informative
possibilities of electrometry upon mapping soil het-
erogeneities, with the support of an additional
method, i.e., induced polarization (IP). As noted by
many researchers, this method is sensitive to electro-
chemical properties of soils, which are controlled by
the chemical composition of pore water and acidity
[29, 34], as well as by the leaching and biodegradation
processes [22, 39]. In addition, the relationship is
revealed between IP and soil consistence and texture
[31, 40]. The advantage of the method consists in the
synchronous measurement of SER and IP parameters
as provided by the modern equipment to increase their
information capacity. The efficiency of suggested
complex of electric methods was estimated by the
example of specific shungite soils in Zaonezhskii Pen-
insula (Karelia).
Essentials of electrical survey methods. The electri-
cal survey methods are based on the study of propaga-
tion of natural or artificially induced electromagnetic
fields in the medium. Their application permits
observing the spatial distribution of geoelectric char-

558
 APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS FOR MAPPING SOIL HETEROGENEITY
acteristics [20]. Theoretical fundamentals of electrical
survey are described in detail in basic publications [18,
21]. In soil science, the permanent current resistivity
method is most widely used. It presumes measuring
SER in soils, i.e., their capacity to transmit the electric
current [13, 26, 32]. Since in practice, SER is mea-
sured in a certain soil volume that includes inner
impurities and heterogeneities, the term “apparent”
SER is introduced. Apparent resistivity is designated
as ρk and it is measured in Ohm per meter (Ohm m).
The position of observation point in space is con-
trolled by observation system geometry, i.e., electrical
survey device which represents a pair of feeding A–B
(transmitting current) and receiving C–D (registering
the potential difference in the medium) electrodes,
located at a fixed distance from each other [21].
For measurements, electrodes are placed at a cer-
tain spacing, which controls the depth of electric cur-
rent penetration. The current is transmitted (I) at the
feeding pair of electrodes AB, and the receiving pair
MN registers the potential difference (U). For known
I and U, we may calculate ρk from the equation:
ρk = K U , (1)
I
where K is the geometrical coefficient determining the
spatial position of the area, from where the signal was
received:
K = 2π , (2)
1 − 1 − 1 + 1
AM AN BM BN
For assessing the soil capacity to transmit the elec-
tric current, the parameter of apparent electrical con-
ductivity (σk) is used, which is inversely proportional
to the resistance:
σk = 1 . (3)
ρk
In the first approximation, the mineral skeleton of
soils is composed of dielectrics; therefore, in dry state,
it transmits the electric current poorly. However, if
water saturation is sufficient, the volume electrical
conductivity appears in the pore space due to the solu-
tion present there, with the surface conductivity being
formed at the liquid-solid boundary due to the
appearing double electric layer (DEL) [21]. The vol-
ume electrical conductivity depends significantly on
the ion content in the electrolyte, whereas the surface
conductivity is tightly connected to the content of clay
particles, because fine particles form narrow pores and
capillaries, and the electric current spreads in the DEL
contact rather than in electrolyte. This fact explains a
lower resistivity of clayey soils as compared to sandy
soils upon moderate water saturation, and excessive
saturation with highly mineralized solution decreases
the effect of DEL.
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020
559
Note that ρk is controlled by a number of factors,
i.e., soil texture, pore space geometry, concentration
and mineralization of pore water, the content of elec-
tron conductors (carbon), chemical composition and
content of individual ions, and temperature. There are
various models describing the dependencies between
soil properties and electrical parameters [30].
The elevated content of organic matter, i.e.,
organic remains, humus and bacteria is of special
importance in soil electrophysics, as it affects the gen-
eral conductivity of soils, as a rule, increasing it. For
instance, this is caused by pore electrolyte saturation
with ions due to decomposition and biodegradation of
soil organic and mineral substances. This may also be
caused by replacement of the volumetric conductivity
by the surface conductivity owing to the changing
shape (narrowing voids) of pore space as a result of
filling up pores and capillaries with humus particles,
biofilms, etc., which increases the concentration of
charged particles at DEL boundary.
In addition to the current flow, another process,
i.e., induced polarization (IP) may develop under the
external electric field. IP effect is realized in the accu-
mulation of electric charges in heterogenic media, and
the subsequent system return to the equilibrium due to
moving charges and the secondary current flow after
the external electric field is removed [2]. IP appears in
ion-conducting rocks and soils because of the electri-
cal double layer, which is formed on the solid / liquid
contact [38]. In the presence of electron-conducting
minerals (sulfides, graphite), IP intensity rises sharply.
The factors influencing IP include the size of mineral
and organic particles, ruggedness and unevenness of
their surface [28].
IP method consists in measuring electric fields
formed in the medium by secondary electric charges.
The theoretic fundamentals of this method are
described in monograph [6], and the field observa-
tions procedure is absolutely the same as in the direct
current resistance method. The IP effect may be
assessed in time and frequency domains. The IP time
domain registers the potential difference at a certain
moment of time after the external electric field is
removed. A set of such marks (strobes) forms the curve
of tension relaxation describing the secondary cur-
rents and discharge (relaxation) of the medium.
