Function of Ingridients AIB

BAKING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
Function of Ingredients
in Bread Production
Learning Objectives
• Describe the functions of the major and minor ingredients in white pan breads: water, yeast,
salt, sugar, fats and oils, mold inhibitors, and dough conditioners
• Describe dough and bread attributes when specific ingredients are over and under dosed
• Compare different forms of ingredients: dry yeast vs. compressed yeast vs. cream yeast;
granulated sugar vs. HFCS, liquid milk vs. dry milk solids, etc.
• Describe proper handling of specific ingredients
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May not be reproduced without written permission.
in Bread Production BAKING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Baking bread begins with combining the appropriate ingredients as

outlined in a formula. Bakers combine various ingredients to make
a wide variety of breads. Selecting the right ingredients makes the
difference between producing excellent breads and poor quality
breads. Any significant change in ingredients will affect the final
product quality and customer satisfaction. A strong understanding
of how individual ingredients function and how they interact in a
dough system is critical.
The most basic and ancient bread formulas consist of flour, water,
salt, and yeast. From that basic formula, thousands of varieties have
been created. Breads may include ingredients such as milk, eggs,
various fats, fruits, nuts, sweeteners, etc.
Wheat and Flour

Wheat flour dough has the unique ability to retain the gas produced
during yeast fermentation or by chemical leavening. The flour is
responsible for the characteristic structure of bakery foods. Wheat
flour is made from one or blends of six classes of wheat: durum,
hard red spring, hard red winter, hard white, soft red winter, and
soft white.
Wheat Class Avg Wheat Typical Uses
Protein %
Durum 14-16% Pastas, spaghetti, macaroni
Hard Red Spring (HRS) 13-14% Pan breads, rolls, buns
Hard Red Winter (HRW) 11-12% Pan breads, artisan breads and rolls, pizza crusts
Hard White (HW) 11-12% Noodles, flat breads, breads
Soft Red Winter (SRW) 10% Cakes, pastries, biscuits, crackers
Soft White (SW) 10% Asian noodles, flat breads, cakes, pastries, crackers
Winter wheats are planted in the fall, germinate and begin to

grow, and then become dormant during the cold winter months.
They resume growth in the spring and are harvested during the
early summer. For winter wheat to produce seed, it must undergo
temperatures near freezing for several days. If the wheat does not
encounter the cold, the plants become a grass and do not form
kernels. This type of wheat grows in regions where the winters are
moderate and relatively dry.

2 May not be reproduced without written permission.
BAKING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY in Bread Production
Spring wheats are planted in the spring and harvested in late

summer. Spring wheats are grown in regions where winters are
severe, and also in regions where winters are mild. Spring wheats
generally have higher protein contents than do winter wheats (for
hard spring and hard winter). There is an inverse relationship
between grain yield and protein content of the grain; hard spring
wheats have a lower yield of grain per acre than hard winter
wheats.
The terms “red” and “white” indicate the color of the wheat kernel,
not the flour milled from the wheat. The color comes from a single
layer of cells in the pericarp. Red wheat is pigmented, and white is
not. The color component contributes a bitter or astringent flavor to
the bran and to any flour that contains high concentrations of bran,
such as red whole wheat flour.
Hardness relates to the mechanical force required to crush a kernel.

In hard wheats, the first point of fracture is at the cell wall, rather
than through the cell contents. In soft wheats, the fracture occurs
primarily through the cell contents.
Hard wheat varieties are generally higher in protein and are

used principally in the production of yeast-leavened products.
The soft wheats yield flours that are suitable for the production
of chemically-leavened products such as cakes, pastries, cookies,
crackers, doughnuts, pie crusts, etc.
Durum wheat is used in the manufacture of macaroni, spaghetti,

and similar pasta products. In the US, durum is grown in the same
regions as hard red spring wheats. Durum is genetically different
from the other wheats. It has 28 pairs of chromosomes: common
wheat has 42. Durum wheat is also much harder in texture than
common wheat. Durum is made into durum flour and semolina.
The wheat kernel consists of three major, distinct parts: germ,

endosperm, and bran (pericarp). The structure and location of these
parts are shown on page 4.

