See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/303811738

The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka

Book · January 2016

CITATIONS READS

15 676

2 authors, including:

Nancy van der Poorten

14 PUBLICATIONS   70 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Distribution atlas of the butterflies of Sri Lanka and a Field Guide View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nancy van der Poorten on 30 January 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka
This comprehensive work describes and discusses
the lives of all 247 species of butterflies in Sri Lanka and
illustrates the adults of both sexes with color photographs
taken in the field. Additionally, the egg, larva and pupa
The Butterfly Fauna
of each species whose life history is known are illustrated.
Several images portray rare species and behaviors that
of
Sri Lanka
have not been documented before.

The first few chapters cover the history of the study

of butterflies in Sri Lanka and their biogeography,
classification, morphology, distribution, and conservation.
An account of each species details identification, similar
species, status, distribution, habitat, adult behavior,
immature stages, larval food plants, and, for threatened
species, conservation concerns. Supplemental material
includes a species list with the common name, scientific
name and authorities, endemic status, and distribution
by climatic zone, as well as a list of larval food plants
and adult nectar sources. The book rounds off with a
bibliography, a glossary and an index of the scientific
and common names of the butterflies.

As a reference and an essential guide to the butterfly

fauna of Sri Lanka, this book will interest, not only
Sri Lankans and butterfly enthusiasts, students, professional
entomologists, biologists and conservationists around the
world, but also the general reader who has an interest in
these beautiful creatures.

Nancy E. van der Poorten

George Michael van der Poorten
George Michael van der Poorten
Nancy E. van der Poorten

LEPODON
Books

Butterfly_mech_07.indd 1 2015-11-25 4:34 PM

The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka
by George (Michael) van der Poorten & Nancy E. van der Poorten

Text copyright © 2016 George van der Poorten & Nancy E. van der Poorten
Photographs and illustrations copyright © 2016 George van der Poorten or as credited.

ISBN: 978-1-77136-189-7

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or in any means, by electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior written permission of the authors who are the copyright holders except by a
reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent,
re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the author’s prior consent in any form of binding
or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this
condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Van der Poorten, George, author

The butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka / George (Michael) van
der Poorten, Nancy E. van der Poorten.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-77136-189-7 (bound)

1. Butterflies--Sri Lanka. I. Van der Poorten, Nancy, 1953-,

author II. Title.

QL556.S72V35 2016 595.78'9095493 C2015-905766-3

Available from Lepodon Books: LepodonBooks@gmail.com

Cover design: George & Nancy E. van der Poorten; Peter Ross / Counterpunch.ca
Interior design and layout: George & Nancy van der Poorten

Front cover: Ceylon Cerulean – Jamides coruscans. Photograph by George van der Poorten.
Full title page: Clouded Silverline – Spindasis nubilus. Photograph by George van der Poorten.
Back cover: Ceylon Tree Nymph – Idea iasonia. Photograph by George van der Poorten.

Set in Adobe Garamond Pro 9.5.

Printed in Canada by Friesens Corporation.
Contents
The authors iv
Preface v
Dedication v
Acknowledgments v
Map of Sri Lanka vi

Chapter 1: Sri Lanka and its butterflies 1

The origin of butterflies; the origin of the butterflies of Sri Lanka; the
current situation; topography and climate; climatic zones and butterflies;
seeking out butterflies.

Chapter 2: The life of a butterfly 13

Butterfly names; the life cycle of a butterfly—egg, larva, pupa, adult
(anatomy, the search for food and pheromones; enemies and escape
mechanisms; migration and dispersal; population structure; the search for
mates; courtship; mating and egg-laying).

Chapter 3: Conservation 35
The decline of the butterfly fauna; why conserve butterflies?; conservation:
what does it mean?; conservation measures in Sri Lanka; butterfly
gardening; can you make a difference?

Chapter 4: Introduction to species’ accounts 41

Chapter 5: The Skippers: Hesperiidae 43

Chapter 6: The Blues: Lycaenidae 99

Chapter 7: The Brush-footed butterflies: Nymphalidae 201

Chapter 8: The Swallowtails: Papilionidae 287

Chapter 9: The Whites and Yellows: Pieridae 307

Chapter 10: The Metalmarks: Riodinidae 343

Appendix A: Annotated species list 345

Appendix B: Annotated list of scientific publications on the butterflies of Sri Lanka 361
Appendix C: Larval food plants 363
Appendix D: Nectar sources 367
Appendix E: Historical accounts of migration, dispersal and large numbers of 368
butterflies in Sri Lanka
Appendix F: Eggs, larvae and pupae 370

Glossary 400
References and additional readings 405
Photographic and illustration credits 411
Index of scientific and common names of the butterflies 412
Abbreviations 418
 The authors
Michael was first smitten by butterflies as a
child growing up in Sri Lanka. His first copy of
Woodhouse’s classic publication, Butterfly Fauna of
Ceylon, was, and still is, a cherished book. He grew
up in a time when he could freely roam the extensive
forests and meadows of the country, which was
sparsely populated. Completing his M.Sc. and Ph.D.
at the University of Guelph in Canada, he met Nancy,
who had just finished her degree in Botany. She also
grew up with a love of butterflies, but in Toronto
Canada. Since then, they have pursued their shared
interest in plants, birds and insects in both countries.
Michael also took up photography so that he could
document their findings.
For the past 15 years, they have intensively studied
the butterflies in Sri Lanka. Based on their findings,
they have published several papers in international
peer-reviewed journals and several general articles.
Michael and Nancy van der Poorten, Arippu, Sri Lanka 2013
iv
Michael edited the Butterfly Conservation Action Plan
of Sri Lanka (2012) and authored The Taxonomy
and Conservation Status of Butterflies in Sri Lanka
(National Red List 2012). He has given innumerable
lectures to universities, schools, associations
and groups, has conducted many field trips for
professionals, students, and the general public, and
has set up and consulted on several open-air butterfly
gardens in Sri Lanka.
Nancy has specialized in the study of the dragonflies
of Sri Lanka and has described three species new to
science. She is also the author or co-author of several
scientific publications on dragonflies, and is co-author
of Dragonfly Fauna of Sri Lanka: Distribution and
Biology, with Threat Status of its Endemics (2014).
She is past president of the Toronto Entomologists’
Association in Canada and president-elect (2015–17)
of the Worldwide Dragonfly Association.
Chapter 1