Within these studies, IP effect was observed in the
phase-frequency domain method registering the phase
shift, which characterizes the delay of harmonic signal
phase in the MN receiving line as regards the phase of
generator signal resulting from the influence of the
secondary field of IP process. This parameter is
described by the phase shift angle (ϕ) and is measured
in degrees [7]. To suppress noises, Kulikov [7] sug-
gested using the differential phase parameter, which
560 RYAZANTSEV, BAKHMET
may be calculated by phases 1 and 3 of measured signal
harmonics (ϕ1 and ϕ3):
3ϕ1 − ϕ3
Δϕ1−3 = , (4)
2 variety of these soil properties was considered at lower
For the known Δϕ, we may evaluate the IP inten-
sity. i.e., the apparent polarization (ηk) using the
empirical equation:
ηk = −2.5Δϕ, (5)
The obtained value is measured in percent and per-
mits us judging on the medium capacity to get polar-
ized under the external impact. The possibility of syn-
chronous data collection appears to be an evident
advantage of the combined use of the permanent cur-
rent and IP methods.
OBJECTS AND METHODS
This study was performed with specific shungite
soils of Zaonezhskii Peninsula (the Karelia Republic).
The Zaonezhskii Peninsula differs significantly from
other Karelia regions and adjacent territories by the
natural conditions of soil formation. It is characterized
by a variety of landforms, a frequent occurrence of
shungite-containing soil-forming deposits, milder cli-
mate, and a large amount of deciduous trees in the for-
est stand [11].
Shungite-containing rocks differ radically of other
parent materials by carbon content and air-dry mois-
ture as well as adsorption capacity. Carbon content
varies within the range of 5–95% in these deposits.
The higher is the carbon content, the more intensely
weathering develops and the richer the soil is with the
mineral nutrients [1]. The particle-size composition of
shungite-containing soil-forming rocks is very diverse,
including sand, sandy loam, loam, and more rarely,
clay. Weathered shungite schist and its colluvium
cover territories in the vicinity of shungite bedrock
outcrops. Farther from them, glacial deposits become
depleted in shungite substance.
Under these peculiar natural conditions of Zaone-
zhskii Peninsula, mosaic and complicated soil cover
has been formed (Fig. S1). Its peculiarity is in many
respects determined by shungite soils, which are
unique not only in this region, but in the world. These
soils in combination with gleyed podburs are spread in
areas with eluvium and deluvium of shungite rocks and
shungite moraine serve as parent materials. With the
growing distance from the hard rock outcrops,
moraine acquires mixed composition, with basic
shungite and acid rocks being equally represented.
Podburs occur there, they are distinguished from
podzols (widespread in Karelia) by a darker color,
lower acidity, ferrugination, and higher content of
mineral nutrients.
Academician F.Yu. Levinson-Lessing (1889) was
the first to name shungite soils as “Olonetz cherno-
zems” [9]. In the 20th century, researchers classified
them as soddy soils [3, 4, 16]. In the regional classifi-
cation, Morozova referred specific soils developed on
shungite to the dark burozems, whereas a substantial
classification levels [10]. According to “Classification of
soils of Russia” [5], soils developed on shungite depend-
ing on soil-forming conditions may be referred to three
classes, lithozems, dark burozems and soddy soils.
The soils on shungite-containing deposits are
mainly formed under deciduous and coniferous-
deciduous forests with well-developed grass cover.
Abundant plant falloff is accumulated on the surface;
however, no thick forest litter is formed due to high
activity of soil animals and microorganisms quickly
processing organic matter. The specific features of
soil-forming material and processes of plant falloff
transformation controlled the properties of organic
profile, humus-formation processes and organic mat-
ter composition of these soils, with their high content
and homogenous composition of humus along the
profile [1]. Despite a high content of rock fragments
and high water permeability of soils on shungite-
enriched deposits, humus acids are fixed in their pro-
file, which is related to a rich chemical and mineralog-
ical composition of fine earth, as a considerable
amount of iron and calcium is released on weathering,
so stable compounds with humus acids are formed.
Low mobility of organomineral complexes in soil
developed on shungite-containing deposits results in
the development of undifferentiated profile, in which
organic substances and mineral mass are being trans-
formed without substance removal beyond the soil
profile. Thus, humus formation in neutral and weakly
acidic soil medium, mineral mass in situ metamorphi-
zation with the release of iron, calcium and other ele-
ments are the main processes forming these soils.
They are not typical for zonal soils in Karelia, and
their manifestation in Zaonezhie territory results from
the specific natural conditions, i.e., occurrence of
shungite-containing parent materials, mild climate,
etc. [23].
Although soils on shungite-containing rocks drew
attention of a number of researchers, many issues of
their genesis remained unclear. This is explained by
the diversity of shungite-containing soils chemical
composition, as well as by their share in Quaternary
deposits differing substantially. The research plot is
located in the northeastern part of Zaonezhskii Penin-
sula, where shungite burozems prevail [11].
The electrophysical parameters of soils were mea-
sured in terrain by electrical profiling using the sym-
metrical four-electrode A-M-N-B device, with the
distance between all electrodes equal to 15 cm. This
permanent spacing provided mapping of spatial het-
erogeneity and variability in soil properties at the
depth of 15 cm. Several reasons determined the choice
of this research depth. The selected interval includes
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020
 APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS FOR MAPPING SOIL HETEROGENEITY 561