May not be reproduced without written permission. 3
A Kernel of Wheat
The largest part of the wheat

kernel is the starchy ENDOSPERM
(about 80% of the total kernel).
The white flour produced during
milling comes from the endo-
sperm.
The BRAN is the outer coat of the

seed (pericarp). It is made up of
several layers that protect the
germ and endosperm and makes
up 12-16% of the kernel.
The GERM, or embryo, is the

living part of the seed and makes
up 2-3% of the kernel weight. The
fact that the seed is living makes
it easier to store. One of the great
advantages of cereal grains is
that they can be stored for long
periods of time (several years
under ideal conditions). The germ
is also where growth of the new
plant is initiated after the seed is
planted.
The ALUERONE layer surrounds

the endosperm and is usually
found in bran. It is one cell layer
thick and is high in minerals,
vitamins, phytonutrients, and
protein. This protein is non-gluten
forming.

The aleurone is the outer layer of the endosperm, and is often

included as a portion of the bran. The pericarp is the outer
protective layer of the kernel, and creates the majority of the bran
portion. Chemically, the bran contains relatively large percentages
of ash (inorganic minerals), fiber (cellulose and arabinoxylans), and
proteins. Some of these materials lower the quality of white flour
and most are removed in the milling process. The outer bran layers
are tough because of their high cellulose content. This makes it
easier to separate the bran from the endosperm during milling.
The germ, or embryo, is the living portion of the wheat kernel.

Under proper conditions, the germ grows into a new wheat
plant. The germ is relatively high in protein (primarily enzymes),
lipids (fat), and ash. If the germ is left in the flour during the
milling process, it quickly becomes rancid. Part of the germ can be
recovered during milling; it is stabilized and sold as a specialized
food ingredient. The remainder of the germ is sold as animal feed.
The largest part of the wheat kernel is the endosperm. It supplies

energy to the new plant as it grows from an embryo. The
endosperm is made up of starch granules in a protein matrix.
The protein matrix is made up of gluten-forming proteins. The
endosperm also contains a small amount of lipids and non-starch
polysaccharides. The non-starch polysaccharides are primarily
arabinoxylans and are the major constituents of the endosperm cell
walls. The endosperm’s aleurone layer is free of both starch and
gluten, and is made up of protein bodies instead of a protein matrix
which also contain, lipids, a high concentration of minerals (ash),
and many phytonutrients.

Bread flour Milled from hard wheat usually containing more than 10.5% protein.
These flours contain proteins that produce a strong gluten when
mixed into a dough, which, along with high absorption and good
tolerance, makes the flours suitable for making yeast-leavened
products.
High gluten flour Milled from hard wheat, usually spring wheat. Generally used in the
manufacture of hearth breads. Usually 12.5-14% protein.
Pastry flour Low protein (less than 10%) flour milled from soft wheat, with ash
less than 0.50% and little mixing tolerance. Pastry flour is used to
produce many products, including low-ratio cakes, piecrusts, and
cookies.
Cake flour A highly refined (low ash) flour milled from soft wheat, having fine
particle size. Treated with chlorine for bleaching (lowers pH), in the
US. Used in high-ratio batter cakes.
All-purpose flour Also known as hotel and restaurant flour. Usually made from low
protein hard red winter wheat or a blend of hard winter and soft
winter wheats. Is designed to serve general household use for all
bakery foods, therefore, it is not the ideal flour for any specific
bakery food.
Wheat flour’s gluten-forming protein matrix makes it ideal for the

production of many baked goods. When wheat flour is mixed with
water, the gluten matrix is developed, and a structure-forming
network is created. Once this network is heated in an oven, the
structure is set.
Vital Wheat gluten

Wheat gluten can be extracted from flour and sold as a separate
ingredient, “vital wheat gluten”. Vital wheat gluten is sold in a dry
flour form and is added to formulas to help strengthen weak flours
or to create extra loaf volume. A 1% addition of vital wheat gluten
will increase the flour protein content by 0.6% and absorption by
1.5%. The addition of vital wheat gluten to a formula may extend
mixing times and improve tolerances. Normal levels range from
1-5% for most variety pan and hearth-style breads and buns.