Sri Lanka and its butterflies

“Pearl of the Indian Ocean”, “Resplendent isle” and “Serendib”
are three of the more fanciful names used to refer to the tropical
island of Sri Lanka. Marco Polo called it “the best island of its size
in the world.” It is situated southeast of the southern tip of India,
lying between 5 and 10 degrees north of the equator (Fig. 1-1).
The island has enticed travelers and merchants at least since the
first century AD, having been an important stop on trading routes,
mainly for its spices and gems. More recently, it has become known
for its excellent tea, planted by the British when they colonized the
island, which they called Ceylon. It still entices the modern-day
traveler with its beautiful scenery, friendly people, cultural heritage,
and bountiful wildlife and nature.
Sri Lanka’s varied topography, climate and vegetation provide
a rich environment for butterflies despite its small land area. The
island is home to 247 species of butterflies (order Lepidoptera)
(Table 1-1, Appendix A). Although it is zoogeographically
Fig. 1-1. The island of Sri Lanka, off the southeast coast of India.
considered a part of the Indian subcontinent, its butterfly fauna
has been sufficiently isolated to give rise to 31 endemic species
and 84 endemic subspecies. Being an island, however, its butterfly some of which had not been recorded for over a century, and their
fauna does not match that of a comparable area that is part of a life histories studied. These include the Tamil Oakblue (Arhopala
mainland. Costa Rica, for example, is similar to Sri Lanka in area bazaloides lanka), Ormiston’s Oakblue (Arhopala ormistoni), and
and climate, but has more than 1200 species of butterflies. the African Marbled Skipper (Gomalia elma albofasciata). One
Though the butterflies of Sri Lanka have been studied for over species, Green’s Silverline (Spindasis greeni), was rediscovered and
150 years, there is still a dearth of information on the biology of confirmed as a valid species more than 100 years after it was first
many species. Distributions, habitat requirements, flight periods described from a single worn specimen, and its immature stages
in different floristic or climatic regions, immature stages and larval were documented in part. Two species were recorded from the
food plants are not well-documented for many species, and are island for the first time in 2008: the Orange Migrant (Catopsilia
unknown for a few. Though butterflies were studied avidly from scylla) and the Yellow Palm Dart (Cephrenes trichopepla). They
the late 1800s to the 1950s, the focus of naturalists was mainly were likely introduced inadvertently, but are now inventoried as
on collecting and identifying the butterflies in the island. At that breeding residents. As this book was going to press, a third invasive
time, there was little interest in the ecology of butterflies, and species, Erionota torus, was discovered. The immature stages and
information on specific location, habitat and behavior was often larval food plants of about 220 species have been researched anew
not recorded. Specimens were often collected by locals who then and compared with historical accounts.
sold them to those studying butterflies without much information
attached to them. Even those who did their own collecting often
The origin of butterflies
recorded the location of the butterfly simply as “Kandy” or “Galle”
or “Jaffna”, which could mean the city, the district or the general Butterflies and moths, along with the closely related caddisflies,
area. Though published accounts of the life histories and larval evolved about 200 million years ago (mya) from a common
food plants of some species were based on actual rearing studies in ancestor, but the landmasses on which they evolved looked very
Sri Lanka, many were based on records of the species in India. different from the continents of today. The process by which the
Much progress has been made, however, in the past 15 years present-day continents came into being was first proposed in
with the revival of interest in the study of butterflies. Detailed 1912 by Alfred Wegener, a German geophysicist, in his theory of
records are now being kept and entered into a national database continental drift. He contended that during the “Jung-Karbon”
allowing better documentation and analysis of distributions, (around 300 mya), the world consisted of only ocean and a single
habitats and flight periods, and surveys are being undertaken more landmass, a supercontinent now called Pangea (“All of Earth”).
systematically. As a result, several species have been rediscovered, Around 150–200 mya, this supercontinent started to break apart

1
Fig. 2-1. Complete metamorphosis: life cycle of the Common Banded Peacock (Papilio crino). a) female laying egg (x0.8); egg (inset, x6); b) larva,
first instar (x8); c) larva, second instar, with molted skin and head capsule (x4); d) larva, third instar (x2); e) larva, fourth instar (x1); f) larva, fifth
instar (x1); g) pupa (x1); h) adult drying its wings just after emergence (x0.8); i) adult with its mature colors (x0.8)