35°17′17′′ E 35°17′31′′ E
6 932 450
62°28′41′′ N
6
N

47
6 932 350

50
5 44

6 932 250

4
62°28′34′′ N

3
47

6 932 150

50 2

6 932 050
44

62°28′26′′ N
47
6 931 950

6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300
1 2
0 50 100 150
m

Fig. 1. Scheme of allocation of observation (1) and sampling (2) points.

the aeration zone of varying moisture, which is kept
permanent upon no precipitation. The technological
possibilities were also taken into consideration, i.e.,
the MS-350A hydrometer sampler used for measuring
the relative moisture of soils allows measurements at a
depth no deeper than 20 cm.
The data were collected by an electrophysical com-
plex that included SGD-EGC200 SKAT II generator
and SGD-EEM MEDUSA (SibGeophysPribor, Rus-
sia) measurer. The complex permits registering the
potential difference and the phase IP at eight frequen-
cies. Since IP (as well as SER) depends on the fre-
quency (f) of generated current, in the present study,
the measurements were performed at a relatively high
(f = 4.88 Hz) and low (f = 0.305 Hz) frequencies. The
survey was made with a regular network 50 × 50 m,
and the position of observation points was registered
with GPS (Fig. 1).
The two-frequency measurement method was
based on the hypothesis that the sites of elevated car-
bon content in soil may be detected from the IP
parameters. The measurement frequencies were cho-

