Running head: The Inca Society 1

The Inca Society

[Student’s Name]

Evergreen Valley College

The Inca Society 2

The Inca Society

The story of the Inca Empire or Inka as they are sometimes referred to is a story that has

for decades and even centuries motivated people from various regions of the world. This

civilization was the largest and powerful empire in pre-Columbian America that came into

existence in the 13th century. It lasted from around 1438 to 1533 when the Spanish arrived in the

region and conquered it in 1572 [ CITATION Kic16 \l 1033 ]. The empire had its administrative,

military and political center at Cusco or Cuzco in modern-day Peru. The Inca Empire used

various methods which included peaceful assimilation and conquests to occupy large parts of

western South America. The reign began with Pachacuti-Cusi Yupanqui ascending to power

after which the Inca expanded its borders to include Bolivia, modern-day Equador, Peru,

Northwest Argentina, and north-central Chile as well as southern Colombia. This large territory

was known as Quechua meaning Inca Empire or Tawatin Suyu (Four Regions).

1. The people

The origin of the Inca people is not clear because there are many legends which try to

explain their being and how they came into existence. For instance, one myth claims that Inca

had survived a massive flooding that ravaged their ancestral land and some people escaped after

hiding in a hollow in a high mountain. However, despite the existence of various works of

literature that attempt to explain the origin of this group of people, it is certain that Incas are

South American Indians. History traces them as a pastoral tribe that lived in Cusco area before

the rise of Inca Empire back in 12th century. Oral history indicates that they originated in three

caves with the center cave being Tampu T'uqu (Tambo Tocco). Other caves are Maras T'uqu and

Sutiq T'uqu [ CITATION McE06 \l 1033 ]. It is claimed that the Incas are descendants of four
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brothers, Ayar Uchu, Ayar Manco, Ayar Auca and Ayar Cachi and four sisters, Mama Huaco,

Mama Ocllo, Mama Cora and Ayar Manco who came out of the middle cave.

Religion and Sacrifice

According to McEwan, Inca had many gods which included Viracocha (creator god), Inti

(the sun god), Illapa (god of thunder), Pachamama, earth mother goddess and other gods. They

honored their gods in different ways including offering animal and human sacrifices, prayers and

through fasting. The most powerful way of honoring gods was through offering human

sacrifices, mainly children and teenagers. Before the sacrifice, children and teenagers to be

sacrificed were fed with special diet mainly maize and Llama meat, alcohol and coca

leaves[ CITATION Owe18 \l 1033 ]. Like most tribes in the past, Inca believed in reincarnation.

They believed that the spirit of the dead went through a world that has many difficulties and

would be assisted by a black dog that sees even when it is dark. They believed that the afterworld

was an earthly paradise covered with beautiful fields.

Cultural symbols

The Chicana/ Inca Cross

The Incas had various symbols representing different things in their culture. For instance,

the most significant of them all is the Chakana or the Inca Cross which was a wonderful symbol.

The Chikana is a Southern Cross constellation as seen from the Southern Hemisphere. The cross

represents many things most of which were tenets of the Inca society such as love, trust,

connections, protection, awareness, productivity, and connections among others[ CITATION

Tou17 \l 1033 ].
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The condor

The condor symbolized righteousness and was considered the most sacred bird in the

Inca Empire. It was believed that the condor was a messenger between the earth and heaven that

takes spirits of the dead people from earth to heaven on its wings. Condors usually travel long

distances daily and overcome different altitudes of the Andes and therefore was chosen as a

mediator between spiritual worlds[ CITATION BRA18 \l 1033 ].

The Puma and the Wise snake

Puma represented the earth, a central world. It represented the strength or power that

existed on the earth’s surface. Cusco, the headquarters had a shape of a Puma. On the other hand,

the snake symbolized knowledge and wisdom. It symbolized the beginning of a new knowledge

whereby the Andeans believed that life begins in the underworld[ CITATION BRA18 \l 1033 ].

Accordingly, they believed that a snake travels to the underworld where it sheds the skin and

comes back “newly born”.

Food

The elite food for the Incas was maize and wheat and was consumed by the maidens and

their attendants before being sacrificed to the gods. Furthermore, the Incas also ate sweet

potatoes, chili peppers, quinoa and beans[ CITATION Owe18 \l 1033 ]. While eating and sacrificing,

rituals and songs accompanied it as a vital part. They also ate and sacrificed llamas and guinea

pigs and drank chichi peer which they also poured into ground to appease the gods. The crops

cultivated which ended up as food were coca, beans, cashews, cucumber, avocado and peanuts

among other[ CITATION Mar15 \l 1033 ].