12 The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka

Chapter 2
The life of a butterfly
Butterfly names
The common English names of butterflies in Sri Lanka were chosen
by the British and European butterfly enthusiasts who often took
their cues from names used in their own countries. These names
were frequently based on criteria such as the appearance of the
butterfly, how it behaved, or how abundant it was, and in which
habitat it lived. Thus, names such as the Common Bushbrown or
the Common Treebrown reflect the species’ abundance, geographic
range, color and habitat; the Clipper and the Cruiser reflect the
style of flight of the butterfly. In some cases, the names were based
on titles or ranks used in institutions and military organizations.
Names such as the Black Prince, Baron, Baronet and Redspot
Duke were based on titles in the British court, whereas names such
as the Blue Admiral and the Commander were based on ranks in
the British Navy. Still other names, such as the Tawny Rajah and
the Common Nawab, were based on vernacular titles of royalty in
India.
Although common names are easy to remember, there are
no rules governing their use and they are sometimes changed
arbitrarily. Further, different names can be used in different
countries or regions. To avoid these drawbacks, a formal system
of naming was developed by Carolus Linnaeus, and was applied
consistently to animals beginning in 1758. Referred to as the
Binomial System of Nomenclature, it assigns to each organism a
unique two-part name, called the scientific name. For example, the
butterfly that is called the Common Bluebottle in Sri Lanka and
the Blue Triangle in Australia is known world-wide by its scientific
name Graphium sarpedon (Fig. 2-2).
Fig. 2-2. Graphium sarpedon.
Each species of plant, like each species of butterfly, also has
only one scientific name, but can have many common names.
In Sri Lanka, Dregea volubilis is known by the Sinhala names
kiri-anguna, thiththa anguna, anguna and anukkola. Even more
confusing is when a single common name refers to several different
species of plants—kiri-anguna also refers to Cynanchum tunicatum,
Parsonsia alboflavescens and a species of Tylophora. Selecting a larval
food plant for a butterfly based on a common name that references
several species of plants can have dire consequences for the larva.
The larva of the Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) feeds on the leaves
of Dregea volubilis, but not on those of Cynanchum tunicatum or
Parsonsia alboflavescens. Likewise, the larva of the Common Tiger
(Danaus genutia) feeds only on Cynanchum tunicatum whereas
the Ceylon Tree Nymph (Idea iasonia) feeds only on Parsonsia
alboflavescens. Selecting the incorrect “kiri-anguna” would lead to
the death of the larva by starvation, but there is no mistake when
the plant is selected using its scientific name.
The first part of the scientific name designates the genus
to which the organism belongs. A genus denotes a group of
animals or plants with similar characteristics and with a common
evolutionary ancestry. The second part of the scientific name
designates the species to which the organism belongs. A species
can be defined as a group of individuals that breed freely among
themselves, but not with others, and that produce viable offspring.
Thus we have Junonia almana as the scientific name for the
Peacock Pansy and Junonia lemonias for the Lemon Pansy—they
both belong to the same genus, Junonia, and have similar general
characteristics, but are classified as different species because of
differences in appearance, behavior and reproductive structures
and because they do not interbreed. A third name, the subspecies
name, is sometimes added after the species name—this is referred
to as the Trinomial System of Nomenclature. The subspecies name
designates a population that is different in appearance due to
isolation in space or time or both. For instance, the Great Orange
Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) in Japan looks similar to its counterpart
in Sri Lanka, but since the black scaling on the upperside of its
wings is consistently more extensive, the population in Japan is
treated as the subspecies Hebomoia glaucippe liukiuensis and that
in Sri Lanka as Hebomoia glaucippe ceylonica. It is often a matter of
opinion whether the differences between populations are significant
enough to warrant subspecies status, and some scientists, for other
reasons as well, do not use the Trinomial System. Nevertheless,
the fundamentals of using scientific names are well-established,
and the rules governing them are based on the conventions of the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). These
rules are followed by scientists worldwide. In this publication,
binomial names are used in Chapters 1–4 while trinomial names
are used in the account of each species and in Appendix A.
13
Chapter 3
Conservation
The decline of the butterfly fauna
As in many other parts of the world, the landscape of Sri Lanka
has changed enormously over the past 150 years, resulting in
changes to its flora and fauna. Although butterflies have been a
popular subject of study in the island, the lack of quantitative data
on butterfly abundance and distribution from earlier times limits
our ability to quantify how the populations have changed over
time. Published historical accounts show that the populations of
some species were larger in the past and their distributions more
widespread. It is also evident that the declines are not due to the
collecting of butterflies as some assume. The idea that scientific
collecting of butterflies leads to their extinction is not based on
facts or reason. Scientific collecting is a necessary activity that
adheres to strict regulations and ethical guidelines (Rocha et al.,
2014). It provides information that is necessary for conservation,
and for testing hypotheses. It is now widely recognized throughout
the world that the loss of habitats, including the effects of biotic
factors such as invasive plants and animals, and the effects of
agrochemicals, are the principal drivers of declines in butterfly
populations (New, 1997; Brook et al., 2003; Sodhi et al., 2009).
The major causes of habitat loss in Sri Lanka, including the
loss of forest cover and habitat degradation, are the progressive
increase in human populations and the expansion of agriculture
and human settlements (Fig. 3-1). Forest cover declined from
84% of the total land area in 1881 to 44% in 1956, and 22% in
2014. As a result, many populations of forest-loving butterflies
have disappeared because of their inability to adapt to these
modified landscapes. Thus, forest-loving species such as the Cruiser
(Vindula erota) and the Blue Oakleaf (Kallima philarchus), which
were once common and widespread, are now uncommon or rare,
and restricted in their distribution. Some species have survived in
small patches of forest, but these populations are at risk of local
extinction due to stochastic events such as droughts, floods and
fires. Of course, since butterflies can fly, it might be expected that
they can fly in to these isolated patches to re-establish populations.
However, some species, such as the Ceylon Forester (Lethe dynsate),
the Dark Evening Brown (Melanitis phedima) and the Cingalese
Bushbrown (Mycalesis rama), are strict forest dwellers, and seldom
move out of their patches of forest when surrounded by tracts
of wide open space. In these instances, individuals are likely to
inbreed, causing the genetically weakened population to extirpate.
Butterflies that inhabit meadows, such as several species of
Spindasis, have also lost ground due to habitat loss.
Nevertheless, a few species that prefer open spaces are still
abundant and widespread. Open spaces include abandoned
agricultural land, land bordering irrigation canals and ditches,
roadsides, and edges of marshlands, all of which support many
larval food plants and nectar sources, especially when such places
have not been overgrazed, overrun by invasive weeds, or sprayed
with insecticides and herbicides. In these types of habitats, the
populations of many species of butterflies, such as the Common
Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe), the White Four-ring (Ypthima
ceylonica), the Tiny Grass Blue (Zizula hylax) and the Psyche
(Leptosia nina), survive quite well.
Several species have also benefited from the deliberate or
accidental introduction of plants from other regions, though these
butterflies are not as abundant or widespread as in the past. The
Lemon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) now lays its eggs on several
introduced plants, such as Cassia javanica and Senna alata, while
introduced species of Sesbania are a food source for the larvae
of the Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe). A few species of
butterflies that are usually denizens of forests now survive outside
forests in well-wooded areas including home gardens, though the
populations outside forests are usually smaller than those within.
For instance, the Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnestor) and the
Common Mormon (Papilio polytes) are found in well-wooded
home gardens in which species of Citrus, which are larval food
plants of these butterflies, are cultivated. Similarly, the Tailed Jay
(Graphium agamemnon) has adapted itself to urban landscapes
and is now found in many locations where various species of
introduced Annona are well established.
Despite these examples of species maintaining populations in
these modified habitats, many species in the island are currently
under threat of local extinction for a number of reasons. In
agricultural areas, the extensive and excessive use and misuse of
pesticides and herbicides, which directly or indirectly destroy all
life stages of the butterfly, are a worrying concern. Other factors
include excessive grazing of meadows by domestic herbivores
(especially in the coastal areas of the north, northwest and
east) (Fig. 3-2), urbanization and infrastructure development,
establishment of monocrop plantations, reclamation of mangroves
and marshes, and illicit felling of timber. Climate change will also
have a significant impact on the survival of butterflies through
its influence on weather patterns, temperature, rainfall, and the
growth, distribution and reproduction of plants. Increases in air
temperature and changes in rainfall patterns have already been
documented for several locations within Sri Lanka (De Costa,
2008; Malmgren et al., 2003).
While some introduced plants have benefited butterflies
without undue disruption to the local flora, many others have
drastically displaced the native flora to the detriment of the
35
Chapter 4
Introduction to species’ accounts
The following six chapters present the accounts of each individual
species. The chapters are presented in alphabetical order by family.
Within each chapter, the accounts are organized in alphabetical
order, first by subfamily, then tribe, genus and species. The order
of presentation does not reflect phylogenetic relationships. The
classification used for the families follows van Nieukerken et al.
(2011). This classification differs from previous ones in many
respects, but most notably in its inclusion of the Hesperiidae
(Skippers) in the superfamily Papilionoidea. The Skippers,
therefore, are now considered “true” butterflies. In previous
classifications, they were placed in their own superfamily, the
Hesperioidea, and considered by many not as “true” butterflies.
The scientific names of the butterflies used by earlier workers
have been reviewed and updated based on the most current
information available. A list of trinomial names with authorities
and common names is given in Appendix A, which also outlines
some taxonomic issues, including species that need further review.
For the endemic species, both the former common name and
the new common name are listed. The new common names, which
were formulated by the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of
Environment, were created either by adding the word “Sri Lanka”
or by replacing the word “Ceylon” with “Sri Lanka”. If, however,
the endemic status of a species changes due to new information,
a further change of name would be required to adhere to this
convention. The use of the word “Ceylon” in the old names does
not necessarily indicate that the species is endemic.
The terminology and conventions used for the wings and
anatomical structures are outlined in Chapter 2.
Photographs are of live individuals from Sri Lanka except in
a few cases for the adult in which photographs of individuals from
India or museum specimens have been used. The sex or form of the
butterfly is indicated in the caption wherever possible. Photographs
of eggs, larvae and pupae are given in Appendix F, and, in some
cases, in the species’ accounts.
Wingspan: The size of the butterfly is given as its wingspan. The
range is given numerically and the lowest value is illustrated by the
length of the black bar. Wingspan is defined as the distance from
apex to apex of the forewings in a pinned specimen that is set in
a standard manner, in which the lower margin (dorsum) of each
forewing is set perpendicular to the body (Fig. 4-1).
 Description: A brief description of key characteristics of the
species is given, including differences in appearance between the
sexes and between seasonal forms where applicable. Although
we have used the term “seasonal form”, the more proper term is
Fig. 4-1. Wingspan, as measured on a set specimen.
phenotypic variation. In Sri Lanka, most forms fly together and
there are many intermediates, and so they are not strictly seasonal.
The terms “wet season form” and “dry season form”, however, have
been commonly used in the past.
 Similar species: Only characters that are sufficient to distinguish
between similar-looking species are given. In some instances,
identification keys are provided.
 Status, habitat and distribution: If a species or subspecies is
endemic, this is explicitly stated. The list of the endemics of Sri
Lanka has been reviewed and updated based on the most current
information available (see Appendix A for a summary listing).
Each species is designated as common, uncommon or rare.
These terms are based on three somewhat subjective criteria:
population size (large or small), geographic range (widespread
or restricted) and habitat specificity (generalist or specialist).
Thus, a common butterfly is one that has large populations, is
geographically widespread, and is found in many different habitats.
All other combinations of these criteria are considered rare to
varying degrees (Schappert, 2000).
In this publication, however, the term rare is defined more
narrowly and indicates those species that fulfill at least two of the
following criteria: a) have small populations, b) are geographically
restricted, or c) are found in a specialized habitat. The term
uncommon is used for species that are considered neither rare nor
common. However, since these three parameters are difficult to
quantify, we have also taken into account our field experiences and
the flight period of the species (long—more than one month; or
short—less than one month). Nevertheless, a shortcoming of the
usage of these terms arises when dealing with canopy species that
escape observation because of the height at which they habitually
fly. This is particularly true for small canopy-dwelling Lycaenids.
Similarly, crepuscular species may be designated rare or uncommon
41
Chapter 5
The Skippers: Hesperiidae
Introduction to the Hesperiidae
The members of Hesperiidae (Hesperiids) are widely distributed
worldwide and the family comprises over 4000 species. The adults
are small to medium-sized butterflies that are usually some shade
of brown or black with orange or white markings. Their common
name derives from their fast, irregular flight.
Distinguishing characters: Members of this family are
distinguished by the following characters in the adult: The head is
broad, the thorax is large and the body is stout with relatively short
wings. The proboscis is often exceptionally long compared to the
size of the butterfly. The antenna is usually expanded towards the
tip into a bent club which ends in a short hook (the apiculus); the
antennae are widely separated at the base. Like the Papilionidae,
most species have an epiphysis on the tibia of the foreleg. Tibial
spurs are often absent on the midleg, but one or two pairs are
found on the hindleg. In the forewing, vein R1 and all branches of
Rs usually arise directly from the discal cell without a stalk, and all
radial veins extend free to the wing margin; there is one anal vein.
The hindwing has two anal veins and usually a humeral vein. Vein
CuP is absent from both wings. A typical Hesperiid wing venation
is shown in Fig. 5-1.
Fig. 5-1. Wing venation. Hesperiidae. A (on the left): Epargyreus
(subfamily Pyrginae); B (on the right): Pseudocopaeodes (subfamily
Hesperiinae). D=discal cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2. From Borror et al.
(1989).
Fig. 5-2. Dark Palmdart (Telicota bambusae lanka) female taking off.
Adult behavior: The adults are usually strong fliers with a fast,
irregular, darting flight. Some species of Hesperiids rest with
their wings folded up above the body, while some rest with the
hindwings opened flat and the forewings held vertical or slanting
slightly. Still others hold both wings spread horizontally. While
some species are readily attracted to nectar, others feed only, or
additionally, on tree-sap, bird-droppings, dung and rotting fruit.
The males of many species mudsip, often on dry rock or dry
ground; they excrete a liquid from their abdomen onto the dry
substrate in order to suck up the nutrients with their proboscis.
The habitats they occupy range from arid thorn scrub to wet
tropical forests.
Immature stages: The eggs are variable in size and shape though
they are frequently dome-shaped. They are usually white, pale
yellow, brown or green. They are smooth in some species and
ribbed in others. The larvae of most species are covered with
secondary setae on the head and body. The head is usually larger
than the thorax and there is a constricted area behind the head,
called the neck. The larvae of some species are brightly colored
whereas those of others are green or brown. Hesperiid larvae often
construct a shelter using leaves of the larval food plant and silk
from their silk glands, which is exuded through spinnerets at the
base of the mouth. The shelter can be open or closed and is often
lined with a waxy secretion from glands, called powder glands, on
the ventral surface of the abdomen. Though the shelters differ in
structure from species to species, the basic method of construction
is the same. The larval lays down silk from its spinnerets from one
part of a leaf to another; the silk dries on contact with air and
43
Pale Palmdart (Telicota colon kala)