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020

562 RYAZANTSEV, BAKHMET
sen proceeding from spectral characteristics of IP
phase, which were shown by Kulikov and Yakovlev [8].
As proved in this paper, shungite manifests the maximal
polarization intensity at low frequencies (0.3–0.5 Hz),
whereas ore minerals show maximum at the frequen-
cies higher than 1 Hz.
Since moisture has a crucial effect on SER indices,
at the first stage of our work, we measured the conduc-
tivity of surface water using the portative conductom-
eter COM-100. The water conductivity was equal to
150 μS/cm (at t = 20°C), with the average values for
Karelia being 60 μS/cm. This testifies to a relatively
high water mineralization, and, as a result, low SER of
soils. In addition, the relative moisture content was reg-
istered in each observation point, as well as the elevation
a.s.l. (to take the microrelief effect into account).
To find additional reasons of electrophysical prop-
erties variability, the studied soil samples were ana-
lyzed in laboratory. This approach appears to be useful
for parametrical estimation of the studied soils, as the
registered values can be compared to field observa-
tions [19]. A total of 6 samples were collected in the
following loci; 2, in the zone of increased IP ampli-
tude; 2, in the zone of increased moisture; and 2, in
the background areas. No soil horizons were distin-
guished upon sampling, with a general probe up to
0.5 m3 in volume being collected at a depth of 5–20 cm.
This is due to the integral character of electrical survey
measurements, i.e., the registered parameter is related
to a certain medium volume. For the analyses, three
specimens averaged by quartering were taken from
each sampling site.
The laboratory measurements were performed at a
cell of 60 × 20 × 25 cm in size using the same electrical
survey device (A–M–N–B with 15 cm spacing) and
the above-described instrumental set. The cell was
filled with soil to 2/3 volume to provide an even distri-
bution of electric current in the soil sample volume
upon measurements. The probes were dried, and after
the salinized water had been added (to achieve the water
conductivity equal to 150 μS/cm and to simulate the
field site conditions) ρk and ηk were measured in rela-
tively dry (Wrel = 20%) and wet (Wrel = 40%) samples.
For each probe, the soil texture was measured by
laser diffractometry using the LS 13320 (Beckman
Coulter, USA) analyzer of particles, which permitted
us to distinguish between particles ranging from colloi-
dal clay (0.04 μm) to coarse sand (2 mm) size. The total
carbon content was determined by differential thermal
analysis at synchronous thermoanalyzer STA 449 F1
Jupiter (Netzsch, Germany), in the temperature inter-
val 100–1000°C. Despite the drawbacks of the pyrolysis
method for determination and differentiation between
pedogenic and lithogenic carbon [15], the Zaonezhye
soils show a distinct exothermal effects in the tempera-
ture range 240–700 and 500–700°C for organic and
nonorganic shungite carbon, respectively [17].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The performed research resulted in the maps of ρk
and ηk distribution at two frequencies, which show
variation of electrophysical parameters in the soil layer
(Fig. 2). It is noted that ρk values are rather low
because of water mineralization. The background ηk
values are about 1%. The maps show different distri-
bution of SER and IP field anomalies being confined
to different sources.
In addition, as an interpretation tool, the map of rel-
ative moisture content (Wrel) was compared to the
microlandforms at the research site, which explains viv-
idly the regularities of gravity water distribution in soils
at the site (Fig. 3). This relationship is also traced in
SER field, which elucidates markedly that the conduct-
ing zones with ρk = 20–150 Ohm m are localized along
the eastern side of the test plot, in the surface depres-
sion. The zones of high resistivity with ρk = 150–350
Ohm m are located at the elevation. By SER indices,
two channels of water migration from the top down-
wards are distinguished (Fig. 4). In general, SER anom-
alies are fragmentary showing similar distribution at
different frequencies.
However, the IP field behavior is different. The
ηk values are distributed evenly, with an intense
anomaly (up to 4%) being present in the northern
part only, oriented from the northwest to the south-
east. The characteristic feature is that the parameters
change with the decreasing frequency: at a low fre-
quency, the signal amplitude is amplified by 0.4–
0.8% in the abnormal area, with the background val-
ues showing a similar decrease.
The data obtained were studied using the cross-
plot diagrams (Fig. S3); and the Spearman correlation
coefficient was calculated (since the dependence was a
nonparametric one). This approach manifested the
linear correlation between altitude and Wrel with the
approximation reliability R2 = 0.5942 and correlation
coefficient rs = –0.614. Comparison of ρk and Wrel
shows the absence of frequency dispersion, reliability
R2 = 0.3025, and rs =0.426 (f = 4.88 Hz) and –0.371
(f = 0.305 Hz). This points to the interrelation
between SER and moisture, although the obtained
values are somewhat lower than the published ones (rs
from –0.5 and higher) [25].
The pattern is different for IP, the linear trend is cal-
culated with low reliability R2 = 0.0023 due to the dis-
persion of ηk values at different frequencies: rs = 0.076
at f = 4.88 Hz, whereas rs = –0.069 at f = 0.305 Hz. The
statistically significant result was obtained in neither of
cases. Note that a small number of samples (n = 35)
caused a considerable statistical error; probably, gen-
eral relationships should remain the same with the
increasing measurement density. In general, the
research proved that IP method is the least dependent
on moisture, which permits us to conclude on its
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020
 APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS FOR MAPPING SOIL HETEROGENEITY 563

(a) (b)
6 932 450 6 932 450
ρk, Ohm m ρk, Ohm m
6 932 400 210 N 6 932 400 210 N
330 330

105
105
6 932 350 285 6 932 350 285
240 240
6 932 300 195 6 932 300 195
210 150 150
6 932 250 6 932 250

21
0
105 105

6 932 200 60 6 932 200 60

105

105
15 15
21

6 932 150 6 932 150

210
0

6 932 100 6 932 100 210

210

6 932 050 6 932 050

105
6 932 000 105 6 932 000
105

6 931 950 m 6 931 950 m

0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300 6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300
6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250 6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250

(c) (d)
6 932 450 6 932 450
ηk, % ηk, %
3.8 3.8
6 932 400 N 6 932 400 N
3.4 0.9 3.4
1.6
2.3

1.6
2.3

6 932 350 3.0 6 932 350 3.0

3

2.6 2.6
3

6 932 300 2.2 6 932 300 2.2

3.7
1.8 1.8
6 932 250 1.4 6 932 250 1.4
1.0 1.0
2.3

6 932 200 2.3 0.6 6 932 200 3 0.6

0.2 0.2
6 932 150 6 932 150
1.6

6 932 100 6 932 100

1.6

9
0.