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Customs and arts

The Incas were highly careful on deformed skull. Whenever a woman gave birth, a child

was wrapped on the head with a bandage to limit growth of the skull. They also had a custom

where holes were created in skulls of the living people to heal deep wounds and illnesses in the

head. As a ritual, they practiced cannibalism as they believed that the powers of a person can be

inherited by eating their flesh. They also performed rituals to honor the gods where they could

kill or bury children alive.

Incas produced some of the leading works of arts ever crafted in their time. The art was

evident in metalwork, textiles, and ceramics with textiles being regarded as the most prestigious

work of art in Inca Empire (Cartwright, 2016). Although some of the art was inspired by those

that existed in other Andean civilizations, Incas went on to create the most innovative ceramics,

textiles and metal sculptures that none of the Andean designs could compete. Some of the most

famous designs are the checkerboards. They also used clay in pottery which they mixed with

materials such as sand, mica, shell to prevent ceramics and pots from cracking and pulverized

rock. They also used precious metals for jewelry, knives, dippers, figurines, and discs. These

metals included gold, silver, diamond, copper, and bronze among others.

2. Sustainability

Ecology

From the rainforest of the Amazon to the Andes mountains, the Inca Empire had a variety

of species both plants and animals. Peru’s natural environments allowed the Incas to farm

different crops and keep some animals which include the llamas and Alpaca among others. The
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only domesticated animals by the Incas were the llamas, alpacas and the guinea pigs. They used

these animals as offerings to their gods. On the other hand, the llamas were used as pack animals

and were used as a source of clothing as well. Incas practiced herbal medicines where different

plants with medicinal values were used to treat various ailments. For instance, they chewed the

coca leaves to relieve pain and many other disorders. For this reason, the Incas highly valued

coca plants and other plants with medicinal values.

Environment

Apart from the interaction of the Incas with other organisms in their ecosystems, they

also had a proper way of managing their environment as a way of sustaining themselves. As

demonstrated by the constructions of terraces and canals for irrigation and buildings done by the

Incas, it is apparent that the Incan Empire was highly aware of the need for sustainability and the

need to conserve their environment. From storage rooms for food crops to houses they built, their

practices and other activities, the Incans had various ways for sustaining themselves. According

to research, the long period of warm weather that was experienced between AD1100 and 1533

allowed the inhabitants of the empire to clear huge tracts of land which they used for farming.

Availability of adequate food and natural resources allowed the Incans to create superior

weapons that they used to expand their territory. The Incas created terraces in the mountains

which they then grew potatoes, maize among other food crops. They also developed canals that

were used to irrigate their farmlands. Although the land dried up in some years, the glacial ice

that was melted from the mountains offered a constant water supply that increased productivity

of different crops that ensured the population in the empire was satisfied. The Incas worked hard
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in different areas such as construction and building projects such as the 3,250-mile Royal Road

which was built through highlands among other projects.

Accordingly, Incas had ways of preserving their history which would then be passed to

the coming generations. For instance, the Incas passed knowledge through word of mouth.

Furthermore, they kept their records by using quipu or khipu, a method used by Incas to keep

records and communicate information. With lack of alphabet system at the time, quipu was a

portable and simple way of storing information. It was made up of various colors, knots, and

strings tied in a certain way and in different heights. The quipu was used to record dates, account

of events and statistics and even preserve episodes of poetry, folk stories and other types of

information. Cuzco, the capital of Inca had khipu kamayua, professional record keepers. Besides

keeping official records, they used quipu to aid their memories which were crucial in recounting

stories, myths, poems and myths of the Inca people. The Inca recorded their imperial conquests

and royal bloodlines in the quipu (Cartwright, 2014). Consequently, census data was also

recorded in the quipu detailing the number of males, females, married, unmarried and children

among others.

3. Politics

Organization of government and public institutions

The Inca Empire had one of the best political systems in the entire Andean region. Such a

system of governance was required to maintain the Inca’s growing empire and ensure operations

run smoothly. The Inca government was known as Tawantinsuyu. Theirs was a monarchy

whereby the empire was ruled by one leader called Sapa Inca (meaning sole ruler) who was the
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emperor. The emperor was the most powerful figure in the land and everyone reported to him.