Fig. 5-49. Pale Palmdart (Telicota colon kala). a) male, upperside; b) male feeding on nectar of Chromolaena odorata, underside; c) female,
underside; d) – e) female, upperside; f) egg; g) larva, final instar, lateral view; h) larva, final instar, dorsal view; i) pupa.

Wingspan: 32–36 mm

 Description (Figs. 5-49, 5-50c, d): It is very similar in though the species of grass has not yet been identified. Ormiston
appearance to the Dark Palmdart. In the male, the sex brand on (1924) recorded that it fed on sugarcane. The mature larva has a
the upperside of the forewing consists of three broad streaks that light brown head and is more yellowish than the larva of the Dark
are situated closer to the upper margin of the black band within Palmdart, while the pupa is paler.
which they lie; on the upperside of the forewing, the yellow streaks
from the postdiscal band run along the veins to the termen. In
the female, these yellow streaks do not extend to the termen along
the veins, but the markings in the cells below vein M3 have their
lower edges produced slightly; the markings on the upperside are
much smaller, enhancing the black ground color and making the
butterfly appear darker.

 Similar species: Dark Palmdart—see under that species. All

other Darts are smaller.

 Status, distribution and habitat: The species is rare (5), but

appears to fly year-round. It is confined to the hills of the Uva,
Sabaragamuwa provinces and the drier parts of the Central
province. A few are occasionally encountered at lower elevations.
Ormiston (1924) recorded it as “plentiful” in Haldummulla and
had observed it in Galle and Wellawaya. Woodhouse (1949) wrote
that it was found “all over the island, all the year round, below
5000 feet”. Its range within the island has certainly contracted
since historical times. Threat status: NT.
Fig. 5-50. Differentiating male Dark Palmdart and male Pale Palmdart by
wing pattern and sex brand.
 Adult behavior: Its behavior is similar to that of the Tropic Dart a) – b) Dark Palmdart (Telicota bambusae lanka); orange-colored scales
except that it inhabits grasslands and large open meadows. do not extend to margin; sex brand lies closer to the lower margin of the
black band within which it lies.
c) – d) Pale Palmdart (Telicota colon kala); orange-colored scales extend
 Immature stages: Its immature stages are similar to those of the to margin; sex brand lies closer to the upper margin of the black band
Dark Palmdart except that it feeds on grasses instead of bamboo within which it lies.

