DEPARTMENT OF GEOMATICS ENGINEERING

SURVEYING-1 WEEK - 04
 ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Determining the location of points and orientations of lines frequently

depends on measurements of angles and directions.

Angles measured in surveying are classified as either horizontal or

vertical, depending on the plane in which they are observed.

Angles are most directly observed in the field with theodolites and total

stations.

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 ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent

lines. Three basic requirements determine the angle.

Figure:1(C.D.Ghilani & P.R.Wolf,2008)

As shown in this figure:1,

(1) reference or starting line
(2) direction of turning
(3) angular distance (value of the angle).
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 ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Figure:2 (Ü.Öğün, Topografya Ders Notları)

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ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Figure 1.2 (Engineering Surveying, Shofield & Breach, 2007)

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ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Vertical line: is a line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated

by a plumb line. (Figure2: ZN line)
Horizontal plane: is a plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity. In
plane surveying, a plane perpendicular to the plumb line. (Figure2: R
plane)
Horizontal line: is a line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, a line
perpendicular to the vertical. (Figure2: OA and OB line)
Vertical plane: is a plane, including vertical line, perpendicular to
horizontal plane. (Figure2: P1 and P2 plane)
Horizontal angle: is formed by the directions to two objects in a
horizontal plane. (Figure2: ß angle, BOA angle)

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 ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Level surface: is a curved surface that

every point is perpendicular the plumb
line.
Plumb line: is a line that follows the
direction of gravity.
Vertical angle: is formed by two
intersecting lines in a vertical plane,
one of these lines horizontal.
Zenith angle: is the complementary
angle to the vertical angle and is
(Basic Surveying The Theory and Practice,2000. )
formed by two intersecting lines in a
vertical plane, one of these lines
directed toward the zenith.

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ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Vertical angles
Z : zenith angle
N : Nadir angle
α : slope angle
(vertical angle)
N : 200g - Z
Z + α = 100g

Figure:4 (Ü. Öğün, Topografya Ders Notları)

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 Figure:5 (C.D.Ghilani & P.R.Wolf,2008)

ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

In the Figure:5; OAB and ECD are horizontal planes, and OACE and ABDC are vertical planes.
Then as illustrated, horizontal angles, such as angles AOB, and horizontal distances OA and
OB , are measured in horizontal planes.
Altitude (vertical) angles, such as AOC, are measured in vertical planes; zenith angles, such
as EOC, are also measured in vertical planes; vertical lines, such as AC and BD, and slope
distance, such as OC, are determined along inclined planes.
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THEODOLITE

A theodolite is an instrument which is used primarily to measure

angles, both horizontal and vertical. It is also used for many
other subsidiary work during surveying such as setting up of
intermediate points between inter visible points, establishment
of inter visible points, prolonging a line, laying out traverse etc.

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Types of theodolites

Classification with respect to a construction

Open-faced, vernier-equipped engineer’s transit
Optical theodolites with direct digital read-outs or micrometer-
equipped read-outs (for more precise readings)
Electronic theodolites

Classification with respect to accuracy

One-minute theodolites: the least division of the scale is 1 or 2
minutes
One-second theodolites: the least division of the scale is 1 or 2
seconds

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COMPONENTS OF A THEODOLITE
Vertical Circle
Micrometer for
Circle Readings Objective of
Telescope

Horizontal Axis

Optical Switch for TURN

Horizontal/Vertical
Circle Readings Standard
Fine Horizontal
Adjustment for
Telescope Horizontal Circle
Alignment Adjustment
(Tangent Screw) For Orientation
Horizontal circle (Orientation Driver)
housing
Vertical Axis

Tribrach (detachable)
of Rotation

Eye piece of
optical plummet
Foot Screw
Circular Bubble
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Figure:9 (E.Tarı , M.Sahin , Surveying II Lecture Notes)
 Figure 6.16 (Engineering
Surveying, Shofield & Breach,
2007)

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AXES OF A THEODOLITE

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 Theodolite
Axes of theodolite
SS: Vertical (principal) axis
TT: Horizontal axis
PP: Plate bubble axis
CC: Collimation axis (line of sight)
The most important relationships are as follows:

Figure:10 (H.Özener ,
Surveying Lecture Notes

Plate bubble axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis. This is «MAIN AXIS CONDITION.
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AXES OF A THEODOLITE

Horizontal Axis

PlateBubble Axis

Vertical Axis
=Princpal Axis
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Theodolite
In case of improper axis conditions
Figure 5.14 (Engineering Surveying,
Shofield & Breach, 2007)

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Theodolite
In case of improper axis conditions

Figure 5.17 (Engineering Surveying,

Shofield & Breach, 2007)

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Theodolite
Instrument setup

At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to

carry out some operations in sequence. The set of operations those
are required to be done on an instrument in order to make it
ready for observation.

