Environmental Science

Air and Air Pollution

Air

- Air is everywhere
- We cannot see it but we can feel it when it moves
- Air is a mixture of several gases
- The most common gases in the air are nitrogen and oxygen.
- A small amount of the other gases like carbon dioxide and water vapors are also present in the air.
- Air is matter
- Air has mass.

Atmosphere

- The envelope of blanket of air around the earth is called atmosphere.

- The density of air decreases as we move further away from the surface of the earth.
- The earth’s atmosphere is the layers of the gases which protects tj earth from the radiations and cosmic rays
coming from the outer space.

Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Troposphere

- “Tropos” means change.

- This layer gets its name from the weather that is constantly changing and mixing up the gasses in this part of our
atmosphere.
- This layer is the closest to earth’s surface on average the troposphere extends from the ground to about 12
kilometers (7.5 miles) high.
- The troposphere contains about 75% of all the air in the atmosphere and all the water vapor which forms clouds
and rain.

Stratosphere

- “Strat” means layer.

- This layer of our atmosphere has its own set of layers.
- The boundary between the stratosphere an the troposphere is called “tropopause”
 - The stratosphere layer extends from tropopause to about 50 kilometers (32 miles) above the Earth’s surface.
- Stratosphere contains a thin layer of ozone which forms a protective layer called “ozone layer”. It absorbs
harmful Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.

Mesosphere

- “Meso” means middle

- This layer is located above the stratospehere and below the thermosphere.
- It is the third layer of our atmosphere which is 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick.
- The transition boundary which separate the mesosphere from the stratosphere is called “stratopause”.
- Most meteors burn up in this atmospheric layer. (Meteor is a piece of rock or matter that has been broken off in
space and travels through the atmosphere)

Thermosphere

- “Thermo” means heat

- This layer has extremely high temperature and locate above the mesosphere and below exosphere.
- The boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere atmospheric region is called “mesopause”.
- The thermosphere extends from the mesopause to 700 kilometers (435 miles) above the surface of the earth.
- The thermosphere is the thickest layer in the atmosphere.
- The aurora (Northern lights and Southern lights) and satellites mostly occur in this layer.

Exosphere

- “Exo” means outside.

- The exosphere represents the outer most layer of the earth’s atmosphere.
- It extends from the top of the thermosphere to 10.000 kilometers (6,214 miles) about the earth’s surface.

Atmospheric Circulation and Heat Change

Atmospheric Convection

- In atmospheric convection, heating of the ground surface heats the air, producing an updraft of less dense,
warm air, producing an updraft of less dense, warm air. The convection process ultimately causes air currents
that mix warmer and cooler parts of the atmosphere.
- Most thermal energy in the atmosphere is transferred by convection.
 Coriolis Effect

- The tendency of moving air or water to be reflected from its path and swerve to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the Left in the Southern Hemisphere.
- Prevailing winds from the northeast near the North Pole or from the southeast near the South Pole are called
“polar easterlies”.
- Winds that blow in the middle latitudes from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere or from the northwest
in the Southern Hemisphere are called “westerlies”.
- Tropical winds from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere or from the southeast in the Southern
Hemisphere are called “trade winds”.

Types and sources of Air Pollution (Six common air pollutants)

 Particle Pollution (Particulate Matter) – or PM, is a general term for a mixture of solid and liquid droplets
suspended in the air. The air we breathe indoors and outdoors always contains particle pollution.
 Ground-level Ozone – is a colorless and highly irritating gas that forms just above the earth’s surface. It is called
a “secondary” pollutant because it is produced when two primary pollutants react in sunlight and stagnant air.
These two primary pollutants are nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
 Carbon Monoxide – a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and toxic air pollutant
o it is produces in the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels.
o When carbon monoxide is emitted into the atmosphere it effects the amounts of greenhouse gases,
which are linked to climate change and global warming. This means that land and sea temperature
increases changing to ecosystems, increasing storm activity and causing other extreme weather events.
 Sulfur Oxides – are a group of important ambient air pollutants, which consists of both gaseous and particulate
chemical species, including sulfur monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and disulfur monoxide.
 Nitrogen Oxides – NO2 and other nitrogen oxides in the outdoor air contribute to the particle pollution and to
the chemical reactions that make ozone. It is one of six widespread air pollutants that have national air quality
standards to limit them in the outdoor air.
 Lead – can remain in the environment as dust indefinitely. The lead in fuels contribute to air pollution, especially
in urban areas. Soils near highways, freeways, and smelting facilities have higher levels of lead than soils in other
areas because of their exposure to lead dust, which accumulates over time.
Sources of Air Pollution

