GEOLOGY – It came from the word “geo” which means earth, and “logos” which means

knowledge. It can be defined as the science of earth that aims at understanding the evolution of
the planet and its inhabitants.

STUDY OF GEOLOGY IS GENERALLY DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS:

OUTER GEOLOGY – It deals with the study of the materials that form the earth's crust and
the processes of the atmospheric layer and the biosphere that influence on it.

• Physics geology – studies the formation and material properties that compose the Earth,
their distribution across the globe, the processes that formed and altered the way they have
been transported and distorted, nature and landscape evolution.

• Historic geology – studies the evolution of life on Earth, from the most basic forms that
existed two billion years ago, until current flora and wildlife including humans.

• INNER GEOLOGY – studies the processes that take place under the earth's crust and

the causes that produce them.

BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY:

MINERALOGY - studies the rock-forming minerals that compose earth's crust.

PETROLOGY – It studies the origin, appearance, structure and rocks history. It deals with
their composition and texture; their occurrence and distribution; and their relation to
physicochemical conditions and geologic processes.

PETROGRAPHY – It describes the features of crystalline rocks. It is based on the study of

the appearance of thin, transparent sections of rocks in a microscope fitted with polarizers.

PALEONTOLOGY – It studies prehistoric life and investigates the relationship between

fossils of animals and plants with animals and plants currently existing.

SEDIMENTOLOGY – It investigates the terrestrial or marine deposits, their evolution, fauna,

flora, minerals and their textures.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY – It studies the different geometric structures of the rocks for
classification and explain the relationships between them, their appearance and movement; is
an auxiliary of the study of the great external features for the prospection of coal and petroleum.
The Surface of the Earth

Dimensions and surface relief - The radius of the Earth at the equator is 6370 km and the
polar radius is shorter by about 22 km; thus, the Earth is not quite a perfect sphere.

Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench - It is located in the western Pacific Ocean about 200
kilometers (124 mi) east of the Mariana Islands; It is the deepest oceanic trench on Earth. It is
crescent-shaped and measures about 2,550 km (1,580 mi) in length and 69 km (43 mi) in
width. The maximum known depth is 10,984 meters (36,037 ft) (± 25 meters [82 ft]) (6.825
miles) at the southern end of a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger
Deep.

Ocean Floors - The topography of the deep oceans was known, from soundings, only in
broad outline until 50 or 60 years ago.

Coastal Plain - It is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean.

Continental shelf - It is a submerged continuation of the land, with a gentle slope of 1 in

1000 or less, and is of varying width.

Continental Slope - the submarine edge of the continental crust distinguished by relatively
light and isostatic ally high-floating material in comparison with the adjacent oceanic crust.

Continental Rise - It is a wide, gentle incline from a deep ocean plain (abyssal plain) to a
continental slope.

Submarine Canyon - which are steep-sided gorge-like valleys incised into the sea floor.

Abyssal Plain - This is the ocean floor and from it rise submarine volcanic islands, some
of which may be fringed with coral reefs.

Temperature gradient and density - It is well known from deep mining operations that
temperature increases downwards at an average rate of 300C per km.

Layers of the earth - The Earth can be divided into one of two ways – mechanically or
chemically. Mechanically – or rheologically, meaning the study of liquid states – it can be
divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the
inner core. But chemically, which is the more popular of the two, it can be divided into the
crust, the mantle (which can be subdivided into the upper and lower mantle), andthe core
– which can also be subdivided into the outer core, and inner core.
Lithosphere - It is the rocky outer part of the Earth.

Crust - This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and
granite. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is denser and
thinner and mainly composed of basalt. Continental crust is less dense, thicker, and mainly
composed of granite.

Mantle - It consists of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock.

Asthenosphere - It is the highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile region of the
upper mantle of Earth.

Outer Core - which has been confirmed to be liquid. The density is estimated to be much
higher than the mantle or crust.

Inner Core - composed primarily of iron and nickel and has a radius of ~1,220 km. Density
in the core ranges between 12,600-13,000 kg/m3, which suggests that there must also be a
great deal of heavy elements there as well – such as gold, platinum, palladium, silver and
tungsten.
WHAT IS EARTH'S PROCESS?

 It describes the natural forces that influence the shape and structure of the planet.
Plate tectonics, Erosion, Weathering and Sedimentation are among the examples
that significantly affects the earth's surface.

EXOGENOUS PROCESS - Exogenic processes include geological phenomena and

processes that originate externally to the Earth’s surface.

Weathering - is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the Earth's
surface.

The Works of Weathering - Weathering produces some landforms directly, but is more
effective in preparing rocks for removal by mass wasting and erosion. Weathering influences
relief in every landscape.

Freezing and thawing - Water expands when it freezes. If water accumulates in a crack
and then freezes, its expansion pushes the rock apart in a process called frost wedging.

Temperature changes - Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so

rapidly over warmer rock beneath that it flakes or grains break off.