1. Setting
2. Centering
3. Leveling
4. Focusing

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Theodolite:
Instrument setup:

1. Setting
Tripod height; Upper about chest height to make observation easily. Place the instrument
over the point with the tripod plate as level as possible. Then place the theodolite on the top
of tripod. Theodolite must be hold by hand until the theodolite is attached to tripod head.

2. Centering
Check that the station point can be seen through the optical plummet. (Rotate the
focus reticle – pull in or out to focus on the ground- monument)

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Theodolite

Instrument setup

Fıgure 11.1 http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CE/hawahab/WEBPAGE/CE260/NOTES/CH5.pdf

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Theodolite
Instrument setup

Fıgure 11.2 http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CE/hawahab/WEBPAGE/CE260/NOTES/CH5.pdf

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Theodolite
Instrument setup

Then push in the tripod legs firmly by pressing down on the tripod shoe
spurs. If the point is now not visible in the optical plumb sight, leave one
leg in the ground, lift the other two legs, and rotate the instrument, all the
while looking through the optical plumb sight. When the point is sighted,
carefully lower the two legs to the ground and reseat them keeping the
station point view.

While looking through the optical plumb, manipulate the leveling screws
until the crosshair of the optical plummet is directly on the station mark.

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Theodolite
Instrument setup

Figure:13 (H.Özener , Surveying Lecture Notes)

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Theodolite
Instrument setup
3. Leveling

Level the theodolite circular (pond) bubble by adjusting the tripod legs up or down
(approximate leveling). This is accomplished by noting which leg, when slid up or down ,
moves the circular bubble toward the bull’s eye. Upon adjusting the leg, either the
bubble will move into the circle, or it will slide around until it is exactly opposite another
tripod leg. That leg should then be adjusted up or down until the bubble moves into the
circle.
Perform a check through the optical plummet to confirm that it is still close to being over
the station mark / turn one or more foot screws to be ensure that circular bubble is now
exactly centered (if necessary).

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Theodolite
Instrument setup

Figure:15

Figure:14 (H.Özener , Surveying Lecture Notes)

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Theodolite
Instrument setup
The instrument can be now be leveled precisely by centering the plate (tubular) bubble.
a) Set the plate bubble so that it is aligned in the same direction as two of the foot screws.
Turn these two screws in opposite direction until the bubble is centered.
b) Turn the instrument 100g , at which plate bubble will be aligned with the third leveling
(foot) screw. Finally turn that third screw to center bubble.

Figure:15 (Ghilani & Wolf, 2008)

Theodolite

Instrument setup

Finally, check the axis of plate bubble should be in a plane

perpendicular to the vertical axis. main axis order).

It is always checked by turning the instrument through 200g. If

the plate bubble is centered, the instrument is leveled.

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Theodolite Sightings

4. Focusing

The telescope are short, have reticles with crosshairs etched on glass, and
are equipped with rifle sight or collimators for rough pointing.

Most telescope have two focusing controls.

 The objective lens control is used to focus on the object being viewed.
 The eyepiece control is used to focus on reticle.

If the focusing of the two lenses is not coincident, a condition known as “parallax” will
exist.

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Theodolite Sightings

Parallax The change in apparent position of one object with respect to a further
one. A source of possible error in many kinds of observation.

Parallax is the apparent motion of an object caused by a movement in the position

of observer’s eye. The existence of parallax can be observed by quickly shifting
one’s eye position slightly and watching for movement of the object in relation to
crosshairs. Careful adjustment of the eyepiece and objective lens will result in a
sharp image of both the object and the crosshairs with no visible parallax.

Since the eye tends to tire through use, the presence of parallax should be checked
throughout the day.