 Mobile Sources – are major contributors to air pollution in the Northeast states because they emit smog-
forming pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons (HC) as well as particulate matter (PM). Ex.
Trucks, buses, passenger cars, construction equipment, locomotives, and other types of vehicles.
 Stationary Sources – stationary sources of air pollution, including factories, refineries, boilers, and power plants,
emit a variety of air pollutants. The Clean Air Act directs EPA to control these emissions by developing and
implementing standards and guidelines.
 Area Sources – are sources of pollution which emit a substance or radiation from a specified area.
o Area sources of air pollutions are air pollutant emission sources which operate within a certain locale.
Locomotives operating on certain linear tracks are examples of a line source, whereas operating within a
rail yard are an example of an area source of pollution. Other area sources of air pollution are:
 Multiple flue gas stacks within a single industrial plant
 Open burning and forest fires
 Evaporation losses from large spills of volatile liquids
 Natural Sources – naturally occurring pollutants include ash, soot, sulfur dioxide, ground-level ozone (Also
known as SMOG), salt spray, volcanic and combustion gases, and radon. These pollutants are released during
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and grass fires.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air Pollution

- Injures organisms, reduces visibility, and attacks and corrodes materials such as metals, plastics, rubber, and
fabrics.
- Air pollutants harm the respiratory tracts of animals, including humans, and can worsen existing medical
conditions, such as” chronic lung disease, pneumonia, cardiovascular problems.
- Air pollutions is involved in acid deposition, global climate change, and stratospheric ozone.

Air Pollution and Human Health

- Exposure to low levels of pollutants leads to irritation of the eyes and inflammation of the respiratory tracts.
- Many air pollutants also suppress the immune system, increasing susceptibility to infection.
 - Exposure to air pollution during respiratory illnesses may result in the development later in life of chronic
respiratory diseases, such as:
o Emphysema - air sacs (Alveoli) in the lungs become distended, causing breathlessness and wheezy
breathing.
o Chronic Bronchitis – is a disease in which the air passages (bronchi) of the lungs become permanently
inflamed, causing breathlessness and chronic coughing.

Urban Air Pollution

- Air pollution in urban areas is often called smog. The term smog was coined at the beginning of the 20 th century
for the smoky fog prevalent in London because of coal combustion. Traditional London-type smog—that is,
smoke pollution—is sometimes called industrial smog.
- The principal pollutants in industrial smog are sulfur oxides and particulate matter. The worst episodes of
industrial smog typically occur during winter months, when combustion of household fuel such as heating oil or
coal is high.
- Another important type of smog is photochemical smog.
- Photochemical smog – a brownish orange haze formed by chemical reactions in involving sunlight, nitrogen
oxides, and hydrocarbons.
- First noted in Los Angeles in the 1940s, photochemical smog is generally worst during summer months. Both
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are involved in it formation. A photochemical reaction occurs among nitrogen
oxides.

Air Pollution May Affect Precipitation

- Climate scientists have noticed that mountainous areas in the western United States are receiving less
precipitation than usual. The effect has been particularly pronounced in mountains located downwind from
cities, leading scientists to speculate that air pollution may be altering precipitation patterns. However, long-
term data to support this hypothesis were not available until recently.
- In 2007 climate scientists evaluated weather data taken atop Mount Hua, a sacred mountain in China that
overlooks a plain where several cities (which are a source of air pollution) are located. The data, which include
precipitation, visibility, and humidity data, have been measured since 1954. By subtracting the effect of humidity
on visibility, scientists have been able to estimate the amount of air pollution suspended in the air. The scientists
have correlated high visibility—that is, low air pollution—with substantially more precipitation than when air
pollution levels were high. A more recent (2014) study concluded that when visibility is high, there is generally
more heavy rainfall but less light rainfall.
 A Taoist Temple on Mount Hua China

*note the proximity of the mountain to the plain where air pollution is produced.

Air Pollution in Los Angeles

- Had the worst smog in the world.

- Due to location, Los Angeles is conducive to the formation of stable temperature inversions that trap
photochemical smog near the ground.
- In 1969 California became the first state to enforce emissions standards on motor vehicles.
- Los Angeles today has stringent smog controls that regulate everything from low-emission alternative fuels.
- Using the cleanest emission reduction equipment, it significantly reduces emissions from large industrial and
manufacturing sources.
- California has no coal-fired power plants; most of its power plants burn natural gas.

Photochemical Smog

- Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas composed of three oxygen atoms.

- Ozone is a major constituent of the photochemical smog.
- Photographed in Los Angeles, California.
Peak Ozone Concentration

Southern California 1960-2010

- Peak ozone is the highest level of ozone recorded on any single day during the year.
- Air quality has improved steadily. Peak ozone in 2014 was 0.11 parts per million (ppm).
- Acceptable federal standard of 0.7 ppm
- Los Angeles experiences 115 days above the federal ozone standard in 2014, down from 203 days in 1977.

Urban Heat Islands and Dust Homes

- In high population density areas, they absorb solar radiation during the day and radiate heat into the
atmosphere at night,
- Heat from human activities is also highly concentrated in cities.
- The air in urban areas therefore forms urban heat islands. Urban heath islands also contribute to the buildup of
pollutants.
- Pollutants concentrate in a dust dome because convection lifts pollutants into the air, where they remain.