The Skippers 85
Chapter 6
The Blues: Lycaenidae
Introduction to the Lycaenidae
The members of the Lycaenidae (Lycaenids) are widely distributed
and the family comprises about 5000 species worldwide. The
majority of the species are found in the tropics, and about 30%
of all species of butterflies in the world belong to this family. The
adults are small to medium-sized butterflies. Most species are some
shade of iridescent blue or purple on the upperside of the wings,
with various patterns and colors on the underside. Despite their
common group name, the “Blues”, many species have no blue, but
are varying shades of red, orange, brown or black.
Distinguishing characters: Members of this family are
distinguished by the following characters in the adult: The
antennae are set close together on top of the head and the eyes
are large and close together. Many species have eyespots on the
underside of the hindwing and hair-like tails. In the male, the front
legs are reduced in most species. In the forewing, the radial vein
has only 3 or 4 of the 5 branches (usually R3 and R4 are missing).
The hindwing usually has two anal veins, but no humeral vein. A
typical Lycaenid wing venation is illustrated in Fig. 6-1.
Fig. 6-1. Wing venation. Lycaenidae. Theclinae. Thecla. The dark spot
near the end of the discal cell on the forewing is a scent patch. D=discal
cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2. From Borror et al. (1989).
Fig. 6-2. Plain Hedge Blue (Celastrina l. lavendularis) male in flight.
Adult behavior: The adults are generally moderate to strong fliers
despite their small size though some species have a weak, fluttering
flight. Most species feed on the nectar of flowers; others feed on
fruit, tree sap or decaying matter. Several species mudsip. They
are generally found in open sunny places though some species
are forest or canopy dwellers. Many species have tornal spots
and tails on the hindwing; at rest, they sit head-down and move
their hindwings rhythmically so that the tornal spots and tails
imitate the head of an adult butterfly when viewed from the side.
A predator that is deceived by the false head and attacks it would
be rewarded with only a mouthful of wing. Some species have
additional lobing on the hindwing, and when these individuals are
viewed from behind, they too present a false head with eyes and
antennae.
Immature stages: The egg is usually a smooth or a pitted flattened
dome though in some species, the egg is almost spherical. The color
ranges from white to cream to orange. The larva is usually flattened
and slug-like (onisciform), triangular in cross-section, and with a
small retractable head. The larvae of many Lycaenids are associated
with ants and these have three specialized organs to interact with
them: a single dorsal nectar organ (DNO) on segment A7, a pair
of tentacle organs (TO) on segment A8 and minute pore cupola
organs (PCO) distributed over the dorsal surface of the body
(Figs. 6-3a, b). The DNO is a complex structure, consisting of
four glandular cells below the skin that secrete a mixture of sugars
and amino acids into a central sac. When it chooses, the larva
releases a drop of this mixture to the surface. These secretions
are used as a source of food by the ants associated with the larva.
99
Green’s Silverline, Sri Lanka Green’s Silverline (Spindasis greeni)

Fig. 6-73. Green’s Silverline (Spindasis greeni). a) male, upperside; b) male, underside; c) female, underside; d) female, upperside; e) – f) eggs;
g) – h) larvae, final instar, attended by Crematogaster rothneyi ants; i) – j) pupa, attended by C. rothneyi ants; k) below: habitat at World’s End.

Wingspan: 23–26 mm

 Description (Fig. 6-73): The markings on the underside are
greatly reduced in size and disconnected from each other.
 Similar species: None.
 Status, distribution and habitat: This endemic species is very
rare (5) and seasonal, having been recorded only in March and
April. It is a butterfly of the mountains above 2000 m asl. Heron
(1896) described the species based on a single male collected by
E.E. Green at the peak of the Great Western Mountain range
near Pundalu-Oya. It was not accepted as a valid species by
many authors since the description was based on a single worn
individual. The species was rediscovered, however, in March
2008 at Horton Plains National Park at the top of World’s End.
In March 2012, immature stages and adults of both sexes were
recorded at the same location and its status as a valid species was
established. Threat status: CR.
 Adult behavior: It spends most of its time in the stunted
canopy and is seldom seen near the ground. Because the habitat
in which it is found is cool, often misty and rainy, the butterfly
basks frequently in the sun with its wings spread open partway. It
probably feeds on the nectar of flowers of trees, but we have not
observed it doing so. It is difficult and risky to study the behavior
of the butterfly in the field because of the steep terrain in which it
flies and its tendency to fly near exceptionally precipitous locations.
by ants and coleopteran larvae. It is not clear on what the larva
feeds as it moves about freely within the galleries. The larva is
always attended by the ants, which feed on the secretions of its
DNO. The mature larva is light brown with a dark brown dorsal
line; the subdorsal and lateral bands are narrow, discontinuous
and pale brownish-pink; the bands are often obscure; the lateral
edges below the spiracles have transparent tufts of hair. At maturity,
the larva exits the galleries and pupates just underneath the bark
with its head pointing towards an exit hole close by. The pupa is
pale yellowish-brown with dark dorsal areas on segments T1 and
T2; the wing buds are a lighter color than the abdomen. It is also
always attended by ants. For more details, see van der Poorten &
van der Poorten (2012b).
 Conservation issues: With little information on its biology and
only two known locations, this species is at risk particularly because
of the loss of habitats due to encroachment and removal of dead
wood for fuel.

 Immature stages: The female lays its eggs singly or in small

batches of 3–5 on the bark of dead trees that harbor colonies of
the ant, Crematogaster rothneyi. On emergence, the larva nibbles
on the eggshell and soon finds a hole in the bark through which
it enters into the galleries of the tree trunk that have been created