BAKING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
in Bread Production
Vital wheat gluten is not typically added to white pan breads, but
is often used in variety breads and whole grain breads. “Whole
grain” means that all of the essential parts and naturally occurring
nutrients of the entire grain seed in their original proportions
remain when the grain is processed. In other words, 100% of
the original kernel must be present—all of the bran, germ and
endosperm—in order to meet the whole grain definition. When
whole wheat flour is used, the effectiveness of the gluten network
is diluted with the other wheat components. Vital wheat gluten is
used to fortify or strengthen the dough system.
Water
The main function of water is hydration. Ingredients must have
water in order to function as expected. For example, flour must be
hydrated in order to form gluten and for the starch to gelatinize.
Water also serves as a dispersing agent and a medium for
fermentation. There is a direct relationship between the amount of
water present in a dough system and the rate of fermentation. The
total amount of water in dough is referred to as absorption. As the
absorption increases, so does the fermentation rate. Water is also
used to control dough temperature, and can be used in the form of
ice. A typical absorption for white pan bread is 57-62%.
In production, there are several ways to determine if absorption

levels are optimized. Since water is usually the least expensive
ingredient used in a dough system, it is critical to add as much
as possible into the dough without affecting manufacturing or
finished product quality. As the dough is mixing, it will form a
mass with nothing left sticking to the sides of the mixing bowl.
This is referred to as clean-up. It is the initial point of it becoming
one, cohesive mass. Identifying a target clean-up time will help
control absorption. A dough that cleans up too early is likely under
absorbed. A dough that cleans up too late is over-absorbed. Clean-
up time should be monitored for each individual dough.
If a dough is kicked out of the mixer with too little water, there may
be problems during production. Depending on the type of dough
divider being used, inconsistent dough weights may occur and it
may be difficult to sheet the dough properly. Proof times may have
to be extended in order to meet target proof heights, and overall loaf
volume may still be low due to reduced oven kick. In the finished
products, staling will occur more rapidly. The consumer will notice
a harsher mouth feel and the texture will be more brittle.

On the other hand, a dough with too much water will also have
problems. A sticky dough will be kicked out of the mixer, and
that stickiness will cause problems throughout production. The
dough may hang up in the divider, rounder, overhead proofer, and
moulder. It will proof quickly and will have greater oven kick. The
finished product may be too big to fit in the packaging, increasing
waste product. The finished product may have weak sidewalls with
a very open cell structure. Water is an excellent crumb softener.
It is important to have the right amount in the dough, but not too
much.
Yeast
Yeast is a living organism which can be affected by storage
practices, dough temperatures, pH, availability of water, and food
supply. Of these control points, the most important is temperature.
Yeasts are microorganisms that convert sugar into alcohol and
carbon dioxide.
Yeast’s primary function in a bread dough is to provide leavening.

It contributes to flavor and aroma through fermentation. Several
forms of yeast are used: active dry yeast, instant dry yeast,
compressed yeast, or cream yeast. The type of yeast used depends
on the volume of product.
Home bakers or small retail bakers may use a form of dry yeast
since refrigeration is not necessary, and the shelf-life is fairly long.
Active dry yeast needs no refrigeration and has 2-12 months storage
life, depending on packaging. Active dry yeast must be rehydrated
with water at 105-110°F (40-43°C) for about 10-15 minutes before
use. Active dry yeast comes in 1 and 2-lb packages hermetically
sealed with inert gases or vacuum-sealed for extension of shelf-life
as well as larger sized packages.
For instant dry yeast, no refrigeration is required and storage life is

one year or more due to packaging in inert gases or under vacuum.
Once the package is opened, it is recommended that it be used
within three days. Instant dry yeast is extremely convenient since it
does not have to be hydrated prior to use unlike the active dry yeast
does. It may be added directly with the other dry ingredients and
blended, or delayed until no loose water is visible in the dough.