- If wind speeds increase, the dust dome moves downwind and the polluted air spreads over rural areas.
- Cities located in valleys or upwind mountain ranges are particularly susceptible to buildup of pollutants on low
wind days.
o Ex. Urban heat islands may increase the number of thunderstorms in cities during summer.
o Uplift of warm air over the city produces a low-pressure cell that draws in cooler air from the
surroundings.
 o As the heated air rises, it cools, causing water vapor to condense into clouds and produce
thunderstorms.

Controlling Air Pollutants

- Technology exists to control all the forms of air pollution discussed in this chapter.
- Smokestacks fitted with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers, and other technologies remove
particulate matter from air.
- Electrostatic precipitator – in an electrostatic precipitator, the electrode imparts a negative charge to
particulates in the dirty gas. These particles are attracted to the positively charged precipitator wall and then fall
off into the collector.
- Uncontrolled Emissions – industrial stacks without emission control devices can release substantial amount of
particulate matter and other pollutants.
- Stacks with emission controls – effective emission control devices can reduce particulate matter and other
pollutants.

The Clean Air Act (CAA)

- First passed in 1970 and updated and amended in 1977 and 1990. The CAA authorized the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to apply and enforce the CAA by establishing limits on the amount of specific air
pollutants permitted everywhere in the United States.
- They focused on six air pollutants—lead, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide nitrogen oxides,
and ozone—and established maximum acceptable concentrations for each.
- The most dramatic improvement so far has been in the amount of lead in the atmosphere, which showed a 98
percent decrease between 1970 and 2000, primarily because of the switch from leaded to unleaded gasoline.
- The CAA of 1970 and its amendments in 1977 and 1990 required progressively stricter controls of motor vehicle
emissions. The provisions of the CAA Amendments of 1990 include the development of “superclean” cars.
- The CAA Amendments of 1990 focus on industrial airborne toxic chemicals in addition to motor vehicle
emissions. These amendments required a 90 percent reduction in the atmospheric emissions of 189 toxic
chemicals.

Air Pollutants Around the Globe

- The leaders of most developing countries believe they must industrialize rapidly to compete economically with
more highly developed countries. Environmental quality is usually a low priority in the race for economic
development.
- Lead Pollution from heavily leaded gasoline is an especially serious problem in developing nations. The gasoline
refineries in these countries are generally not equipped to remove lead from gasoline.
- According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014 the five cities with the worst air pollution were
Delhi, India; Patna India; Gwalior, India; Raipur India; Karachi, Pakistan. Respiratory disease is now the leading
cause of death for children worldwide.

Indoor Air Pollution

- Include radon, cigarette smoke, nitrogen dioxide (from gas stoves), and formaldehyde (from carpet, fabrics, and
furniture). These contribute to a variety of symptoms referred to as sick building syndrome.
- Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) – is a condition where we experience eye irritations, nausea, headaches,
respiratory infections, depression, and fatigue caused by indoor air pollution.
- Radon – a colorless, odorless, tasteless radioactive gas produced naturally as a result of the radioactive decay of
uranium in Earth’s crust. This enters buildings from the ground. In some locations, indoor radon can pose a
significant health threat.
Effects of Indoor Air Pollution

- Burning solid fuels indoors in developing countries leads to diseases including respiratory and eye infections,
particularly among women and children.
- Smoke from indoor can lead to acute lower respiratory infections, pneumonia, eye infections, and lung cancer.
- The National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences estimates that residential exposure to radon
causes 12 percent of all lung cancers—between 15,000 and 22,000 lung cancers annually.

CASE STUDY 8.1

Curbing Air Pollution in Chattanooga

During the 1960s, the federal government gave Chattanooga, Tennessee, the dubious distinction of having the worst air
pollution in the United States. The air was so dirty in this manufacturing city that sometimes people driving downtown
had to turn on their headlights in the middle of the day. The orange air soiled their white shirts so quickly that many
businesspeople brought extra ones to work. To compound the problem, the mountains surrounding the city kept the
pollutants produced by its inhabitants from dispersing.

Today the air in this scenic midsized city of about 200,000 people is clean, and Chattanooga ranks high among U.S. cities
in terms of air quality (see photograph). City and business leaders are credited with transforming Chattanooga’s air.
Soon after the passage of the federal Clean Air Act of 1970, the city established an air pollution control board to enforce
regulations controlling air pollution. New local regulations allowed open burning by permit only, placed limits on
industrial odors and particulate matter, outlawed visible automotive emissions, and set a cap on sulfur content in fuel,
which controlled the production of sulfur oxides. Businesses installed expensive air pollution–control devices. The city
started an emissions-free electric bus system. Chattanooga also decided to recycle its solid waste rather than build an
emissions-producing incinerator.
In 1984 the EPA declared Chattanooga in attainment for particulate matter; this designation meant particulate levels had
been below the federal health limit for one year. The city reached attainment status for ozone in 1989. Since then, the
city’s levels for all seven EPA-regulated air pollutants have been lower than federal standards require.

In the early 2000s, Chattanoogans continued to move their city toward sustainability. By 2015, accomplishments
included a top rating by the Tennessee Valley Authority’s “Sustainable Communities” program and recognition as a
“Bicycle Friendly Community,” as well as numerous sustainable building and facility projects.