The Blues 163

Chapter 7
The Brush-footed butterflies: Nymphalidae
Introduction to the Nymphalidae
The members of the Nymphalidae (Nymphalids) are distributed
world-wide. The family comprises over 6000 species and includes
many familiar species such as the large blue Morpho butterflies of
South America and the Monarch butterfly of North America. The
adults are mostly medium-sized to large butterflies that are usually
orange, brown, or black with white markings. Their common
group name refers to their hairy, brush-like legs.
The single character that unites all members of this family is
rather obscure: 3 longitudinal ridges on the ventromesial surface
of the antenna of the adult butterfly (Figs. 7-3g, h). Another
character shared by both sexes of all species (except females in the
subfamily Libytheinae) is the presence of greatly reduced front
legs, which are usually held pressed against the underside of the
thorax. These reduced legs are not used for walking. The females
of some species, however, use them to “drum” on leaves in order
to identify the larval food plant correctly—the spines on the
leg puncture the surface of the leaf as the female drums and the
sense receptors on the last segment of the leg detect the released
chemicals. The forewing has a single anal vein, and the radial veins
have 5 branches, some of which are stalked. The hindwing usually
has a humeral vein (though it is sometimes greatly reduced), and
two anal veins. The tornus is usually rounded. A typical Nymphalid
wing venation is shown in Fig. 7-1.
Fig. 7-1. Wing venation. Nymphalidae. Heliconiinae. Speyeria. Discal cell
in hindwing closed. hv=humeral vein. D=discal cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2.
From Borror et al. (1989).
Fig. 7-2. Peacock Pansy (Junonia a. almana) in flight, with several
Silverlines (Spindasis sp.) below feeding on the nectar of the flowers of
Mikania cordata.
Adult behavior: The appearance, behavior and habitats of the
members of the Nymphalidae are varied as might be expected
from such a large, diverse group. The adults are usually strong
fliers. Some species are migratory. While some species are readily
attracted to nectar, others feed only or additionally on tree-sap,
bird-droppings, dung and rotting fruit. The habitats they occupy
range from arid thorn scrub to wet tropical forests.
Immature stages: The eggs are variable in size and shape and
are often white, pale yellow, brown or green. They range from
being smooth and rounded as in the subfamily Satyrinae to being
intricately sculptured with fine projections as in some Euthalia
in the subfamily Limenitidinae. The mature larva is more or
less cylindrical though in some species the anterior segments are
expanded into a hump. The larvae of some species are smooth
whereas others have branched spines, filaments or hairs of varying
lengths on the thorax and abdomen. The head capsule of some
species bears horns, which are simple or elaborately branched.
The last abdominal segment in some species is bifid, forming two
tail-like projections. Larvae are often cryptically colored though
the larvae of some species are brightly colored, suggesting an
aposematic warning coloration. They are often gregarious. In many
species, the larva builds a shelter using its own silk and the leaves
of the larval food plant. The pupa is usually some shade of green or
brown with white and black markings, usually cryptically colored.
The pupae of different species assume quite different shapes, but in
all species, they hang solely by the cremaster from a pad of silk and
are not supported by a girdle around the thorax. The life history of
201
Gaudy Baron (Euthalia lubentina psittacus)
Fig. 7-48. Gaudy Baron (Euthalia lubentina psittacus). a) male feeding on fallen jak fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), upperside; b) male feeding on
fallen jak fruit, underside; c) female feeding on fallen jak fruit, upperside; d) female, underside; e) female, upperside; f) female laying egg on leaf
of Dendrophthoe falcata; g) final instar larva on scarred leaf of D. falcata; h) beetle feeding on young leaf of D. falcata.
Wingspan: 60–80 mm
 Description (Fig. 7-48): This gorgeous butterfly is seldom
seen despite the abundance of its larval food plants, the mistletoes
(Loranthaceae). Fresh individuals of both sexes show a lovely
iridescent sheen on the upperside. Its brilliant colors are not
evident in flight because the butterfly flies so swiftly. Even when
settled, the colors take life only when viewed at the appropriate
angle in the proper light. Both sexes appear grayish-blue or grayish-
green when viewed at other angles. The male is much smaller than
the female.
 Similar species: In flight it may be mistaken for the Baron.
 Status, distribution and habitat: This endemic subspecies is
rare (1) and though a few fly throughout the year, most sightings
have been from July to September. It is widely distributed in the
intermediate zone and the wet zone up to about 1500 m asl. It
favors mid-elevations from 400–700 m asl and inhabits forests and
well-wooded home gardens. Threat status: VU.
 Adult behavior: Its behavior is similar to that of the Baron, but
it prefers to live higher up in the canopy or subcanopy where it is
often difficult to see, which also contributes to its scarcity. Both
sexes descend to the ground now and again to feed on fallen fruits,
or to suck up moisture from seepages and edges of streams when
conditions are very dry. When settled, it is shy and any sudden
movement nearby drives it away instantly.
 Immature stages: The female lays its eggs singly on the
upperside of a leaf of the larval food plant, usually 3–5 m above the
ground. Plants that grow high up in the canopy where winds are
strong are seldom used for egg-laying, probably because branches
of mistletoe, being brittle, break off easily. In the intermediate
zone, the female selects tattered and scarred leaves for egg-laying.
The scarring of the mature leaf is brought about by a small beetle
when it feeds on the expanding leaves. As the leaves age, the
grooves and holes left behind dry up and turn brown to give the
leaves their characteristic scarred appearance—these are the leaves
the female eagerly seeks for egg-laying. Leaves without beetle
injury are seldom used. Whether the female uses mostly scarred
leaves of mistletoe in the other climatic zones is not known. Once
a suitable leaf is found, the female clings to the leaf, vertically or
nearly so, with its head pointing up, and lays a single egg. The egg
is superbly camouflaged and almost indistinguishable from the
myriad blotches on the leaves. Under a hand lens, however, the
egg is seen to be a beautifully sculptured multi-faceted dome with
amber-colored projections that terminate in sticky droplets. The
droplets probably act as a defense against parasitoids by trapping
them on contact.
The newly emerged larva is armed with four rows of long
black spines and two rows of light-colored knobby spines along
the length of its amber-colored body. It feeds on its eggshell on
emergence, and in the first instar, it rests in a characteristic manner
with its body curled up and its head touching the thorax, or nearly
so. The dorsal spines of the larva, like the droplets of the egg, are
sticky, and probably trap small parasitoids and prevent eggs being
laid on the larva, as they do for the egg. Reared larvae often had
their droppings attached to these spines, but we were unable to
determine if this was accidental or if the larva deliberately placed
them for better camouflage.
In the third instar, the larva develops long much-branched
black and yellow dorsolateral spines, and a row of brown dorsal
spots which are retained until the larva pupates. At this stage,
The Brush-footed butterflies 243
Chapter 8

The Swallowtails: Papilionidae

Introduction to the Papilionidae
The members of the Papilionidae (Papilionids) are distributed
worldwide, but most are found in the tropics. The family comprises
about 500 species. The adults are mostly medium-sized to large
butterflies, often colorful and strikingly patterned. Despite their
common group name, many are without tails.

Distinguishing characters: Members of this family are

distinguished by the following characters in the adult: The bases
of the antennae are close together. The proboscis is long except in
the members of the tribe Leptocircini (Figs. 8-4b, c). Each leg has
a pair of simple, well-developed tarsal claws; the forelegs are fully
developed with an epiphysis on the tibia (Fig. 8-3). The epiphysis
is used to clean the antennae and is found only in the Papilionidae
and the Hesperiidae. On the forewing, the radial vein consists of
five branches with R4 and R5 usually being stalked; there are two
anal veins, one of which (A3) curves down to the dorsum. On the Fig. 8-2. Common Jay (Graphium d. doson) in flight.
hindwing, there is a humeral vein and a single anal vein (except in
the Mexican species Baronia brevicornis, which has two). A typical Adult behavior: Adult Swallowtails are strong fliers. Most species
Papilionid wing venation is shown in Fig. 8-1. feed on the nectar of flowers, though a few feed on scat and dead
animal matter when available. Many mudsip. Males use patrolling
as a mating strategy to encounter females. Courtship is usually
a long drawn-out encounter, with the male hovering near the
female for a considerable time (Fig. 8-3e). They are found in many
different habitats, from forests to meadows to urban areas, and are
widespread over the island. Some species join migratory flights.

Fig. 8-3. Leg showing epiphysis on tibia of foreleg.

