2.2.

Analog Output Sensors

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 Sensors
A sensor is a device that detects the change in the environment and
responds to some output on the other system
A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable analog voltage
(or sometimes a digital signal) converted into a human-readable display or
transmitted for reading or further processing

• Proximity • Position/Velocity
– Mechanical – Encoders
– Optical – Tacho-generator
– Inductive/Capacitive • Force/Pressure
• Vibration/acceleration

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Potentiometers

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 Potentiometers
Types of Potentiometer
• Wirewound
–Wiper slides along coil of Ni-chrome wire
–Wire tends to fail, temperature variations
• Cermet
–Wiper slides on conductive ceramic track
–Better than wire inmost respects
• Plastic film
–High resolution
–Long life and good temperature stabilitywww.hcmute.edu.vn
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 Potentiometers
Processing circuit

• Pros • Cons
– Require analog signal for control – Temperature and wear variations
– Require absolute positional information – Not in dusty or wet environments
– Low cost
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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

Characteristics of RTDs
RTDs are temperature sensors generally made from a pure (or lightly
doped) metal whose resistance increases with increasing temperature
(positive resistance temperature coefficient)

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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

The most popular RTD is the platinum film PT100 (DIN 43760
Standard), with a nominal resistance of 100 Ω ± 0.1 Ω at 0ºC.
Platinum is usually used for RTDs because of its stability over a wide
temperature range (–270ºC to 650ºC) and its fairly linear resistance
characteristics.
Tungsten is sometimes used in very high temperature applications.
High resistance (1000 Ω) nickel RTDs are also available.

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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

Linearity of RTDs

This represents the change in the resistance of the RTD from 0ºC to 100ºC,
divided by the resistance at 0ºC, divided by 100ºC.
From the expression of alpha (α) it is easily derived that the resistance RT of
an RTD, at temperature T can be found as:
RT = R0 (1 + αT)
For example, a PT100 (DIN 43760 Standard), with nominal resistance of 100
Ω ± 0.1 Ω at 0ºC has an alpha (α) of 0.00385 Ω/Ω/ºC. Its resistance at
100ºC will therefore be 138.5 Ω. www.hcmute.edu.vn
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Types of RTD Constructions
 Two-wire construction
 Three-wire construction
 Four-wire construction

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 Two-wire RTD
Two-wire RTD result in leadwire resistance getting added to the element
resistance

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 Two-wire RTD

Two-wire RTD’s are mostly used with short lead wires or where close
accuracy is not required

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 Three-wire RTD
Three-wire RTD is most commonly used in industrial applications
Three-wire RTD results in canceled
leadwire resistance error only if the
transmitter can measure true 3-wire
resistance

Leadwire resistance error cancelation

is most effective when all the lead
wires have the same resistance
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 Four-wire RTD
Four-wire RTD result in canceled resistance only if the transmitter can
measure true 4-wire resistance

True 4-wire resistance measurement will effectively cancel leadwire resistance

error even if all 4 wires are not the same AWG, length, and/or composition

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 Four-wire RTD
With the 4-wire configuration, the instrument will pass a constant current (I)
through the outer leads, 1 and 4

The voltage drop is measured across the inner leads, 2 and 3

So from V = IR we learn the

resistance of the element alone

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 Thermocouples
• Two dissimilar metals induce voltage difference (few mV per 10K) –
electro-thermal or Seebeck effect

• Use op-amp to process/amplify the voltage

• Absolute accuracy of 1K is difficult
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Thermocouples

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 Photoconductive Cells

Do not produce electricity, but simply change their

resistance

 phototransistors act like photodiodes but with

greater sensitivity

 light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are slow, but

respond like the human eye

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LDR Cell

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LDR Cell

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 Force and Pressure Sensors
• Force and Pressure generally measured indirectly through deflection of an
alternate surface
• Mechanism include:
– Physical motion and measurement using (e.g.) an LVDT
– Strain gauges (metal that changes resistance when stressed)
– Piezoelectric materials that generate a current when deformed

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 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• An LVDT consists of a magnetic core that
moves in a cylinder
• The sleeve of the cylinder contains a primary
coil that is driven by an oscillating voltage
• The sleeve also contains two secondary coils
that detect this oscillating voltage with a
magnitude equal to displacement
• The automatic nulling that can be achieved
using two coils makes LVDTs very accurate
(sub-millimetre)
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LVDT

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Load Cell

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Strain Gauge Bridge

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Load Cell

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 Feedback Devices

Servos use feedback signals for stabilization, speed and position information.
This information may come from a variety of devices such as the analog
tachometer, the digital tachometer (optical encoder) or from a resolver

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 Analog Tachometer

The faster the shaft is turned, the larger the magnitude of voltage
developed. The output voltage shows a polarity (+ or -) which is dependent
on direction of rotation

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 Digital Tachometer (Encoder)
A digital tachometer, often termed an optical encoder or simply encoder, is a
mechanical-to-electrical conversion device.

The output signal may be square waves, or sinusoidal waves, or provide an

absolute position. Thus encoders are classified into two basic types:
absolute and incremental.

Incremental
Encoder

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Incremental Encoder

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 Absolute Encoder

The absolute encoder provides a specific address for each shaft position
throughout 360 degrees

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 Absolute Encoder

The number of tracks on the coded disk may be increased until the desired
resolution or accuracy is achieved
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 Encoder
A typical application using an incremental encoder is as follows:

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