Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology

EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

INTRODUCTION

Types of Measurements in Surveying

a) Distance Measurements
b) Angular Measurements
c) Height Differences

Basic Principles of Surveying

a) The survey area is always totally covered with the simplest possible
framework of high quality measurements. If the rest of the survey is
carried out within this control the possible damaging accumulation of errors
can be contained. This is termed as working from “whole-to-part”.

b) Observing procedures are designed so that

i) Most mistakes that occur are discovered immediately, and
ii) Possible sources of systematic errors are eliminated.

c) Additional or redundant, observations are taken so that all data can be

checked for the mistakes, systematic errors and random errors that occur
e.g. the three angles of triangles could be observed although only two are
required to define the shape. The third angle could be deduced but when
measured acts as a check.

d) Many quantities are observed several times. These repeated measurement

and the observation of redundant data serve both us checks and to improve
the final results.

e) Checking: Even though all checking procedures employed by the surveyor

errors might still occur in the finished plan. Thus final independent checks
are required. For simple work, this would involve inspecting the final plan in
the field and computing some measurements scaled off the plan with their
equivalent on the ground.

Plans and Maps

A plan is a true to scale representation while a map is drawn to such a small
scale that some features on it cannot be drawn to scale e.g. on a 1: 1 million map,
rivers and roads may be shown but may not be to scale. A 5 m road would be
0.001 m wide if drawn to scale.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Scale
Maps, plans, building drawings are all representation on paper of actual features
on the ground.

The dimension on a map or plan to the corresponding dimension on the ground is

called the scale of the map or plan concerned; e.g. if on a site planthe length of
a building is 0.1 m and the actual length is 50 m then the scale of the map is 0.1/
50 or 0.1 : 50 = 1/500.

Scale can be written as:

(i) A representative fraction e.g. 1/500
(ii) Statement e.g. 1 metre represents 500 metres
(iii) Linear; this is normally drawn on the map/ plan

Scales are said to be large or small but there is no definite dividing point. A
scale is larger than the other if the numerical value of the representative
fraction is larger than the other e.g 1/100 is larger than 1/500.

Some common scales:

1. Component and assembly detail drawing; 1:1, 1:10, 1:20
2. Architectural works, building works, location drawings; 1/50, 1/100,
1/200
3. Site plans, engineering works; 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000 1/ 2500
4. Town surveys, highway surveys; 1/2000, 1/2500 1/5000 1/10000, 1/
20000
5. Mapping 1/50000, 1/100000, 1/250000, 1/ 500000, 1/ 1000000

Instrumentation

a) Tapes/ Chain- graduated instruments used for measuring distances

between two points on the earth’s surface.
b) Magnetic Compass- Measures bearing with respect to the Magnetic North.
The pocket prismatic compass is accurate to 1°while the full prismatic
compass is accurate to 0.5°.
c) A Theodolite is an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and
vertical planes. It consists chiefly of 2 graduated circles, horizontal circle
and a vertical circle. The angular readings are obtained from the circles
against index pointers. Accuracies upto 1” can be obtained.
d) A Level is the equipment that is used to give a horizontal line of sight based
on a spirit bubble so that by reading on levelling staffs differences in height
between points can be obtained.
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

e) Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) instrument: A modern technology for

measuring distances using a receiver/transmitter of electromagnetic waves
at one end of the measured line and a reflecting prism at the other end to
determine distance.
f) A Total Station is an instrument that is capable of measuring angles and
distances electronically. It is thus a combination of a digital theodolite and
an EDM instrument.
g) Global Positioning Systems (GPS): Appropriate receivers receive radio
signals transmitted from the GPS satellites. The signals are in turn used to
determine the position of the receiver in 3D.

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS:

Terms used:
Direction is the orientation of a point in relation to a reference point.
Angle is the difference between two directions.
Bearing (Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)) is the clockwise horizontal angle of a line
from a principal line. The principal line in most cases is the meridian.
Azimuth is the bearing taken with respect to the direction of north.

Units of Angular Measurements:

Most common units are:
1. Degrees: Degrees Decimal (DEG) or Degrees (°) Minutes (’) and Seconds (”)
(DMS)
1° = 60’,
1” = 60”,
1° = 60 x 60 = 3600 ”

2. Gons: 400 gon = 360°

THE THEODOLITE

The diagram below shows a theodolite in principle. It consists chiefly of two

graduated circles, horizontal circle and a vertical circle. The angular readings
are obtained from the circles against index pointers.