6 932 050 6 932 050

0.9

6 932 000 1.6 6 932 000 0.9

0.9

6 931 950 m
6 931 950 m
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300 6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300
6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250 6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250

Fig. 2. Maps of ρk values for f = (a) 4.88 and (b) 0.305 Hz and ηk values for f = (c) 4.88 and (d) 0.305 Hz at the studied site.

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020

564 RYAZANTSEV, BAKHMET

55

50
Height, m

45

66 40
17
90
06
61 450
80
00 6 932
66 350

N
18 0 6 932
10
0 6932 25
66
18 150
200 6 932
050
66
18 6 932 Wrel, %
950
0 50 100 150
300 6 931
m 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52

Fig. 3. Wrel distribution at the site as related to microrelief.

(a) (b)
6 932 450 6 932 450
ρk, Ohm m Wrel, %
6 932 400 N 6 932 400 N 52
330 48
6 932 350 285 6 932 350 44
240 40
6 932 300 195 6 932 300 36
150 32
6 932 250 6 932 250 28
105
24
6 932 200 60 6 932 200 20
15 16
6 932 150 6 932 150

6 932 100 6 932 100

6 932 050 6 932 050

6 932 000 6 932 000

6 931 950 m 6 931 950 m

0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300 6 617 900 6 618 000 6 618 100 6 618 200 6 618 300
6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250 6 617 950 6 618 050 6 618 150 6 618 250

Fig. 4. Correlation between the maps of (a) ρk and (b) Wrel (arrows show the capillary runoff direction; the oval marks the hilltop).

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020

 APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS FOR MAPPING SOIL HETEROGENEITY
Table 1. Particle-size composition and total carbon content in soil samples, %
Physical clay Physical sand
Probe No.
(<0.01 mm) (>0.01 mm)
1 24.4
2 20.5
3 9.4
4 9.1
5 12.1
6 9.0
higher efficiency in the study of structural and matter
heterogeneity in soil as compared to SER method.
Figure S3 manifests the relationship between IP
and SER fields in the form of cross-plot diagram of
dot distribution density. Three soil classes are distin-
guished by the ratio of ρk to ηk values. The first class
(diapason of ρk = 50–150 Ohm ·m, ηk = 0.2–1.4% ) is
interpreted as wet soils; the second class (diapason
ρk = 150–250 Ohm ·m, ηk = 0.8–2.0%) are relatively dry
soils; and the third class (diapason ρk = 10–50 Ohm m,
ηk = 1.3–3.7%) are the soils with abnormal values of
electrophysical parameters containing the elevated
amount of carbon. The data obtained show that IP, as
supposed, provides additional data on soil features and
it does not depend on moisture.
To reveal the sources of abnormal changes in elec-
trophysical fields, the characteristics of soil samples
were studied. The averaged indices for each probe are
listed in Table 1. The research testified to the prevail-
ing physical sand in probes among particle-size frac-
tions (the average content equal to 85%); in general,
they are subdivided into sandy soils on the elevation
and sandy loamy soils in the depression. Taking into
consideration constant Wrel, these data permit evaluat-
ing the influence of physical sand content.
Figure 5 depicts graphs of variations in electro-
physical properties at different frequencies for the
above-mentioned samples. In all cases, the effect of
moisture is distinctly pronounced, with its multiple
increase leading to 2–3-fold decrease of ρk. At the
same time, variation in the working frequency of the
generated current (from 0.038 to 4.88 Hz) in relatively
dry environment has no explicit results (ρk varies
within 1% error); however, additional moistening
results in insignificant linear growth of ρk (10 Ohmm)
towards high frequences. In their turn, ηk indices show
another pattern, with the narrower range of changes,
however, with a more vivid effect of frequency disper-
sion. Cases may be found in publications of appearing
dispersion in IP values with permanent SER parame-
ters upon varying current frequencies [25, 35], which
permits us to consider this distribution as normal for
fine-textured materials.
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020
565
Сtot Soil texture
75.6 4.4 Sandy loam
79.5 5.7 Sandy loam
90.6 8.4 Coherent sand
90.9 4.1 Coherent sand
87.9 3.6 Loamy sand
91.0 2.9 Coherent sand
Let us consider some probes in detail. Probe 1 is
characterized by relatively low electrophysical param-
eters in dry condition, with ρk and ηk thrice increasing
on watering. In this case, ηk values increase towards a
high-frequency area, and the probe moistening results
in the general 0.7% shifting of values. The effect of IP
intensity increase on watering is caused by the growing
surface conductivity, which is proportional to the con-
tent of fine particles (i.e., a growing content of physi-
cal clay in soil) [19, 40]. This fact is supported by the
result of particle-size distribution analysis of probe 1
(sandy loam). Probe 6 shows the same ρk distribution
as probe 1. Changing moisture shows almost no effect
on ηk parameter, with frequency dispersion being of
linear type (a decrease in f leads to a decrease in ηk).
The indices of particle-size distribution in probe 6 cor-
respond to sand, IP effect in which is controlled by the
size of particles composing it; and saturation with
water does not transform its conductivity mode.
Let us consider the probe 3 separately, in which an
interesting effect was found: the nonlinear alteration
of frequency spectrum of phase IP as well as a sharp
increase in ηk upon moistening to 2.8% in the fre-
quency area below 0.1 Hz. On one hand, the examples
of IP spectrum for shungite rocks [8], as well as data on
the elevated content of total carbon in probe 3 (twice
higher than the background values) testify to the effect
of carbon (including shungite carbon) content in soil
on spectral parameters of phase IP. A lower level of
SER in probe 3 as compared to probe 6 may be treated
as an additional argument in favor the shungite matter
presence. On the other hand, this effect may result of
the sand / clay ratio alteration. The revealed effect of
IP level increase in the 0.01–0.1 HZ frequency interval
may be caused by the influence of mineral particle
sizes and related porosity. Parameters of pore space
are proportional to the medium relaxation time, and as
a result, the intensity of low-frequency constituent of
electric signal grows on increasing pore size [31]. This
statement agrees with the results on soil particle-size
analyses (Fig. S4). Probe 3 is found to contain more
physical sand as compared to probe 6; whereas probe 1
shows an elevated content of physical clay.
Analysis of the data obtained with the account for
field observations points to the first option as more
566 RYAZANTSEV, BAKHMET