TYPES OF WEATHERING

PHYSICALWEATHERING - Sometimes called mechanical weathering, physical weathering is

the process that breaks rocks apart without changing their chemical composition.

CHEMICALWEATHERING - This is the decomposition of rocks due to chemical reactions

occurring between the minerals in rocks and the environment.

Erosion - is the removal of weathered rocks and minerals by moving water, wind, glaciers
and gravity. After a rock fragment has been eroded from its place of origin, it may be
transported large distances by those same agents.

Mass-Wasting - is defined as the down slope movement of rock and regolith near the
Earth's surface mainly due to the force of gravity.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM - It occurs if rock minerals and texture change because of
heat. Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma, metamorphism
is restricted to the zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic or contact aureole.

Regional Metamorphism - On contrary to Contact Metamorphism, it is another type where a

change in the rock happens in a larger or more extensive area, like a mountain range that
results from a larger scale action of heat and pressure.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONCIS

In early 19th century a German scientist, Alfred Wegener proposed that continents had once
been joined together to form a single huge supercontinent (Pangaea) which is a Greek word
means “entire land” or “all land” and had subsequently drifted apart.

- The lithosphere is broken into discrete plates that move relative to each other.
Continental drift and sea-floor spreading are manifestations of plate movement. Most
earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, the interiors of plates remain
relatively rigid and intact. There are three types of plate boundaries divergent, convergent,
and transform distinguished from each other by the movement the plate on one side of the
boundary makes relative to the plate on the other side.

The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's solid outer crust, the lithosphere, is
separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere

Divergent boundaries are marked by mid-ocean ridges. At divergent boundaries, sea-floor

spreading produces new oceanic lithosphere.

Convergent boundaries are marked by deep-ocean trenches and volcanic arcs. At

convergent boundaries, oceanic lithosphere subducted beneath an overriding plate.

Transform boundaries are marked by large faults at which one plate slides sideways past

another. No new plate forms and no old plate is consumed at a transform boundary.
GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth’s surface in rock and soil pore spaces
and in the fractures of rock formations.

A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an Aquifer when it can yield a usable
quantity of water.

Groundwater and Humanity - Groundwater is a vital water supply for humanity.

Groundwater provides drinking water entirely or in part for as much as 50% of the global
population and accounts for 43% of all of water used for irrigation.

Groundwater and the Earth - Although hidden below the Earth’s surface, groundwater
makes up 99% of Earth’s liquid fresh water and plays an important role in the water
cycle.

Groundwater at Risk - Yet another threat to groundwater is pollution resulting from human
activity, generating chemicals and wastes that have leaked into the subsurface.

Branch of Engineers that studies Groundwater

Ground Water Engineering - is a branch of engineering which is concerned with

groundwater movement and design of wells, pumps, and drains.

Wastewater Engineering - A wastewater engineer determines the best way to transport or

collect rainwater for human populations. Wastewater engineering also deals with the
transportation and cleaning of blackwater, greywater, and irrigation water.

Engineers use methods to lessen the effects of Groundwater

Sump pumping – a method where groundwater is collected using a sump and pumped
away from the construction site.

Wellpoint systems – used to lower groundwater levels and help provide safe working
conditions during excavation.

Siphon draining – works by pumping water by gravity along siphon pipes. Siphon draining
is most often used where there are unstable slopes.
Deep well systems – consist of a number of bored wells, each using a submersible
borehole pump. As water is pumped from each well, the groundwater is lowered creating a
cone of depression.

Ejector systems – are based on wells which lower the groundwater level to provide safe
working conditions. Ejectors utilize air in the wells to create a vacuum that draws water
out of the soil.

The impact of Groundwater from construction works

Unstable Subgrade - This issue is the soil is not stay in place on its own, and therefore it is
requiring extra support.

Unstable excavation and water seepage - This will happen when water flows from one
place to another via small holes or porous material.

Cracked and uneven floors - This will happen in some of the basements and found in
humid and wet areas, such as a wet basement. And also, easily support mold growth if
there is moisture and humidity in the area.

Delayed foundation movements - This will happen if the soil is not fully supported in the
structures and it may cause cracked floors because of uneven soil.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

- is the application of geology to engineering studies to ensure that the geological factors
related to the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering
works are recognized.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

- Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of construction

materials and their occurrence.
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What is an earthquake?

- An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one
another. The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below
the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location
directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

FAULT LINE - A fault line is a long crack in the surface of the earth. Earthquakes usually
occur along fault lines. A fault line in a system or process is an area of it that seems weak
and likely to cause problems or failure.

HYPOCENTER - the underground focus point of an earthquake. It is the point of origin of

an earthquake or a subsurface nuclear explosion.

EPICENTER - the point on the earth's surface vertically above the focus of an earthquake.