For the instrument to be in proper adjustment, it is necessary that axes TOR,

HON and XO be orthogonal to one another. And since XO is in the vertical
direction as it is the axis of rotation of the horizontal circle – it follows that
XO, HON, LOS, FK must be co-planar and TOR must be perpendicular to the
plane at O.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

S
H P2 R
O
α
P1
T
N
L

F
H1

X
H2

In the diagram, if we now incorporate index pointers H1, H2, V1, V2 as shown, we
are able to read off the circles the directions of the object in both horizontal
and vertical circles. The line of sight is obtained by the use of a sighting device,
which in this case is the telescope, incorporated with cross hairs in the vertical
and horizontal planes.

The cross hairs are used for bisecting the target precisely .The telescope has
the added advantage that it produces magnified images of objects.

A spirit bubble is provided for levelling the instruments so as to keep the

vertical axis XO vertical for all observations with the instrument this axis must
be vertical. For vertical circle readings it is also necessary that HN be
horizontal, since it is the line of reference for vertical angles. Although it is
quite possible to fix the vertical circle and only allow the telescope to rotate
about TOR with respect to it (the circle) the reverse process however seems
the common case .The vertical circle is fixed to the telescope such that both
move together relative to an index pointer P1 (or P2) on a horizontal line
contained in the same plane as HON .To keep P1P2 horizontal a spirit bubble is
provided.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

THE RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

There are basically two principal types of computations types of computations

involving coordinates in plane surveying, namely;
(i) the computation of coordinates of a point with respect to another known
point given the bearing and distance between the two points
(ii) the computation of bearing and distance between two points given the
coordinates of the points.

The first type of computation is known as polar computation while the

second one is known as join computation.

Polar Computation
Given two dimensional coordinates (N1, E1) of a point, P1 and the distance l and
bearing α of another point, P2 from P1. Compute the coordinates of (N2, E2) of
point P2.

N
∆E P2 (N2, E2)

l
∆
α N
E
P1 (N1, E1)

N2 = N1+ ∆N but ∆N = lcosα

therefore N2 = N1+ lcosα (1)

E2 = E1+ ∆E but ∆E = lsinα

therefore E2 = E1+ lsinα (2)

Equations (1) and (2) are valid for all values of α between 0o and 360o. However,
it is important that the trigonometric functions (cosα and sinα) are entered into
the equations with their correct signs.

Join Computation
This is the reverse of the polar computation. Given coordinates (N1, E1) of a
point, P1 and (N2, E2) of P2. Compute the distance and bearing of P2 form P1.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Referring to the above diagram, we have that

tanα = ∆E/∆N
where ∆N = N2 - N1 and ∆E = E2 - E1
and
l = ∆N/ cosα = ∆E/ sinα
where α will have been obtained from tanα = ∆E/∆N

It should be noted however that tanα as obtained from above will not give α
directly in the correct quadrant, and so it becomes necessary that an
appropriate ‘IF’ statement be incorporated to give the computation in the
correct quadrant.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

TRAVERSING

General Principles

A traverse is a method of determining coordinates of points by computing such

coordinates from a series of bearings and distances.

The method is essentially an extension of “polar computation” in which the

coordinates of appoint are determined with respect to those of another point
from a bearing and distance linking the two.

We consider points A, P1, P2, P3, P4 already set out in the field. The coordinates
of A are known and it is required to determine the coordinates of P1, P2, P3 and
P4 with respect to those of A. For this, bearings 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 and distances l1, l2,
l3, l4 are determined from field observations.

P1 (  3 , l3) P3 (  4 , l4)
(  2 , l2)
( 1 , l1)
A P2 P4

From 1 and l1, the coordinates of P1 may be computed with respect to A from
polar computation. Next, with the coordinates of P1 known we compute P2 from
P1,  2 and l2. Similarly, we compute P3 from P2,  3 and l3 and we compute P4 from
P4,  4 and l4.

Types of Traverses

Traverses are normally considered as being of three kinds:

(i) open or “swinging” traverses
(ii) closed or connecting traverses, and
(iii) loop traverses

Open Traverse
This is a traverse in which only one of the terminal points is fixed. Thus the
coordinates of the new points have to be determined in relation to only the one
fixed point. The traverse A - P1 - P2 - P3 - P4 represented below is an open
traverse in which A is the first terminal point and P1, P2, P3 and P4 are to be
determined with respect to A.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

P1 P3

P4
A P2

Closed Traverse
In this case both the terminal points of the traverse are fixed. The new points
are now constrained for these two terminals implying that the coordinates of
the new points must be adjusted to be in conformity with the two terminal
points.

B
P3
P1 P2
P4
A

In the traverse A - P1 - P2 - P3 - P4 - B above, the terminals A and B are fixed and

P1, P2, P3 and P4 are to be coordinated with respect to both A and B. A - P1 - P2 -
P3 - P4 – B is the closed (or connecting) traverse.