Immature stages: The eggs are spherical, usually smooth, and

Fig. 8-1. Wing venation. Papilionidae. Papilio. hv=humeral vein. D=discal colored variously from white to cream to orange. In many
cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2. From Borror et al. (1989). species, the egg is covered with a glue-like substance that makes
it look ribbed. The final instar larva is stout and smooth and
sometimes bears fleshy tubercles; the thorax is sometimes humped

287
Red Helen (Papilio helenus mooreanus)
Fig. 8-13. Red Helen (Papilio helenus mooreanus). a) male feeding on nectar of Stachytarpheta sp., underside; b) male mudsipping, underside;
c) male, hair-like scales on the upperside of the wing; d) male, upperside; e) male, upperside; f) female, upperside.
Wingspan: 110–130 mm
 Description (Fig. 8-13): Despite its name, the adult only hints
at the red on its wings. The female is larger than the male and has
more extensive yellow streaks on the upperside of the forewing. In
the male, the yellow streaks are modified hair-like scales; the white
patch on the underside is smaller, and on the upperside, is often
hidden when the butterfly is at rest.
 Similar species: None.
 Status, distribution and habitat: This endemic subspecies is
uncommon (5) and confined to the wet zone. It flies throughout
the year, but the main flight season is from February to May. It
is commonly found above 800 m asl. On the southern slopes,
however, it descends as low as 100 m asl. This forest-loving species
is fond of habitats along small streams and waterways surrounded
by dense vegetation. Threat status: VU.
 Adult behavior: A patrolling species, it does its rounds within
its territory day after day, often late into the evening. It weaves
skillfully in and out of the dense vegetation in which it lives,
usually keeping to within a meter or two of the ground. It also flies
in the canopy or near the ground to exploit the resources at those
levels. When flying along a forest road, it flies much faster and in a
straight line for longer distances, swaying unpredictably from side
to side, and then, it suddenly veers off to disappear into the forest
or over the treetops; a behavior that makes it less vulnerable to
attacks by birds. When threatened, it flies swiftly and erratically.
In the lowlands, it feeds on the nectar of flowers of a variety
of plants, such as Clerodendrum infortunatum, Stachytarpheta
urticifolia and Hedyotis fruticosa. In the highlands around Nuwara
Eliya, it feeds on species such as Cestrum elegans, Passiflora ligularis
and Ageratina riparia. In the Knuckles Conservation Area, it
eagerly feeds on the nectar of Asystasia chelonoides. It is also an
opportunistic feeder that helps itself to the remains of a dead crab
or fish along a stream. In hot dry weather, the males mudsip on wet
soil, sometimes in fair numbers.
At dusk, it moves into a shaded thicket alongside a stream
to roost on a twig with its wings spread open, usually within 1 m
of the ground. In the morning, it basks in the sun to warm itself
before taking flight, especially at the higher elevations.
 Immature stages: The female lays its eggs singly on a tender
leaf of the larval food plant, usually about 1 m above the ground,
but sometimes as high as 6–9 m. The final instar is similar in
appearance to others in its genus except that the bands on the
middle of the abdomen (segments A5 & A6) join dorsally. It
usually pupates on a twig on the larval food plant. The pupa has
many color forms, ranging from green to brown, with varied
cryptic markings. The larva fed on the leaves of Citrus madurensis
and Citrus sinensis when offered, but has not been recorded
feeding on species of Citrus in the field. In the wild, the larva feeds
mostly on Toddalia asiatica, which is widely distributed, and on
Zanthoxylum tetraspermum, which is a rare plant of the higher hills.
The Swallowtails 299
Chapter 9

The Whites and Yellows: Pieridae

Introduction to the Pieridae
The members of the Pieridae (Pierids) are widely distributed
throughout the world. The family comprises about 1000 species.
The adults are medium-sized butterflies that are predominantly
white, yellow, or cream-colored, often with orange-colored
markings. The pigments that make up these colors, called pterins,
are unique to the Pieridae, and absorb or reflect UV light to
varying degrees. The word “butterfly” may well have had its origins
in the color of this group.

Distinguishing characters: Members of this family are

distinguished by the following characters in the adult: The legs
are well-developed with conspicuous bifid tarsal claws and a single
pulvillus (Fig. 9-3), but no epiphysis on the tibia of the foreleg
as in the Papilionidae or Hesperiidae. The forewing has one anal
vein and 3–5 radial veins, one or more of which is stalked. The
hindwing always has 2 anal veins. A typical Pierid wing venation is Fig. 9-2. Lesser Albatross (Appias galene) in flight (female, form
shown in Fig. 9-1. lankapura, subform fasciata).

though a few species are forest-dwellers. Most species in the island

are widespread, but a few are confined either to the arid zones
and the dry zone or to the hills in the wet zone above 1000 m asl.
The largest number of species is found in the dry plains. Many
of the species have seasonal forms, but they often fly together.
Though some species look similar in appearance, their patterns
of UV reflectance on the wings are different for each species; the
butterflies use these differences to identify their partners correctly.

Fig. 9-1. Wing venation. Pieridae. A (on the left): an orange-tip (Euchloe,
subfamily Pierinae). B (on the right): a sulphur (Colias, subfamily
Fig. 9-3. Last tarsal segment of mid-leg of Delias harpalyce female,
Coliadinae). hv=humeral vein. D=discal cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2. From
showing bifid tarsal claws and pulvillus. From Orr and Kitching (2010).
Borror et al. (1989).

Adult behavior: The adults of most genera are strong fliers
(Fig. 9-2). Several species take part in migrations within the island,
sometimes numbering in the millions. They feed mostly on the
nectar of flowers, but some species occasionally feed on scat or
dead animal matter. Their preferred habitats are open meadows
Immature stages: The eggs are usually white, more or less spindle-
shaped with longitudinal and horizontal ridges. In most species, the
color of the egg acquires a red or orange hue within a day or two of
being laid. The final instar larva is slender, cylindrical, and smooth
with fine setae covering its body. Each segment of the abdomen

307
One-spot Grass Yellow—it has distinctly rounder wings and grandiflora, Acacia nilotica, Acacia eburnea and Acacia leucophloea
the underside of the forewing has a single streak in the discal and probably on many other members of the Leguminosae. The
cell (Fig. 9-12f ); the lower extremity of the black border on the larva is sometimes a pest of Sesbania grandiflora in plant nurseries
upperside of the forewing is always distinctly subtended by yellow and vegetable gardens.
(Fig. 9-12e). Spotless Grass Yellow—it has a narrow, oblique band
of sparsely speckled dark brown scales from the apex to the dorsum
of the underside of the hindwing, often with a second smaller band
below, but is otherwise spotless (Fig. 9-12j). Small Grass Yellow—
on the underside of the forewing, it has no markings in the discal
cell except for two small black streaks on the discocellulars; the
underside of the hindwing is finely dusted with black scales and the
disc has 4–5 well-defined black spots (Fig. 9-12h). In the Spotless
Grass Yellow and the Small Grass Yellow, the outline of the black
area on the upperside of the forewing resembles the knuckles of a
closed fist and not the face of a dog (Figs. 9-12g, i).

 Status, distribution and habitat: This species is very common

(20) and can be seen at any time of the year, though peak
populations occur towards the end of the monsoon rains. It is
widely distributed from the plains to the highest hills and occurs
almost everywhere, including heavily populated urban areas. Its
wide distribution and abundance is closely related to its use of a
wide range of readily available larval food plants, many of which
grow in profusion in waste places, home gardens and at the edges
of tanks and waterways, and even in shallow, standing water.
Threat status: LC.

