 Computer Network

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of

sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the
Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself
can be considered a computer network. A computer network is a set of connected
computers. Computers on a network are called nodes. The connection between
computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly
through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the
Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection,
which allows a single computer to do more. Computer networks can be broken down
historically into topologies, which is a technique of connecting computers. The most
common topology today is a collapsed ring. This is due to the success of a network
protocol called the Ethernet. This protocol, or network language, supports the Internet,
Local Area Networks, and Wide Area Networks. A star topology is a design of a
network where a central node extends a cable to each computer on the network. On a
star network, computers are connected independently to the center of the network. If a
cable is broken, the other computers can operate without problems. A star topology
requires a lot of cabling. A bus topology is another type of design where a single cable
connects all computers and the information intended for the last node on the network
must run through each connected computer. If a cable is broken, all computers
connected down the line cannot reach the network. The benefit of a bus topology is a
minimal use of cabling. A similar topology is called a ring. In this design, computers are
connected via a single cable, but the end nodes also are connected to each other. In
this design, the signal circulates through the network until it finds the intended recipient.
If a network node is not configured properly, or it is down temporarily for another
reason, the signal will make a number of attempts to find its destination.
A collapsed ring is a topology where the central node is a network device called a hub,
a router, or a switch. This device runs a ring topology internally and features plugins for
cables. Next, each computer has an independent cable, which plugs into the device.
Most modern offices have a cabling closet, or a space containing a switch device that
connects the network. All computers in the office connect to the cabling closet and the
switch. Even if a network plug is near a desk, the plug is connected via a cable to the
cabling closet.

 Mobile communication
A wireless form of communication in which voice and data information is
emitted, transmitted and received via microwaves. This type of communication
allows individuals to converse with one another and/transmit and receive data
while moving from place to place. Some examples include: cellular and digital
cordless telephones; pages; telephone answering devices; air-ground
telecommunications and satellite-based communications. A cellular phone is a
portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It connects to a
wireless carrier network using radio waves. The mobile phone or cell phone is a
long-range, portable electronic device used for mobile communication. In addition
to the standard voice function of a telephone, current mobile phones can support
many additional services such as SMS for text messaging, packet switching for
access to the Internet, and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video.
Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular network of base stations (cell
sites), which is in interconnected to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN).
 Embedded System

An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either

fixed in capability or programmable, that is designed for a specific function or for specific
functions within a larger system. Industrial machines, agricultural and process industry
devices, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, household appliances, airplanes,
vending machines and toys as well as mobile devices are all possible locations for an
embedded system. Embedded systems are computing systems, but can range from
having no user interface (UI) -- for example, on devices in which the embedded system
is designed to perform a single task -- to complex graphical user interfaces (GUI), such
as in mobile devices. User interfaces can include buttons, LEDs, touchscreen sensing
and more. Some systems use remote user interfaces as well. Embedded system
hardware (microprocessor-based, microcontroller-based) Embedded systems can
be microprocessor or microcontroller based. In either case, there is an integrated circuit
(IC) at the heart of the product that is generally designed to carry out computation for
real-time operations. Microprocessors are visually indistinguishable from
microcontrollers, but whereas the microprocessor only implements a central processing
unit (CPU) and thus requires the addition of other components such as memory chips,
microcontrollers are designed as self-contained systems. Microcontrollers include not
only a CPU, but also memory and peripherals such as flash memory, RAM or serial
communication ports. Because microcontrollers tend to implement full (if relatively
low computer power) systems, they are frequently put to use on more complex tasks.
Microcontrollers are used, for example, in the operations of vehicles, robots, medical
devices and home appliances, among others. At the higher end of microcontroller
capability, the term system-on-a-chip (SoC) is often used, though there's no exact
delineation in terms of RAM, clock speed and so on.