WORKS OF SEA

Marine Erosion - Marine water erodes the rock at the shore and elsewhere with which it
comes in contact in a manner broadly similar to that of that steam water. The work erosion is
accomplished in 3 ways:

- Hydraulic action - The force of the waves pushes air into the cracks at massive
pressures. The pressure upon the rock is at its greatest during the stormy conditions. The
compressed air under the great pressures forces outs parts of the cliff face.
- Marine abrasion - Is when rocks and other materials carried by the sea are picked up
by strong waves and thrown against the coastline causing more material to be
broken off and carried away by the sea.
- Corrosion - Is a process of chemical erosion. Rocks or stones can be eroded as water
gets into cracks and holes and dissolves the rock through chemical changes.

Marine Transportation - Rocks and sand are moved from one area to another by waves
and sea currents. The movement of material along the coast is called longshore drift.

Marine Deposition - These deposits consist mostly of mud and oozes and are called as
pelagic deposits.
Pelagic Deposits - Sedimentary deposits in the abyssal parts of the ocean composed
largely of the remains of pelagic organisms, volcanic dust, and meteoritic particles.

WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND & THEIR ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE

River erosion

- The energy in a river causes erosion. It makes the river expand and elongate with the
use of different processes). There are four main processes of erosion that occur in rivers.
These are:
1. Hydraulic action - The force of the waves hitting the cliff
and the air compressing inside cracks
2. Abrasion - Small particle thrown against the base cliff that
causes the river to expand.
3. Attrition - The wearing down of rocks to become smaller
and rounder
4. Solution - Dissolving rock due to mild acidity of water

River Transport

- Transportation of material in a river begins when friction is overcome. Material that has
been loosened by erosion may be then transported along the river. There are four main
processes of transportation.

1. Suspension - Small silt and clay so they are held suspended by the water movement
(makes the water muddy)

2. Solution - Salt and carbonates carried away, they are part of the rivers dissolved load.

3. Saltation - Small stones, pebble and silt bounces along the river bed

4. Traction - Large boulders and pebbles rolled along the river bed
River Deposition

Deposition is the process of the eroded material being dropped. This happens when a river
loses energy. These are the types of deposits: (When a river slows down it losses energy when
it loses energy it deposits its load)

River mouth - River meets the sea and the river forced to slow down and deposits anything
that is carrying.

Inside bend of a meander - Naturally a slower flow, as the rivers slow down due to the bend
due to friction the river loose energy and deposits what it carrying.

Flood plain - Flat area of land either side of a river channel when the river floods the river
water will rise as the water rises and flows over the flood plain the friction it encounters
will force the river to deposits anything that is carrying.

Obstruction - Maybe because there might be a wall damn in a way or there have been a
landslide the rivers forced to deposit what it carrying

Work of Wind

- The movement of the atmosphere in a direction parallel to the earth surface is wind.
i.e the air in motion is called wind whereas the vertical movements of the atmosphere
are termed as air currents. This is divided into three modes of activities:

Wind Erosion

Wind erosion is the detachment, transportation and re-deposition of soil particles by

wind. This is generally caused by these erosion processes: (natural process that detaches soil
particles and sand from one area of the lands surface and transports it to another location
where it deposited

Deflation - Removal of particle of dust like silt and sand by strong wind.

Abrasion - The wind loaded with such particles attains a considerable erosive power
which helps in eroding the rock surfaces by rubbing and grinding actions and produce many
changes. (Collide with the rock and breaks the rock)
Wind Transportation - Materials of fine particles such as clay silt and sand occurring on
surfaces of the earth are transported in huge volumes from one place to another in different
regions of the world. The wind transport is carried out mainly by two distinctly different
processes:

Suspension - The light density particles clay and silt may be lifted by the wind from the
ground and carried up high to the upper layer of the wind where they move along with the
wind.

Siltation - The heavier and coarse sediments such as grains, pebbles and gravels are
lifted up periodically during high velocity wind only for short distance. (A process of
sediment transport in a series of jumps).

Creep - The larger particles are too heavy to be picked up and carried by the wind so
instead, they move along the ground. When they become dislodged by the falling ones,
they roll along the ground.

Wind Deposition - The sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as
Aeolian deposits. There are two types of Aeolian deposits:

Aeolian deposits - Sediments and particles once picked up by the wind from any source
on the surface are carried forward for varying distances depending on the carrying
capacity of the wind. This wind made deposits may ultimately take the shape of landform that
is commonly referred as Aeolian deposits.

- Sand dunes - Sand dunes are huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of
windblown sand sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape.
- Barchans or Crescent shaped dunes - These dunes that look like a new moon in plan
are of most common occurrence.
- Transverse dunes - A transverse dune is similar to a barchan in section but in plan it is not
curved like barchans such that its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction
of the prevailing winds.
- Longitudinal dunes - Longitudinal dunes are the elongated ridges of sand with their
longer axis broadly parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind.

Loess - The finest particles of dust travelling in suspension with the wind are transported
to a considerable distance.