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Theodolite Sightings
Some typical theodolite reticles

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ANGLE MEASUREMENT
Reading observations:
Reading microscope :
Reading directly on the
microscope :
108g 40c
Estimate the value between
two mean reading lines:
08c
Reading: 108g 40c + 08c =
108g 48c

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ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Reading observations:
Scala microscope:
Vertical angle reading:
V = 291g 86c
Horizontal angle reading:
H = 372g 08c

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ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Reading observations:
Optic micrometer microscope:
Horizontal angle reading:
218,752 grad

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Observing horizontal angles:
Horizontal angles are observed in horizontal planes. The theodolite is set
properly set over the instrument station and leveled, sight on the left-hand
station (usually), clamp the horizontal movement, and then set the vertical
crosshair precisely on the station by using the fine adjustment screws;
second, set the scales to zero(usually) or some other required value by
turning the appropriate screws; third, loosen the clamp and turn the
instrument until it is pointing at the second (right hand) station, set the
clamp and use the fine adjusting screw to precisely sight the vertical
crosshair on that station; fourth, read and book the angles.
To help eliminate mistakes and to improve precision, angles are measured
twice. Therefore, theodolite is turning face II, once with the telescope
normal (right-side up) and once with the telescope reverse (upside-down).

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Observing horizontal angles:
Then, re-sight the second station point (right-hand or foresight) in Face II (Face Right-R)
as described above and then re-sight first station point (left-hand or back sight) in Face
II. The mean angle determined by direct and reversed observations.
P1 – station point
P2 – left target (back sight)
P3 – right target (foresight)
B : horizontal angle (clockwise)

Face I = P2 then P3 observations

Face II =P3 then P2 observations

Figure:25

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Observing horizontal angles:
To measure an angle set with a directional theodolite:
Point to the backsight in the direct position, lock on the target
and record the plate reading. Although not mathematically necessary, we set he
horizontal circle to zero to simplify the calculations and to aid in any necessary
debugging of the data.
Loosen the horizontal motion and turn to the foresight. Lock the
horizontal motion, perfect the sighting, then record the horizontal plate
reading.
Loosen both horizontal and vertical motions, plunge the scope
and point to the foresight. Again (in the reverse position) lock the
horizontal motion, perfect the sighting and record the horizontal plate
reading.
Loosen the horizontal motion and turn to the backsight, lock the
horizontal motion, perfect the sighting and record the horizontal plate
reading.
This completes one set. Depending on the accuracy required additional sets should
be turned.

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Observing horizontal angles:

Face I = Face Left (vertical circle on left)

Face II = Face Right (vertical circle on right)
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Observing vertical angles:
A zenith angle is read on the vertical circle after pointing at a target. (the direction to the
zenith is given-vertical).
The vertical circle rotates with tilting of the telescope and indexes of the reading scale
are (or should) be in horizontal position during a measurement of the zenith angle.
The correct position of the indexes is ensured by;
Collimation (index) level – older types of theodolites
Compensator – it works automatically (modern instruments)
The mentioned requirements for axes of the theodolite have to be fulfilled during a
measurement of zenith angle too.
In addition to these requirements, a reading on the vertical circle should be 100g if the
line of sight is horizontal. There is so-called index error if this requirements is not
fulfilled. It is possible to avoid this error by measurement in both positions of the
telescope and by calculation of correction.

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 Measurement of a zenith angle in both
positions of the telescope

(Face II)
(Face I)

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Observing vertical angles:

If there is no index error,

Z1 + Z2 = 400g

If there is an index error;

Z1 + Z2 = 400g + 2i
i = (Z1 + Z2 - 400g ) /2

and corrected zenith angle

Z = Z1 - i

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Observing vertical angles:

Face I = Face Left (vertical circle on left)

Face II = Face Right (vertical circle on right)
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REFERENCES:

 Basic Surveying -The Theory and Practice, Oregon Department of Transportation,

Geometronics Unit, Ninth Annual Seminar, February 2000.

 C.D. Ghilani, P.R. Wolf; Elementary Surveying , Pearson Education International Edition,
Twelfth Edition,2008 .

Barry F. Kavanagh, Surveying Principles and Applications, Pearson Education International

Edition, Eight Edition,2009.

Ü.Öğün , Topografya Ders Notları ,

E.Tarı , M.Sahin , Surveying II Lecture Notes - Slides ,

H.Özener , Surveying Lecture Notes , CE200 Surveying, Boğaziçi University Kandilli Observatory
and Earthquake Research Institute Department of Geodesy

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REFERENCES:
URL 1: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
ROORKEE/SURVEYING/home.htm

URL 2: http://k154.fsv.cvut.cz/~linkova/lect4.pps

URL 3: http://www.civl.port.ac.uk/survey/

URL 4: http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CE/hawahab/WEBPAGE/CE260/NOTES/CH5.pdf

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