 Electronics in Aerospace and Astronomy

Electronics is becoming increasingly important to the aerospace sector. With the
development of X by wire systems and the start of a move to more electric aeroplanes,
those involved in the sector, as well as those looking to enter the aerospace supply
chain, need to keep up to date. New Electronics covers developments in the aerospace
sector, bringing technology updates and opinion from the market. “Improving technology
is also improving how we manage the equipment we use so we can make larger
sensors,” said Dr Jorden. “One aspect of that is improving the clean rooms: the number
of particles/m3 goes down and that affects your ability to build a large sensor that works
well – the larger the sensor, the more prone it is to contamination.The ‘old’ technology
for space light sensors used to be charge coupled devices (CCDs) but, according to Dr
Jorden, it has been overtaken by CMOS devices during the last decade.Even though
CCD and CMOS are both highly sensitive and can detect very small signals, CMOS
based devices use less power, are more radiation hardy and integrate the electronics
on chip, which facilitates A/D conversion.“CMOS sensors are newer in the sense that
previously the performance wasn’t so good, but in the last few years, it’s caught up with
the performance of the well-established CCD sensors,” Dr Jorden explained. However,
even ‘new’ technology has ‘old’ and ‘new’ elements. “For example, 180nm was popular
a few years ago and is therefore ‘old’ technology,” said Dr Jorden. “But we use that
because it is ideally suited for making image sensors, while the rest of the industry –
including microprocessors and components for mobile phones – uses 65nm technology,
which isn’t appropriate for us. We get better performance with the older technology.”

 Organic Electronics
Organic Electronics
Materials, Physics, Chemistry and Applications
 Organic Electronics is a journal whose primary interdisciplinary focus is on
materials and phenomena related to organic devices such as light emitting
diodes, thin film transistors, photovoltaic cells, sensors, memories, etc.
Papers suitable for publication in this journal cover such topics as
photoconductive and electronic properties of organic materials, thin film
structures and characterization in the context of organic devices, charge and
exciton transport, organic electronic and optoelectronic devices.
Organic Electronics provides the forum for applied, fundamental and
interdisciplinary contributions spanning the wide range of electronic properties
and applications of organic materials. A Letters section is included for rapid
publication of short articles announcing significant and highly original results.
Keywords: organic electronics, light-emitting diodes, solar cells, thin film
transistors, sensors, memories, organic semiconductors, hybrid
semiconductors, optoelectronics, charge transport.
 VLSI might have been become ULSI or SLSI
(extreme large scale integration and will continue
to be hot topics as demands of small electronics
is on rise
A computer aided design (CAD) system that is being used at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory for the design of custom and semicustom very large
scale integrated (VLSI) chips is described. The system consists of a Digital
Equipment Corporation VAX computer with the UNIX operating system and a
collection of software tools for the layout, simulation, and verification of
microcircuits. Most of these tools were written by the academic community and
are, therefore, available to JPL at little or no cost. Some small pieces of software
have been written in-house in order to make all the tools interact with each other
with a minimal amount of effort on the part of the designer. VLSI-Oriented
Algorithms A forthcoming paper discloses two techniques developed by Peter
Hochschild, Ernst Mayr , and Alan Siegel for solving graph...83] Hochschild, P.,
Mayr , E., and Siegel, A. Techniques for Solving Graph Problems in Parallel
Environments. 1983. to appear in Twenty-forth FOCS...Hochschild, P., Mayr , E.,
and Siegel, A. Techniques for Solving Graph Problems in Parallel Environments.
1983. to appear in Twenty-forth FOCS ProceedingsTwo analog very large
scale integration (VLSI) vector matrix multiplier integrated circuit chips were
designed, fabricated, and partially tested. They can perform both vector-matrix
and matrix-matrix multiplication operations at high speeds. The 32 by 32 vector-
matrix multiplier chip and the 128 by 64 vector-matrix multiplier chip were
designed to perform 300 million and 3 billion multiplications per second,
respectively. An additional circuit that has been developed is a continuous-time
adaptive learning circuit. The performance achieved thus far for this circuit is an
adaptivity of 28 dB at 300 KHz and 11 dB at 15 MHz. This circuit has
demonstrated greater than two orders of magnitude higher frequency of
operation than any previous adaptive learning circuit. The principal objectives of
the computer aided/Automated fast turn-around laboratory (CAFTAL)
for VLSI are: application of cutting edge computer science and
software systems engineering to fast turn-around fabrication in order to develop
more productive and flexible new approaches; fast turn-around fabrication of
optimized VLSI systems achieved through
synergistic integration of system research and device research in aggressive
applications such as superfast computers, and investigation of physical limits on
submicron VLSI in order to define and explore the most promising technologies.
To make a state-of-the-art integrated circuit process more manufacturable, we
must be able to understand both the numerous individual process technologies
used to fabricate the complete device as well as the important device, circuit
and system limitations in sufficient detail to monitor and control the overall
fabrication sequence. Specifically, we must understand the sensitivity of device,
circuit and system performance to each important step in the fabrication
sequence. Moreover, we should be able to predict the manufacturability of
an integrated circuit before we actually manufacture it. The salient objective of
 this program is to enable accurate simulation and control of computer-
integrated manufacturing of ultra large scale integrated (ULSI) systems, including
millions of submicron transistors in a single silicon chip.