Compressed yeast is commonly used in retail bake shops

as well as in large wholesale bakery production. It can be
purchased in many sizes, from 1-pound cakes to 50-pound
bags. The general water content of compressed yeast is 70%
and is highly perishable outside of refrigerated storage
conditions of 36-45°F (2-7°C). Bakers should keep only
one operating hour’s worth of yeast on the shop floor. For
unused portions, remove the air from the bag and close it
tightly to prevent the fresh yeast from being exposed to
higher temperature, moisture, and oxygen, which will cause
autolysis. Typical use level in breads is 2-5%.
Autolysis is the process by which the yeast destroys itself through

its own enzymes, breaking down the cellular structure of the
yeast. This allows the release of glutathione from the yeast cell.
Glutathione acts as a reducing agent on gluten proteins and
weakens the dough structure. This creates a dough which mixes
faster than normal and which is stickier and slacker, requiring
more dusting flour for proper machining. It may also cause longer
proofing times and greater pan flow, along with weaker sidewalls.
Cream yeast is commonly used in wholesale production. Cream

yeast is approximately 80% water. It is delivered in a refrigerated
tanker truck and pumped into a tank on site. The storage life of this
yeast is between 10-14 days. During production, the cream yeast
circulates between the holding tanks and the mixer in well-insulated
pipes. This prevents the yeast from settling out, and provides
for faster scaling and very consistent temperature control. The
advantage of cream yeast is that there is no packaging or handling
needed. The main disadvantage is the need for specialized
handling equipment at the bakery. Generally, this consists of
two jacketed stainless-steel storage tanks maintaining storage
temperatures in the range of 35-39°F (1-4°C). A bakery will need to
process large quantities of yeast to offset the initial equipment costs
and possible higher ingredient costs.
Both compressed and cream yeasts must be refrigerated. When

converting from one type of yeast to another, water must be
adjusted for consistency in doughs.

Yeast performs other functions in addition to leavening. During

fermentation, yeast converts fermentable sugars such as maltose,
glucose, fructose, and sucrose into carbon dioxide and alcohol,
which generates heat. A baker can judge fermentation by
monitoring the increase in temperature. Flavors are generated by
the acids that are created during fermentation. Acids also mellow
the gluten which can reduce the energy requirements to fully
develop a dough.
Since yeast’s effectiveness is altered by storage and handling

practices, it is critical that the suppliers’ recommendations be
followed. Compressed yeast that is allowed to warm on the
production floor will have less gassing power than fresh yeast
brought directly from the cooler and mixed into a dough. Poor
yeast handling practices can generate doughs with inconsistent
proof times and varying finished product volumes. As yeast ages in
storage, it’s gassing power reduces. This may be most noticeable in
cream yeast. When a yeast supply has aged, proof times may need
to be extended slightly in order to achieve the ideal proof height.
Table 1
Handling Conditions of Fresh Baker’s Yeast
Fresh
Cream Yeast Compressed Yeast

Storage temperatures 36-45°F 36-45°F
(2-7°C) (2-7°C)
Shelf-life 10 days 2-3 weeks
% water 80% 70%
Converting from 1.5-1.8 times
compressed

Table 2
Handling Conditions of Dry Baker’s Yeast
Dry
Active Dry Yeast Instant Dry Yeast