(a) cenosis with constant conditions, therefore, we may

ρk, Ohm m suppose that the revealed zone is confined to a thin
shungite layer in the top of underlying parent materials
2500 (the phenomenon typical to the geological structure of
Zaonezhskii Peninsula), which is the source of carbon
entering the soil.
2000 Summing up the results of analyses, we may con-
clude that ρk values show, above all, the water content
in the soil. The frequency distribution shift ηk may be
related to the size of particles and to the content of
1500
shungite matter. Therefore, soil texture and the pres-
ence of electron-conducting mineral inclusions such
as shungite may be predicted according to the fre-
1000 quency spectrum ηk.

CONCLUSIONS
500
As a result of performed studies in shungite soils
using the resistivity and induced polarization meth-
ods, the following conclusions are drawn.
0.1 1.0 10 SER field indices are closely related to water con-
f, Hz tent in soils, in particular, if its relative volume is less
ηk , % (b)
than 30–40%, the indices may be sometimes low
informative for the description of soil properties. For
instance, the analysis proved that the observed SER
2.5 indices and moisture are mainly linked to microrelief
of the studied site, and to a much lesser extent, to the
soil type. Hence, in order to use the constant current
2.0 resistivity method for solving soil problems in an ade-
quate way, soil moisture, its variations, total water
mineralization, as well as soil texture should be taken
into account.
1.5
The use of IP method manifested a weaker rela-
tionship of registered indices to the water content in
soil and permitted outlining an abnormal zone with
1.0 elevated carbon content in the studied site. As pro-
ceeds from laboratory analysis of samples, the IP
anomalies in soils may form both due to the variation
0.5 in soil texture and shungite matter content. They are
reflected in the frequency dispersion effect, i.e., the
formation of signal intensity maximums within the
0.1 1.0 10 certain frequency range.
f, Hz
Probe 1 Probe 3 Probe 6 FUNDING
45 45 45 This study was supported by the budget financing of the
Wrel, %
20 20 20 Karelian Research c Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences.
Fig. 5. Graphs of frequency measurement of (a) ρk and
(b) ηk for clay (probe 1), loamy sand (probe 3), and sand CONFLICT OF INTEREST
(probe 6).
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

probable, since class III of abnormal ρk and ηk values SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

(Fig. S3) is confined to some linear zone (Fig. 3),
which is observed upon the spatial variability of soil
texture and moisture. In addition, an elevated content
of total carbon is recorded in probes 2 and 3 sampled
within this zone. All sampled soils fall within one bio-
Supplementary materials are available for this article at
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229320050129 and are accessi-
ble for authorized users.
Fig. S1. Soil map of the study area [10].