 Adult behavior: It is an active butterfly that flies in full sun,

and settles down abruptly when the sky becomes overcast. It is
not a strong flier and usually stays within a meter or so above
the ground, and frequently settles on small flowers to feed on
nectar. Being an excellent generalist, it makes do with whatever
flower is available and accessible to its short proboscis. In the dry
zone, during the hottest part of the day, it seeks shelter in shady
thickets and may then be seen resting on the underside of a leaf.
It congregates in numbers to mudsip on wet soil in the company
of other Pierids, particularly during hot dry weather. Both
seasonal forms sometimes fly together. The adult basks in the sun,
particularly at the higher elevations, with its wings closed and held
at right angles to the sun. It is migratory.

 Immature stages: The female lays its eggs singly, usually on a

tender leaf of the larval food plant. The final instar larva is green,
its body is rugose (wrinkled), and transversely impressed to form
many ridges, each ridge covered with setae arising from slightly
elevated tubercles. Most setae carry a sticky, colorless droplet at
the apex. The spiracular band is a dull silvery-white with a hint
of yellow on the upper margin. At rest, the larva remains on the
upperside of a leaf or leaflet or along a rachis where it is quite
well camouflaged. It feeds mostly by night, remaining still during
the day. It pupates on the underside of a rachis, a leaf or a leaflet Fig. 9-12. Comparison of species of Eurema.
a) – b) Common Grass Yellow (E. h. hecabe);
depending on the larval food plant, and often near the area where c) – d) Three-spot Grass Yellow (E. blanda citrina);
it last fed. The pupa is green, often speckled with varying shades e) – f) One-spot Grass Yellow (E. ormistoni);
of brown. The larva feeds on the leaves of Albizia odoratissima, g) – h) Small Grass Yellow (E. brigitta rubella);
i) – j) Spotless Grass Yellow (E. laeta rama).
Pithecellobium dulce, Aeschynomene aspera, Aeschynomene americana,
Senna tora, Cassia grandis (young seedlings only), Sesbania

The Whites and Yellows 315

Chapter 10
The Metalmarks: Riodinidae
Introduction to the Riodinidae
The members of the Riodinidae (Riodinids) are distributed
worldwide, though the majority are found in Central and South
America. The family comprises over 1500 species and is perhaps
the least well-known group of butterflies. The adults are small to
medium-sized and usually brightly colored with small metallic-
looking spots on the wings, which give them their common name.
The sole representative of this family in Sri Lanka is the Plum Judy
(Abisara echerius prunosa), and it has no metallic markings. The
Riodinidae appear to be most closely related to the Lycaenidae,
though many species resemble members of the Satyrinae, or mimic
species of poisonous moths.
Distinguishing characters: Members of this family are
distinguished by the following characters in the adult: The foreleg
of the male is very short and is not used for walking, and the coxa
extends slightly beyond the joint of the second segment rather
than meeting it flush. In both sexes, the costa of the hindwing
is thickened up to the origin of the short humeral vein and the
hindwing has a precostal vein. The antennal club is often pointed.
Males have a well-developed uncus. A typical Riodinid wing
venation is shown in Fig. 10-1.
Fig. 10-1. Wing venation. Riodinidae. Lephelisca [now Calephelis].
hv=humeral vein. D=discal cell. A3=3A. A1+2=A1+A2. From Borror
et al. (1989).
Adult behavior: The adult is not a strong flier and many species
are found in the canopy. They inhabit forested areas as well as more
open habitats and feed mostly on the nectar of flowers. Many of
the species have the habit of settling on the underside of a leaf.
Immature stages (Fig. 10-2): Eggs are usually rounded and look
similar to those of the Lycaenidae. Larvae are usually hairy (covered
by setae) as are the pupae, which are attached with a girdle either
to the larval food plant or to debris on the ground. Some Riodinids
have larval associations with ants, but not the species in Sri Lanka.
The immature stages of the only species in Sri Lanka are well-
known and the larval food plants of the butterfly are members of
the Primulaceae.
Taxonomy: The Riodinidae are divided into 3 subfamilies: the
Euselasiinae, the Riodininae, and the Nemeobiinae, to which
the Plum Judy belongs. Worldwide, their larval food plants
belong to many families such as the Compositae, Euphorbiaceae,
Leguminosae, Orchidaceae and Sapindaceae.
Conservation issues: In the National Red List 2012, the sole
member of this family is classified as LC (Least Concern).
Fig. 10-2. Immature stages: egg, larva, pupa. Plum Judy (Abisara
echerius prunosa); head to the right.
343
Appendix A. Annotated species list
Status: E = endemic species; ESS = endemic subspecies; NE = not endemic; * = see note on page 359 –360.
Climatic zone in which the species is likely to be seen: √ √ = very likely; √ = likely; — =unlikely (this does not mean that the species is
found everywhere in that zone; see the species account for specific details of its distribution).
Montane species indicated by (M). Species found only in the northwest arid zone indicated by (N); only in the southeast arid zone by (S).

Inter-
Family, subfamily, tribe,
Common name Status Wet zone mediate Dry zone Arid zone
scientific name
zone
Family: Hesperiidae
Subfamily: Coeliadinae
Tribe: -
Badamia exclamationis
Brown Awl NE √√ √√ √√ —
(Fabricius, 1775)
Bibasis sena sena
Orange-tailed Awl NE √ √√ √√ —
(Moore, [1865])
Burara oedipodea ataphus
Branded Orange Awlet ESS — √√ √ —
(Watson, 1893)
Choaspes benjaminii benjaminii
Indian Awl King NE √ √ (M) — — —
(Guérin-Méneville, 1843)
Hasora badra lanka
Ceylon Awl ESS √√ — — —
Evans, 1926
Hasora chromus chromus
Common Banded Awl NE √√ √√ √√ —
(Cramer, [1780])
Hasora taminatus taminatus
White-banded Awl NE √√ √√ √√ —
(Hübner, [1818])
Family: Hesperiidae
Subfamily: Hesperiinae
Tribe: Aeromachini
Ampittia dioscorides singa
Bush Hopper ESS √√ √√ √√ —
Evans, 1949
Baracus vittatus
Hedge Hopper E* √√ √ — —
(C. Felder, 1862)
Erionota torus
Banana Skipper NE √ √ — —
Evans, 1941
Gangara lebadea subfasciata
Banded Redeye ESS √√ — — —
(Moore, 1878)
Gangara thyrsis clothilda
Giant Redeye ESS √√ √ √ —
(Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)
Halpe ceylonica
Ceylon Ace E* √ √ (M) — — —
(Moore, 1878)
Halpe egena
Rare Ace E* √√ — — —
(R. Felder, 1868)
Hyarotis adrastus adrastus
Tree Flitter NE √√ √√ √√ —
(Stoll, [1780])
Iambrix salsala luteipalpis
Chestnut Bob NE √√ √√ √√ —
Plötz, 1886
Matapa aria
Common Redeye NE √√ √√ √ —
(Moore, [1866])
Notocrypta curvifascia curvifascia
Restricted Demon NE √√ — — —
(C. & R. Felder, 1862)

345
Larvae: Nymphalidae: Danainae (Fig. F-11) (continued)

Larvae: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae (Fig. F-12)

382 The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka

View publication stats