 Optical Circuits
Optical circuits use light instead of electricity, making them faster and more
energy-efficient than electrical systems. Scientists at Ecole Polytechnique
Federale de Lausanne have developed a first building-block for photonic
'transistors' that requires record-low energy to operate. The device is a big step
forward in the development and implementation of optical circuits.
Unlike electronic circuits, optical, or "photonic", circuits work with light rather than
electricity, which makes them 10 to 100 times faster. They are also more energy-
efficient because they show lower heat loss, better signal-to-noise ratios and are
less susceptible to interference. Used especially for communications (e.g. fiber
optics), optical circuits may use tiny optical cavities as 'switches' that can block or
allow the flow of light, similarly to transistors in electronics. EPFL scientists have
now fabricated and experimentally tested a silicon-based 'photonic crystal
nanocavity' (PCN) that requires an unprecedentedly low amount of energy to
operate as a switch. The findings, which have significant implications for the
future of optical technologies, are published in a paper that features on the cover
of Applied Physics Letters.
Optical Circuits and Optical Cavities
Optical circuits control light the way an electrical circuit controls the flow of
electricity. Compared to electrical circuits, optical systems show superior speed,
energy-efficiency and stability. Already used in fiber optic communications, the
field of applied photonics is making steady progress in developing optical circuits,
which use nanoscale 'optical cavities' as switches or 'transistors' for controlling
the flow of light.
Optical cavities confine light in a tiny space of a few nanometers. 'Squeezed' in
such a small volume, a tiny amount of incoming light is enough to cause a small
change in the wavelength of the trapped light, because of the optical properties
of the material from which the cavity is made. These properties are referred to as
"non-linear", meaning that if a small amount of light can make the optical cavity
resonate, a higher light intensity can cause it to actually switch between two
different states. This effect, called "optical bi-stability" is ultimately what makes
the optical cavity to act as a switch for light.

 Application of nanotechnology in electronics

Nano electronics holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities
of electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.
Some of the nanoelectronics areas under development, which you can explore in
more detail by following the links provided in the next section, include the
following topics.
Improving display screens on electronics devices. This involves reducing power
consumption while decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.
Increasing the density of memory chips. Researchers are developing a type of memory
chip with a projected density of one terabyte of memory per square inch or greater.
Reducing the size of transistors used in integrated circuits. One researcher believes it
may be possible to "put the power of all of today's present computers in the palm of
your hand".
Nanoelectronics: Applications under Development
Researchers are looking into the following nanoelectronics projects:
 Cadmium selenide nanocrystals deposited on plastic sheets have been shown to
form flexible electronic circuits. Researchers are aiming for a combination of
flexibility, a simple fabrication process and low power requirements.
 Integrating silicon nanophotonics components into CMOS integrated circuits.
This optical technique is intended to provide higher speed data transmission
between integrated circuits than is possible with electrical signals.
 Researchers at UC Berkeley have demonstrated a low power method to
use nanomagnets as switches, like transistors, in electrical circuits. Their
method might lead to electrical circuits with much lower power consumption than
transistor based circuits.
 Researchers at Georgia Tech, the University of Tokyo and Microsoft Research
have developed a method to print prototype circuit boards using standard inkjet
printers. Silver nanoparticle inkwas used to form the conductive lines needed in
circuit boards.
 Researchers at Caltech have demonstrated a laser that uses a nanopatterned
silicon surfacethat helps produce the light with much tighter frequency control
than previously achieved. This may allow much higher data rates for information
transmission over fiber optics.
 Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to enable minimum transistor
dimensions of a few nanometers and developing techniques to
manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube transistors.
 Researchers at Stanford University have demonstrated a method to make
functioning integrated circuits using carbon nanotubes. In order to make the
circuit work they developed methods to remove metallic nanotubes, leaving only
semiconducting nanotubes, as well as an algorithm to deal with misaligned
nanotubes. The demonstration circuit they fabricated in the university labs
contains 178 functioning transistors.