His principal wife was known as Coya. There were several officers below the Sapa Inca who had

various responsibilities that helped to run the empire. Most of the high ranking officials were the

relatives of the emperor and were part of the Inca ruling class[ CITATION Muj18 \l 1033 ]. Some of

the high ranking officials in the empire were:

The Viceroy- He was the first in the line below the Sapa Inca and was also called Inkap Rantin.

He was the emperor’s close relative and worked as his main advisor.

The High Priest- Called "Willaq Umu”, the high priest was a very powerful figure in the

empire, only second to the Sapa Inca due to the way the Incas viewed religion. He was often a

brother to the Sapa Inca and was a field marshal in time of war.

Governors of a Quarter- The Empire was divided into four quarters each ruled by a governor

known as Apu who reported to the Sapa Inca.

Council of the Realm – These are the men closer to the Sapa Inca and advised him on major

issues affected the empire. The council was made up of powerful nobles.

Inspectors- Known as tokoyrikoq, these are the people used by the Sapa Inca to maintain control

and ensure taxes were paid and ways of the empire were adhered to. The inspectors watched

people all over the kingdom.

Military Generals – The head of the military was a close relative to the Sapa Inca. Known in the

empire as Apukuna, they were instrumental in protecting the empire and lead operations during

conquests.
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Apart from the leadership, taxation was a crucial part which kept the empire running. The

government used taxes for food and other resources. Tax collection was a responsibility of the

ayllu and tax inspector who made sure tax was paid. Laws were made by the Sapa Inca and

passed down the empire through the tax collectors. Offenses such as inability to pay taxes,

murder, stealing, cheating, and cursing of gods contravened the law and were harshly punished.

For example, cursing gods was punishable by death[ CITATION Muj18 \l 1033 ]. As a result of harsh

punishment, there was less crime in the empire.

Cultural values

Incas had strong values which every citizen was required to observe. One of the leading

cultural value was mutual respect, cooperation and coexistence between citizens of the Inca

empire. This was crucial to the empire as it made the empire cohesive and assured peace among

the Incas. There were some ceremonies which were held such as the Capac Raymi and Inti

Raymi which were done during the summer and winter respectively which brought the people

closer. The Capac Raymi was a ceremony done in summer solstice and was an initiation

ceremony for the youths of the ruling class. Inti Raymi on the other hand was a customary winter

ceremony carried out to honor the sun god. Another crucial ceremony was the Capacocha that

took place annually where children were sacrificed to the Sun God.

4. Technology

Industry, technological advancement and inventions in the Inca Empire

The Incas were among the most innovative people in the Andean region. They had various

technologies which made their lives easy ranging from stone cutting, astronomy, mathematics,
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agriculture, medicine, architecture, hydraulics and recordkeeping among others. Despite the

empire having many technologies, the ones that stood out among the rest are stone cutting and

record keeping.

Stone cutting technology in Inca

Stone cutting is a technology which is synonymous with the Inca Empire. The Incas are

known for their ability to set huge rocks together with perfect joints. Some of the rocks that the

Incas set were as tall as 5 meters and about 3 meters thick. The stones were free-form shaped.

They used these rocks and stuck them together with mortar to make forts and houses. Amazing

enough, they knew how to counter the threat of the earthquake by building lean rock houses and

forts which reduced the impact of earthquakes because the Andean region was susceptible to

earthquakes. They built the doorways and windows and designed internal leans which had small

rocks placed between huge ones[ CITATION Ede19 \l 1033 ]. These designs were created to allow

movement in an event of an earthquake to protect the wall from collapsing. The Spanish on their

arrival built strong houses and churches which fell easily during the earthquake leaving behind

the rock walls and houses by the Incas.

When Pachacuti came into the throne in 1438, he built Cuzco the capital in stone. The

stone walls of Cuzco survived years and continue to do so even today. The Incas also used stone

to create roads, drainage systems, steps, and pavements. They crafted channels for drainage and

made stone pavements that controlled the flow of water to protect the roads from

erosion[ CITATION Wil16 \l 1033 ]. They cut stone carefully and constructed edges of the road with

it. The precision of stone cutting was achieved without using iron tools or mortar. Throughout

the four regions of the empire, they build a total of about 25000 miles of road paved using stone.
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The road meandered across different landscape which ranged from rain forest, mountains, and

desert and through valleys. The Incan engineers cut stones and tailored the road to varied

landscape by use of containment walls, paving stones, and filled it with earth.