Storage temperatures Ambient Ambient
(unopened) (unopened)
Shelf-life 2 years (vacuum) 2 years (vacuum)
Percent water 6-8% 4-6%
Using the yeast Must be Does not need to
prehydrated in be prehydrated
105-110°F
(41-43°C)
water
Converting from 40-50% 33-40%
compressed
Salt
Salt brings out the flavor in baked goods. Salt is typically used at
levels of 1.50-2.25%. Bread made with less salt will taste blander,
and bread made with more than 2.25% salt will taste salty. In
addition to adding flavor, salt also inhibits fermentation due to the
osmotic pressure effect, which is the partial dehydration of the yeast
cell. Salt also toughens the gluten. Weak flours can be strengthened
by adding salt. Salt lengthens mixing time, so it is common to delay
the addition of the salt until the end of the mixing process. When
the addition of salt is delayed, the toughening effect is also delayed,
and mixing time can be reduced by 10-20%. The advantages of
reduced mixing time include increased mixer capacity in terms
of pounds per hour, lower finished dough temperatures, and less
energy use. Faster flour hydration also occurs with delayed salt.
Some bakers do not delay the addition of salt due to the increased
chances of mistakes: forgetting to add the salt or adding double, and
reduced tolerance, resulting in over mixing. When salt is omitted or
doubled, the error will be noticeable in processing as well as in the
finished product. A dough in which the salt addition was forgotten
will most likely be over mixed, sticky, and problematic throughout

processing. Simply tasting the dough will be the quickest and

easiest way to verify the error. The flavor of an unsalted bread is
extremely bland and unappealing. With no salt present, the dough
will proof very quickly.
Sugar
The main functions of sugar are to provide food for the yeast
and give a sweet flavor to the finished product. In normal bread
production, 3-3.5% fermentable solids are required for yeast
activity. This food supply can come from added sugar, conversion
of starches to sugars, or a combination of both. Sugar is not an
essential ingredient. Secondary functions of sugar are all related
to non-fermented (residual) sugar. When residual sugar levels are
higher, crust color is darker, taste is sweeter, and moisture retention
is improved due to the hygroscopic properties of sugar.
There are many kinds of sugars, or fermentable

carbohydrates, used in baking. The most common is
42 high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). This syrup has
the same sweetness on a solid basis as sucrose (table
sugar), it is easier to handle for large bakeries since the
syrup can be pumped, and costs less than traditional
granulated sugar. The 42 means that 42% of the solids
in the syrup are fructose. Higher numbers mean the
syrup will be sweeter.
When storing syrups, it is important to keep the

temperature slightly warm, around 85 degrees. If the syrup gets
cold, it will crystallize during storage. If the syrup gets too hot,
it will darken or caramelize. Some companies are reverting back
to granulated sugar due to the consumers’ perception that it is
healthier than HFCS. Other sweeteners such as honey, brown
sugar, and molasses have grown in popularity as consumers
purchase more all natural, whole grain, and multigrain bread
varieties. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used in
products when a lower calorie or carbohydrate count is needed.
Use levels for sugars range from 0-15%. When sugar use is higher
than 15%, the product becomes a sweet dough. If a scaling error
occurs and the sweetener level is too high or too low, production
issues and finished product attributes will be affected. For
example, a dough with too little HFCS being used will perform as
if it is under absorbed. The HFCS delivers not only the sweetener,