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020

 APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS FOR MAPPING SOIL HETEROGENEITY
Fig. S2. Diagrams of correlation between Wrel values and
elevation (m a.s.l.) and ρk and ηk (n = 35).
Fig. S3. Diagrams of ρk and ηk distribution density.
Fig. S4. Graphs of particle-size distribution in the samples.
REFERENCES
1. O. N. Bakhmet, Kizhi Island. Lithogenic Soils Developed
from Shungite Slates: Guide for Soil Science Excursion
(Karelian Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sci-
ences, Petrozavodsk, 2012) [in Russian].
2. G. S. Vakhromeev, L. Ya. Erofeev, V. S. Kanaikin, and
G. G. Nomokonova, Petrophysics (Tomsk State Univ.,
Tomsk, 1997) [in Russian].
3. A. M. Volodin and M. A. Toikka, “Classification and
inventory of shungite soils in Zaonezhskii district of
Karelian ASSR,” Uch. Zap. Petrozvodsk. Gos. Univ. 9
(3), 205–217 (1958).
4. E. N. Ivanova, Classification of Soils of the Soviet Union
(Nauka, Moscow, 1976) [in Russian].
5. L. L. Shishov, V. D. Tonkonogov, I. I. Lebedeva, and
M. I. Gerasimova, Classification and Diagnostic System
of Russian Soils (Oikumena, Smolensk, 2004) [in Rus-
sian].
6. V. A. Komarov, Electrical Survey Using Induced Polar-
ization (Nedra, Leningrad, 1980) [in Russian].
7. A. V. Kulikov and E. A. Shemyakin, Electrical Survey by
Phase Method of Induced Polarization (Nedra, Moscow,
1978) [in Russian].
8. V. A. Kulikov and A. G. Yakovlev, “The use of induced
polarization time/frequency characteristics for carbon-
ized and sulfide rock anomalies determination,”
Geofizika, No. 6, 55–60 (2008).
9. F. Yu. Levinson-Lessing, “About Olonets chernozem,”
Olonetskie Gubernskie Ved., No. 33, 357–358 (1889).
10. R. M. Morozova, Forest Soils of Karelia (Nauka, Lenin-
grad, 1991) [in Russian].
11. R. M. Morozova, N. G. Fedorets, and O. N. Bakhmet,
“Soils and the soil cover of Onega Karelia,” Tr. Karel.
Nauchn. Tsentr, Ross. Akad. Nauk, No. 6, 69–89 (2004).
12. A. I. Pozdnyakov and K. Yu. Khan, “Use of electric
field methods in soil studies,” Pochvovedenie, No. 7,
57–65 (1979).
13. A. I. Pozdnyakov, Field Electrophysics of Soils (Nauka,
Moscow, 2001) [in Russian].
14. A. I. Pozdnyakov, P. I. Eliseev, and A. V. Rusakov,
“Electrical resistivity as a possible indicator of cultiva-
tion degree of arable sandy soils in the humid zone,”
Moscow Univ. Soil Sci. Bull. 67, 103–109 (2012).
15. D. A. Sokolov, S. P. Kulizhskii, A. G. Lim,
E. A. Gurkova, T. V. Nechaeva, and O. E. Merzlyakov,
“Comparison of the methods of determination of
pedogenic organic carbon in coal-containing soils,”
Vestn. Tomsk. Gos. Univ., Biol., No. 39, 29–43 (2017).
16. I. S. Urusevskaya and G. V. Shekk, “Specificity of soil
toposequence on shungite rocks of Onega region,”
Vestn. Mosk. Univ., Ser. 17: Pochvoved., No. 2, 12–19
(1988).
17. S. Yu. Chazhengina and E. V. Korobkina, “Organic
matter of soils developed from shungite rockss,” in Pro-
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020
567
ceedings of IX Meeting “Organic Mineralogy” (Cher-
nogolovka, 2013), pp. 175–178.
18. V. K. Khmelevskii, Electrical Survey (Moscow State
Univ., Moscow, 1984) [in Russian].
19. V. A. Shevnin, A. A. Bobachev, and K. I. Baranchuk,
“Laboratory measurements of electrical resistance and
parameters of induced polarization of loose sediments
for determining lithological composition of a section,”
Inzh. Izyskaniya, Nos. 9–10, 53–58 (2014).
20. Electrical Survey by Resistance Method, Ed. by V. K. Khme-
levskii and V. A. Shevnin (Moscow State Univ., Moscow,
1994) [in Russian].
21. Yu. V. Yakubovskii and I. V. Renard, Electrical Survey
(Nedra, Moscow, 1991) [in Russian].
22. G. A. Aal, L. D. Slater, and E. A. Atekwana, “Induced-
polarization measurements on unconsolidated sedi-
ments from a site of active hydrocarbon biodegrada-
tion,” Geophysics 71 (2), H13–H24 (2006).
https://doi.org/10.1190/1.2187760
23. O. N. Bakhmet and N. G. Fedorets, “Soils and their
characteristics on Zaonezhye Peninsula,” in Biogeogra-
phy, Landscapes, Ecosystems and Species of Zaonezhye
Peninsula, in Onega Lake, Russian Karelia (Finnish En-
vironment Institute, Helsinki, 2014), Vol. 40, pp. 53–55.
24. O. Banton, M. K. Seguin, and M. A. Cimon, “Map-
ping field scale physical properties of soil with electrical
resistivity,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 1010–1017 (1997).