The major stone quarry in the Inca Empire known as Rumiqolqa (meaning stone

storehouse) was the main source of stone used in the empire to construct roads, buildings and

other infrastructure in Inca land. The quarry was located in about 35 kilometers southeast of

Cuzco and was near the banks of river Vilconata. The main stone obtained from this area was the

dark grey stone which is glassy. Building materials were transported many kilometers from the

quarry to where Inca stonemasons would build different types of infrastructure. The quarries

themselves had special features which included access roads, staircases, and ramps that led to

different quarrying areas. They also had well designed gate complex that restricted access to the

quarry.

Recordkeeping technology (Khipu)

Another notable technology invented by the Inca is record keeping. The Inca record-

keeping system commonly known as khipu or quipu is a method used Inca kingdom to keep

record different events and to communicate information. With the lack of alphabet system at the

time, the quipu was the simplest and highly portable way of keeping records. The Inca record-

keeping method was precise and flexible[ CITATION Asc15 \l 1033 ]. This method consisted of

different number of threads which were twisted and spun called pendant cords. These strings or

cords were attached using half-hitch knots to a knot thicker than the rest. The thicker knot was

referred to as the primary cord and had a thickness of about 0.26 cm and length of about 60 cm.

A single khipu had about 60 cords and the largest of the quipu had about 1500 strings.
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A Quipu was used to store records of children of monarch bloodlines, people who paid taxes,

events and dates. Besides keeping official records of the empire, a quipu was used to recount

stories, myths, and the Inca tradition poems. Accordingly, the quipus were also used to record

the conquests that the empire had made and were also used to records other critical events in the

empire such as census information which included total number of inhabitants of the empire,

specific numbers of males, females, married single and children. Other records that this

significant Inca masterpiece stored included stores, livestock, measurement of lands, calendar of

the kingdom and army and equipment in the Inca Empire.

5. Global Citizenship

Through the concept of global citizenship, the members of the Inca Empire had rights and

responsibilities which come with being a subject of the empire regardless of whether you belong

to a different family or class. For instance, Sapa Inca was responsible for ensuring that the

citizens of the empire were living in peace and followed the tenets of the empire. The ruling class

ensured that laws were followed and crime was as low as possible. The Sapa Inca through

special officials ensured that citizens respected laws in place.

Citizen rules and responsibilities

The Inca citizens were expected to pay taxes always. Through the ayllu and the

tokoyrikoq, every household was required to pay taxes which were used to run the empire.

Furthermore, the Inca people were required to be working when not sleeping and were only

allowed not to work during festivities. Most of the peasants worked in lands owned by the

government. Laws set by the Sapa Inca included those which punished people for being lazy and
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this therefore meant that everyone in the empire was required to work hard at all times[ CITATION

Mal09 \l 1033 ]. Everyone in the empire was required to respect gods and offer sacrifices which

included human sacrifices in some occasions.

The main economic activity of the Incas was agriculture. Through agriculture, they got

food to feed the population and their animals and also got surplus. However, they lacked a form

of money and the main form of trade was through barter trade where they exchanged surplus

from their farming activities with the items they did not have in the empire. They also exchanged

their handmade items, mainly textiles that they wove with other products. Trade took place in

markets that were called catus. Inside these markets, the people from the highlands swapped

llama wool, dried meat (charki) for products from the lowland such as fish, corn, fruits, shells,

beans, salt and cotton among others[ CITATION Sta13 \l 1033 ]. On the other hand, the jungle

people came with dyes, tobacco, rubber, birds and herbal medicines. This kind of exchange

intensified during the harvesting season. The main type of trade was a long-distance trade which

was supervised by the Inca’s central government using the Inca roads. Although the empire had a

lot of gold that they used to make jewelry and build structures, they did not trade with the gold.

Enemies and allies of the Inca

The Inca began their conquests in the 15th century and within 100 years of the empire’s

existence. Although they did not leave any written records, the Inca had their form of record-

keeping and oral tradition which stated various things about the empire such as tradition,

conquests, and enemies of the empire among others. Warfare at the time was characterized by

high mobility and hand-to-hand combat as well as establishment of fortresses to protect the
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empire and its subjects. While carrying out their conquests, the Incas encountered bitter and

equally powerful enemies which made work hard.