but a portion of water as well. The dough will be tight and may
result in uneven scaling. It may take longer to proof since the food
source for the yeast will be limited. The level of residual sugar
will be lower, so the crust color of the finished product will be very
pale. A dough with double the HFCS will behave much like an over
absorbed dough. The extra syrup will not only contribute higher
levels of sugar, but also additional water. The dough will be very
sticky. If it can be processed, it will ferment and proof rapidly.
The finished crust color will be dark, if not burnt, due to the much
higher levels of residual sugars.
Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are used in bread production to provide overall
lubrication and to aid with slicing. A minimum of 0.7-1% is
recommended for good slicing, although some bakers use less than
this in low-calorie breads, and higher levels of 2-5% in richer bread
products. Besides lubricating the baked crumb, fats and oils also
lubricate the dough, easing dough expansion and helping with the
handling of the dough throughout the makeup processes. They
also tenderize the crumb and improve shelf life by delaying staling.
White pan bread usage is between 1.5-3%.
The most commonly used fat or oil is soybean oil. Oil is easier
to handle than solid shortening since it can be pumped into the
mixer, and, if used in combination with emulsifiers, the baker can
make very good bread using vegetable oil. In an effort to reduce
cholesterol, some bakers remove all animal fats such as lard and
butter from formulations. Bakers have switched to vegetable oils
that have been hydrogenated to become solid fats, and contain high
levels of trans fat. Other fat sources are used to reduce the trans fats
in finished products, and palm has become a low-to-no trans source
for those products. When a certain flavor is desired, that may dictate
the fat or oil that is used. Butter is a good example of a specific fat
imparting a specific flavor.
Milk
Milk solids are used in bread formulas for many reasons, and
they offer a wide range of functionality. Milk is high in lysine and
calcium, and the overall nutritional quality of the milk protein is
excellent. Milk solids also impart a rich flavor to a finished product.
They also create a deeper crust color which can contribute to an
improved flavor profile. In addition to finished product benefits,
milk solids provide function and benefit to dough processing.

Milk is an excellent buffer, so milk solids can slow or regulate

fermentation. They also strengthen the gluten matrix, which
improves overall process tolerance. Use levels of milk or milk
replacers is between 0-4%.
Liquid milk is rarely in the baking industry for two main reasons: it
is very perishable, and the serum protein in milk has a weakening
effect upon the gluten protein in wheat flour. By using high-
heat treated nonfat dry milk (NFDM), the baker is able to get the
benefits of milk without the disadvantages. Two disadvantages to
NFDM are the cost of NFDM, the introduction of a top 8 allergen.
As a result, bakers may use milk replacers because they are less
expensive than NFDM and do not contain milk allergens. The
replacers are usually blends of soy flour and whey. The whey
provides lactose sugar and some protein. However, the whey only
has about 1/3 the amount of protein of the non-fat dry milk, so soy
flour is added to make up for the lack of protein. Whey and soy are
also a top 8 allergens, so the pros and cons must be weighed when
working these ingredients into formulas.
Mineral Yeast Food

Mineral yeast foods are compound ingredients that have three main
functions, all of which help maintain consistency. When minor
fluctuations in pH occur in the water supply, mineral yeast food
reduces the impact on process and product. When large baking
companies want to use standard formulas at different plants in
different regions, mineral yeast foods ensure a consistent product.
1. Water conditioner: calcium (carbonate or sulfate) and

magnesium (phosphate or chloride) to control water
hardness, monocalcium phosphate to control pH
2. Yeast conditioner: ammonium salts supply nitrogen for
yeast
3. Dough conditioner: oxidizing agents strengthen protein
Use level of mineral yeast foods ranges from 0-0.75%.

BAKING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
in Bread Production
Mold Inhibitors
Mold inhibitors are additives that delay mold and bacteria growth.
Mold inhibitors will also inhibit yeast growth. To produce a mold-
free product, it is most important to have a sanitary production
facility where equipment and plant air are kept clean, and
employees follow good manufacturing practices. Good sanitation
habits will limit the amount of unseen mold that makes contact with
the product.
Bread is an ideal medium for mold growth, because mold likes

fairly warm temperatures, slightly acidic conditions, oxygen, and
moisture. If we do not use a mold inhibitor in the formulation, we
can expect mold to appear in 3-5 days on a product stored at room
temperature. Freezing or refrigerating product will lengthen the
time it takes to make mold appear. However, refrigeration may
cause bread to become firm more rapidly.
Whether or not mold inhibitors are an essential ingredient depends

on the required amount of shelf-life to satisfy the customer. Mold
inhibitors are classified as artificial or natural. The most commonly
used mold inhibitor in bread is calcium propionate, because it is
effective and relatively inexpensive. Potassium sorbate and sorbic
acid should not be used in dough since they both damage the yeast.
Potassium sorbate is often used in 10% solution with water and
sprayed on the surface of products after baking. Sorbic acid is oil
soluble and can be mixed with the oil used to lubricate slicer blades.
Natural mold inhibitors include vinegar, raisin juice concentrate,