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1997.03615995006100040003x
25. G. Calamita, L. Brocca, A. Perrone, S. Piscitelli, V. La-
penna, F. Melone, and T. Moramarco, “Electrical re-
sistivity and TDR methods for soil moisture estimation
in central Italy test-sites,” J. Hydrol. 454–455, 101–112
(2012).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.06.001
26. S. Friedman, “Soil properties influencing apparent
electrical conductivity: a review,” Comput. Electron.
Agric. 46, 45–70 (2005).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2004.11.001
27. A. Ghorbani, Ph. Cosenza, A. Revil, M. Zamora,
M. Schmutz, N. Florsch, and D. Jougnot, “Non-inva-
sive monitoring of water content and textural changes in
clay-rocks using spectral induced polarization: a labora-
tory investigation,” Appl. Clay Sci. 43, 493–502 (2009).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2008.12.007
28. K. Koch, A. Revil, and K. Holliger, “Relating the per-
meability of quartz sands to their grain size and spectral
induced polarization characteristics,” Geophys. J. Int.
190, 230–242 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05510.x
29. D. P. Lesmes and K. M. Frye, “Influence of pore fluid
chemistry on the complex conductivity and induced
polarization responses of Berea sandstone,” J. Geo-
phys. Res.: Solid Earth 106 (3), 4079–4090 (2001).
https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900392
30. A. I. Pozdnyakov, L. A. Pozdnyakova, and L. O. Kar-
pachevskii, “Relationship between water tension and
electrical resistivity in soils,” Eurasian Soil Sci. 39,
S78–S83 (2006).
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229306130138
31. A. Revil, N. Florsch, and C. Camerlynck, “Spectral in-
duced polarization porosimetry,” Geophys. J. Int. 198,
568 RYAZANTSEV, BAKHMET
1016–1033 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggu180
32. A. Samouëlian, I. Cousin, A. Tabbagh, A. Bruand, and
G. Richarde, “Electrical resistivity survey in soil sci-
ence: a review,” Soil Tillage Res. 83, 173–193 (2005).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.10.004
33. B. F. Schwartz, M. E. Schreiber, and T. Yan, “Quanti-
fying field-scale soil moisture using electrical resistivity
imaging,” J. Hydrol. 362, 234–246 (2008).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.08.027
34. N. Schwartz, T. Shalem, and A. Furman, “The effect of
organic acid on the spectral-induced polarization re-
sponse of soil,” Geophys. J. Int. 197, 269–276 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggt529
35. J. B. T. Scott and R. D. Barker, “Characterization of
sandstone by electrical spectroscopy for stratigraphical
and hydrogeological investigations,” Q. J. Eng. Geol.
Hydrogeol. 38, 143–154 (2005).
https://doi.org/10.1144/1470-9326/04-036
36. S. Seladji, P. Cosenza, A. Tabbagh, J. Ranger, and
G. Richard, “The effect of compaction on soil electri-
cal resistivity: a laboratory investigation,” Eur. J. Soil
Sci. 61, 1043–1055 (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2010.01309.x
View publication stats
37. A. Tabbagh, M. Dabas, A. Hesse, and C. Panissod,
“Soil resistivity: a non-invasive tool to map soil struc-
ture horizonation,” Geoderma 97, 393–404 (2000).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00047-1
38. K. Titov, V. Komarov, V. Tarasov, and A. Levitski, “The-
oretical and experimental study of time domain-induced
polarization in water-saturated sands,” J. Appl. Geo-
phys. 50, 417–433 (2002).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(02)00168-4
39. P. Vaudelet, A. Revil, M. Schmutz, M. Franceschi, and
P. Begassat, “Changes in induced polarization associat-
ed with the sorption of sodium, lead, and zinc on silica
sands,” J. Colloid Interface Sci. 360 (2), 739–752 (2011).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2011.04.077
40. A. Weller and L. D. Slater, “Induced polarization de-
pendence on pore space geometry: Empirical observa-
tions and mechanistic predictions,” J. Appl. Geophys.
123, 310–315 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2015.09.002
41. G. L. Yoon and J. B. Park, “Sensitivity of leachate and
fine contents on electrical resistivity variations of sandy
soils,” J. Hazard. Mater. 84, 147–161 (2001).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(01)00197-2
Translated by O. Eremina
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 53 No. 5 2020