One of the most formidable Inca enemies before the arrival of the Spanish was the

Mapuche. They were referred by the Inca as Auca or Promuca (Meaning Warrior or enemies).

The Mapuche were a pre-Columbian tribal group that lived in modern-day Chile near Santiago.

The Mapuche and Inca fought various wars but the most historic fight was the great Battle of

Maule, a huge fight between a coalition of Mapuche of Chile and the Inca Empire of Peru in

1460[ CITATION Cru10 \l 1033 ]. The battle took place in Maule River in modern-day Chile. The

fight stopped the Inca from advancing southwards with their expansion. Due to the strength of

the Mapuche in warfare, the war was not decisive and therefore did not favor the Incas as it had

always been the case. This led to the retreat of the Inca warriors who left the Mapuche territory.

The Incas never managed to subdue them. Another enemy of the Inca is the Chanka people also

known as Chanca. They lived in current Peru and were based in Andahuaylas. The Chanka like

most of the Inca strong enemies were highly tactical and had strong fortresses which were hard

to break into. Although they were later defeated by the Inca, some of the Chanka warriors served

as the emperor's bodyguards in the Inca Empire due to their military prowess.

6. Ethics

Religions and values

The Inca Empire was a heterogeneous empire which practiced polytheistic religions.

Some of the deities which were practiced in the empire included Pachamama and Viracocha

both of which people were familiar with all over the empire. However, there are other religions
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which were localized. To begin with, Viracocha was personified as a male human being and was

known as the creator of humanity and everything in the world. The Inca believed that He created

humanity on Island in Lake Titicaca and taught people how they needed to live and gave them

customs, tribes and determined where they were to live[ CITATION Hoy15 \l 1033 ]. Pachamama on

the other hand which is translated to mean Earth Mother is known to be a woman by the Inca

society was seen as a protector of crops and fields and was the god of fertility that helped their

crops grow well.

Other gods included Inti (the sun god), one of the most important gods for the Inca

people. He was personified as a boy whom the Incas believed that he protected agriculture by

aiding the growth of their crops. There was a temple dedicated to Inti which served as one of the

most important temples in the empire. Other gods included the Illapa (the god of thunder),

Mamaquilla (Mother moon), Mama Cocha (mother of lakes) and Huacas (supernatural spirits).

Illapa the god of thunder controlled things like lightning, weather, and rain. This god was valued

because he was instrumental in growth of crops and was personified as a man wearing some kind

of a sling which he used to create thunder that the Inca people heard. Mamaquilla personified as

female was wife to Inti and was in control of calendars. Mama Cocha, the mother of lakes was

responsible for keeping providing sources of water and keeping the world strong. Lastly, the

Huacas was a supernatural spirit that anything that existed in earth such as people, places among

other things had. The size of an object that existed was determined the power it had. For

instance, the Inca believed that mountains were powerful Huacas. On top of the gods that were

worshipped in the Inca Empire, there were household gods which were represented by different

figurines referred as Conopas.

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Laws

Apart from religion, the Incas observed strict laws and values that were designed and

inculcated in every member of the society. For instance, every citizen of the empire was required

to adhere to the values of hard work, honesty, and truth. These values were aimed at making the

society harmonious ad disciplined at all times. Among the values that citizens were required to

stick to were the three main ones which are the Ama Sua (do not be a thief), ama Quella (do not

be idle) and ama Llulla (do not be a liar). Other rules that people were required to observed

included honesty, cleanliness and showing respect to life.

The Inca Empire also had various prohibitions which the law did not permit. For instance,

the law did not allow things such as homicide, adultery, rape, insult, envy, abortion and adultery

among others. People that broke the law were sanctioned and disciplined using methods such as

whipping or even execution. To the Incas, execution of the law was one of the most important

things and failing to do so will lead to severe punishment. The empire had some institutions

similar to courts in the current world which were responsible for dealing with offenses and

sanctioning lawbreakers. The governors of the regions sanctioned serious crimes. Judges had

five days to resolve conflicts and appeal was not permitted. However, fairness was exercised. On

the other hand, every household was required to pay taxes and respect the authority beginning

from the Sapa Inca, governors, tax collectors and all other leaders in the empire [ CITATION

Ber14 \l 1033 ].
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