and fermented products such as flour, starch or whey. Vinegar
lowers the pH, but it is not a good mold inhibitor by itself. If
using raisin juice as a natural mold inhibitor, the sugar in the juice
must be factored into the overall formula. Fermented or cultured
products are label-friendly. Made by culturing or fermenting lactic
acid bacteria, they are generally grain or dairy based (flour, starch,
or whey). During fermentation the lactic acid bacteria produces
organic acids and other compounds that work to slow mold.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions.
They start the reaction going, but are not changed by it. Most
Dough conditioners enzymes are protein materials, but not gluten-forming protein.
include: Because enzymes are proteins, they are sensitive to heat, and
• Enzymes all enzymes have an optimum temperature range for activity.
• Oxidizing agents Within that range, activity increases with temperature until
• Reducing agents the denaturation point is reached, and then the enzyme stops
• Emulsifiers functioning. Besides temperature, enzymes are also dependent
on pH, amount of time allowed for the reaction, availability of
water, amount of enzyme used, and the availability of substrate. A
substrate is what the enzyme converts in reaction. Each enzyme has
a specific substrate.
Enzymes are added to bread dough to increase the shelf-life,

improve processing of dough, or provide sugars for yeast. There
are several enzyme groups that are commonly added to doughs:
amylases, proteases, hemicellulases, lipases, and oxidases. Often
bakers add enzymes that have been blended together. The baker
can add enzymes in powder or tablet form. The amount necessary
depends on the strength of the ingredient used and the desired
effect.
As an example of what enzymes do in bread, amylases converts

starch into sugar and other dextrins by breaking the large starch
molecules into smaller ones. The sugars produced provide food for
yeast. The right amylase will also make a product softer. Protease
enzymes are used to weaken the protein in the dough to decrease
mixing time, improve machinability, and/or increase the pan flow
of the dough. These effects are accomplished by breaking the long
protein chains into smaller units
The effects of enzymes depend on time, temperature, and the

level of enzyme used. For example, if an equipment breakdown
interrupts production, protease enzymes in the dough have
more time to work, which creates a greater weakening effect on
the protein than was expected. The enzymes will not stop their
reactions until they are denatured by the high temperatures of
the oven. The amount necessary depends on the strength of the
ingredient used and the desired effect.

Oxidizing Agents
Oxidizing agents improve dough strength by creating bonds
between the protein chains. They improve dough handling for
better machining and contribute to improved gas retention giving
better volume and tighter grain to the finished product. Some
oxidants are fast acting, working in the mixer and early make-up
stage, while others are late acting, working in the proofer and early
oven stage. The amount of use is calculated in parts per million
(ppm). Oxidants are available in tablet or powder form. Doughs
are generally sensitive to oxidants and optimizing usage levels is as
important as proper mix times. Calcium peroxide is considered an
oxidant, but is typically used for its dough drying capabilities. It
tends to take away the stickiness without stiffening the dough. It
is commonly used in bun production. Use levels are about 20-40
ppm, and it is available in a powdered form. It should be added
with the other dry ingredients because it reacts immediately on
contact with water.
Table 3
Action Typical Usage US Limit
(PPM) (PPM)
Potassium bromate Late 10-30 75
Calcium bromate
Potassium Iodate Fast 3-20 75
Calcium iodate
Calcium peroxide Fast 40-70 75
Azodicarbonamide Fast 5-45 45
Ascorbic acid Medium 30-100 NONE
Reducing Agents
Reducing agents are used to weaken the protein, reducing the
mixing times and improving dough machinability. Reducing agents
break bonds between the proteins during mixing, the opposite
effect of oxidizing agents. L-cysteine is a most common reducing
agent used in the US. A 20-40 ppm usage level will give a 25-40%
reduction in mix time. The weakening effect can continue out of the
mixer, therefore reducing process tolerance, so L-cysteine should
only be used when all other methods of mix reduction have been
tried. Other reducing agents are inactive dry yeast and sorbic acid.

Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are added to bread doughs for strengthening the dough
and making the product softer. Dough strengtheners are emulsifiers
that function in a dough by bonding with the protein, improving
the gluten strength. This results in improved machinability and gas
retention. The finished loaf should have better volume, symmetry,
texture, and grain. A number of the dough strengtheners also
function to various degrees as crumb softeners.
Crumb softeners are emulsifiers which function in a dough by

bonding with the starches. They will slow down the crumb firming
of a product, extending its shelf-life. Mono- and di-glycerides are
the most commonly used crumb softeners.
Table 4
FDA Approved Strengtheners And Softeners
US limits Strengthening Softening

Sodium Stearoyl -2 Lactylate (SSL) 0.5%* Excellent Very Good
Calcium Stearoyl-2Lactylate (CSL) 0.5%* Excellent Good
Diacetyl Tartatic Acid Esters of
Fat Forming Acids (DATEM) None Excellent Fair
Ethoxylated Mono and Diglycerides (EOM) 0.5%* Very Good Poor
Sucrose Esters None Excellent Fair
Polysorbate 60 0.5%* Fair Very Good
Succinylated Monoglyerides (SMG) 0.5%* Good Good
Mono and Diglycerides (Mono and Di) None None Excellent
* 21 CFR 136.110: The total alone or in combination cannot exceed 0.5%


Function of Ingridients AIB

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BAKING SCIENCE AND

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Baking bread begins with combining the appropriate ingredients as

Wheat and Flour

Winter wheats are planted in the fall, germinate and begin to

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Spring wheats are planted in the spring and harvested in late

Hardness relates to the mechanical force required to crush a kernel.

Hard wheat varieties are generally higher in protein and are

Durum wheat is used in the manufacture of macaroni, spaghetti,

The wheat kernel consists of three major, distinct parts: germ,

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The largest part of the wheat

The BRAN is the outer coat of the

The GERM, or embryo, is the

The ALUERONE layer surrounds

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The aleurone is the outer layer of the endosperm, and is often

The germ, or embryo, is the living portion of the wheat kernel.

The largest part of the wheat kernel is the endosperm. It supplies

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Wheat flour’s gluten-forming protein matrix makes it ideal for the

Vital Wheat gluten

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In production, there are several ways to determine if absorption

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Yeast’s primary function in a bread dough is to provide leavening.

For instant dry yeast, no refrigeration is required and storage life is

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Compressed yeast is commonly used in retail bake shops

Autolysis is the process by which the yeast destroys itself through

Cream yeast is commonly used in wholesale production. Cream

Both compressed and cream yeasts must be refrigerated. When

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Yeast performs other functions in addition to leavening. During

Since yeast’s effectiveness is altered by storage and handling

Cream Yeast Compressed Yeast

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Active Dry Yeast Instant Dry Yeast

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processing. Simply tasting the dough will be the quickest and

There are many kinds of sugars, or fermentable

When storing syrups, it is important to keep the

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Fats and Oils

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Milk is an excellent buffer, so milk solids can slow or regulate

Mineral Yeast Food

1. Water conditioner: calcium (carbonate or sulfate) and

Use level of mineral yeast foods ranges from 0-0.75%.

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Bread is an ideal medium for mold growth, because mold likes

Whether or not mold inhibitors are an essential ingredient depends

Natural mold inhibitors include vinegar, raisin juice concentrate,

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Enzymes are added to bread dough to increase the shelf-life,

As an example of what enzymes do in bread, amylases converts

The effects of enzymes depend on time, temperature, and the

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Crumb softeners are emulsifiers which function in a dough by

US limits Strengthening Softening

* 21 CFR 136.110: The total alone or in combination cannot exceed 0.5%