Loop Traverse
This is the traverse which starts and ends at the same point. The traverse A -
L1 - L2 - L3– A represented below is a loop traverse.

L1
L2

A
L3

In this case the traverse is considered as starting from A and coming back to A
through new points L1, L2 and L3.

Whichever of these will normally depend on the availability of external control

to which the traverse could be tied, and also on the desired accuracy.

The loop and open traverses may be resorted to when there is insufficient
control around the site, and when the accuracy desired is not high.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

For high accuracies, closed traverses would normally be preferred. However it

is important to note that even for a closed traverse the quality of the traverse
will only be high if the external coordinates are of a higher accuracy, otherwise
the external coordinates might themselves considerably lower the quality of
the traverse. Therefore before a traverse is constrained to a set of external
coordinates, such coordinates should be known to be of a higher accuracy than
the desired accuracy of the coordinates from the traverse.

TRAVERSE FIELD WORK

The field work in traversing generally comprises reconnaissance, angular

measurement and linear measurement.

Reconnaissance:
This involves the planning of the actual survey in the field. In the planning of
traversing reconnaissance would involve locating the route the traverse is
supposed to take and establishing the actual traverse points as strategic as
possible with respect to that which is to be mapped.

The factors to be considered in a reconnaissance include:

1) Consecutive traverse stations should be intervisible and the traverse lines
should be such that the distances should be conveniently measured.
2) The traverse lines should be as long as possible. Unnecessarily short lines
should be avoided. Short lines tend to considerably lower the quality of the
traverse.
3) Grazing rays should be avoided so as to avoid the effects of refraction.
4) The traverse should fulfil effectively the principal purpose e.g. if the
traverse is meant for detail mapping, then the traverse lines should be set
close to the details, if on the other hand if the traverse is being run for the
provision of general control then the traverse legs will need to be as long as
possible.
It is also during reconnaissance that the traverse stations would normally be
established. The degree of permanency of these points will depend on the
permanency of the proposed traverse. The traverse marks could range from
pegs in the ground to heavy concrete pillars on the ground; in between could
be pegs in concrete and iron pins in concrete.

Angular Measurements:
There are fundamentally two ways in which angular observations in a traverse
may be performed;
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

i) observing directly oriented directions (bearings)

ii) observing directions or angles from which the bearings may be determined.

The former approach is generally faster and there is no need to re-compute the
bearings from the field observations, but it is less accurate compared with the
second approach. We may refer to these methods as the Method of bearings
and the Method of directions (or method of angles) respectively.

The Method of Bearings

In this case the observed theodolite directions are oriented according to
already known bearings from the observations within the traverse or by other
means. To illustrate this we consider traverse A - P1 - P2 - P3 as below. In A - P1 -
P2 - P3, A is a fixed point and A is required to determine the coordinates of P1,
P2 and P3. Also point B is known, hence the bearing AB. Let the bearing AB be 0.

B P1 3 P3
0 2

P2
1
A
With the theodolite at A the horizontal circle is set to read 0 as the
theodolite is pointed onto B. With the circle clamped, theodolite is pointed onto
P1. Let the reading onto P1 be 1. Since the theodolite breading is initially set to
0 when pointing onto B, 1 is the observed bearing of P1 fro A.

The instrument is next moved to P1. With the instrument pointing onto A the
reading on the horizontal circle is set to 1 ± 180o (the sign depends on whether
1 is smaller or larger than 180o). Once more a reading is taken onto P2, let this
be 2. The observed bearing of P1P2 is then 2. Similarly by making use of P1P2 at
P2 the bearing 3 of P2P3 may be obtained.

Method of Directions (or Angles)

We consider once more once more the traverse A - P1 - P2 - P3. With the
theodolite at A, let it be that an arbitrary direction δab is observed to B. With
the circle clamped, the instrument is next turned onto P1, let the direction be
δa1.

B 12 P3
δab 23
P1 δ23
δ12
B1 δa1 P2

A
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

From δab and δa1, the angle B1 may be determined. Next, at P1 direction P1A is
observed. Let this be δ1a. And also the direction to P2 is observed, let this be δ12.
Again from δ12 and δ1a the angle 12 is obtained. Similarly, 12 may be obtained
from δ21 and δ23.

Now since bearing AB is known, the bearing AP1, may be determined from B1 and
with P1A known, P1P2 may be determined from 12 and 23 and thus the bearing
P2P3 obtained.

Angular Observations and Adjustment

In practice the angles are usually never explicitly determined as such and then
applied to the given bearings as discussed above. The directions are instead
treated as their own with the angles coming out only implicitly.

In the field the angular observations at a station will be entered in the field
book as follows:

At P
A Q
O O
17 21’ 36” 72 23’ 08” + 4”
102 16 43 157 18 23 - 4
275 04 53 275 04 45

The included angle from the first pair of readings is 55O 01’ 32” and from the
second pair is 55O 01’ 40”. Mean of the two readings is 55O 01’ 36”. However
instead of such explicit determination of the included angle, we may accept
observations on one of the points and then adjust the observations on the other
points to them by comparing the differences of the Face Left (FL) and Face
Right (FR) observations. In this case we proceed as follows:

On Q we have the difference between FL and FR as 275O 04’ 46”against 275O

04’ 53” in A. now, for equal included angles from FL and FR readings the
differences between the FL and FR readings should also be the same. Instead
of explicitly determining the included angles and then finding their mean, we
adjust the actual observed directions such that the differences are equal. To
do this one pair of observations on one of the stations is held fixed and only the
other pair is adjusted.

In the above example then, we could adopt the difference on A i.e. 275O 04’ 53”
and then adjust that on Q to it. To bring the difference on Q to 275O 04’ 53”
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

requires an addition of 8” to it. And to apply this additional 8” so as to end up

with a mean included angle as well, we need to add 4” to the first reading (i.e.
FL reading) and subtract 4” from the second reading (i.e. FR reading). [This
distribution for the 8” assumes that the differences between the FL and FR
readings were obtained by subtracting the second (FR) reading from the first
(FL) reading. If the subtraction had been the reverse, then it is evident that
distribution of the 8” will be in the reverse].

The reading on Q will now be 72O 23’ 12” and 153O 18’ 19”. The included angle
will now be 72O 23’ 12” - 17O 21’36” = 53O 01’ 36” and from FR will be 157O 18’
19” - 102O 16’ 43” = 55 O 01’ 36” which is the mean of the included angle from FL
and FR.

Linear Measurements

Linear measurements may be carried by chain, tape or EDM measurements.

Sometimes optical distance measurements are also used. Whatever method is
adopted however, all the necessary reductions must be applied to the measured
distances.

Field Note Keeping

There is no definite rule about the recording of field readings in traversing as

such. There are however a few important points that should be observed in
taking the field notes:

(i) Only that which has been directly read from the instrument should be
recorded and calculations should be done later in the ‘office’.
(ii) The format adopted for recording the observations should be such as to
render such notes clear and easy to follow.
(iii) Overwriting and erasing are strictly not permitted – an eraser therefore is
never part of a surveyor’s field equipment except where some drafting work
is to be carried out directly in the field such as in plane table mapping and
tacheometric mapping.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Detection of blunders in traverses:

1. Angular blunders.
-Through computation;
Compute the traverse from both ends

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

The point whose coordinates remain the same both ways is the point at which
the angular gross error will have been committed.

Eliminated by:
-re-observation at station in error or
-computed by other methods

2. Distance blunders.

Compute the traverse and determine the misclosure.

The line in the traverse to which the misclosure is parallel is the line most likely
in error; by the amount of the misclosure.

THE RAY-TRACE TRAVERSE

The ray-trace traverse is a traverse observed and computed without observed

orientation rays.

Assumptions in using Ray-Trace Traversing

There are two major assumptions:

(i). Ground position of terminals corresponds to their coordinate values.

This may not be true because;

• original coordinates may not have been good
• beacon may have been disturbed since coordination
• beacon may have been misidentified

(ii). The Ray-Trace field work contains no gross errors.

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 Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Angular Measurements Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

One may not be so sure. Any gross errors are difficult to detect during
computation as the size of the scale factor and bearing swing have no
limits.

Precautions in using the Ray-Trace Traverse

(i). Beacons must be critically examined and their ground position compared
with the plan description. If possible mean between them (see Survey
Regulations 66 & 67)
(ii). Extra care should be taken during observations; especially in setting up
the tripods at terminals.

(iii). A linear misclosure should be computed as follow and if not in agreement

with normal traverse specification, traverse should be rejected:

traverse length (L1) –coordinate length (L2) = misclosure (m)

Accuracy = m/L2 = 1/x

The normal accuracy is 1/10,000. It is should not be worse than 1/5,000.

(iv). The traverse line should not deviate significantly from the direct line
between the terminals.

(v). If any outside orientation can be observed in mid-traverse, it should be

used.

Advantages of Ray-Trace Traverse

(i). Convenient in difficult situations

(ii). Economical

However, it is not as accurate as the normal traverse.

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