BASIC BJT AMPLIFIERS

References:

[1] Electronic circuit Analysis and design by Donald A. Neaman, Tata McGraw-Hill.

THE BIPOLAR LINEAR AMPLIFIER:

 The basic BJT amplifier and its voltage transfer characteristics are shown below.

 To use the circuit as an amplifier, the transistor needs to be biased with a dc voltage at
a Q-point, shown in the figure, such that the transistor is biased in the forward-active
region.
 If a time-varying (e.g., sinusoidal) signal is superimposed on the DC input voltage, VBB,
the output voltage will change along the transfer curve producing a time-varying output
voltage.
 If the time-varying output voltage is directly proportional to and larger than the time-
varying input voltage, then the circuit is a linear amplifier.
 If the transistor is not biased in the active region (e.g. in cut-off or saturation), the output
voltage does not change with a change in the input voltage. Thus, we no longer have an
amplifier.
 The notations those will be used, are summarized below:

Variable Meaning
iB, vBE Total instantaneous values
IB, VBE DC values
Ib,vbe Instantaneous ac values
Ib, Vbe Phasor values
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS AND AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

 Following figure shows a basic BJT inverter circuit with a sinusoidal signal source in
series with the DC source. The transistor characteristics, the DC load line, and the Q-
point are also shown.

 The sinusoidal signal source, vs, will produce a time-varying or ac base current
superimposed on the quiescent base current. The time-varying base current will induce
an ac collector current superimposed on the quiescent collector current. The ac collector
current then produces a time-varying voltage across RC, which includes an ac collector-
emitter voltage. The ac collector-emitter voltage, in general, will be larger than the
sinusoidal input signal, so that the circuit has produced signal amplification - that is, the
circuit is an amplifier.
 Let us assume that the amplifier is linear. A linear amplifier implies that superposition
principle applies so that the DC and ac analysis can be performed separately.
  To obtain a linear amplifier, the time-varying or ac currents and voltages must be small
enough to endure a linear relation between the ac signals. To meet this objective, the
time-varying signals are assumed to be small signals.
 A time-varying signal source, vs, in the base of the circuit, generates a time-varying
component of base current, which implies there is also a time-varying component of base-
emitter voltage. This is shown below.

 If the magnitudes of the time-varying signals that are superimposed on the DC quiescent
point are small, then we can develop a linear relationship between the ac base-emitter
voltage and ac base current. The relationship corresponds to the slope of the curve at the
Q-point.

SMALL SIGNAL HYBRID- Π EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF BJT

 We can treat a BJT as a two-port network as shown below.

 Since the sinusoidal signals are small, we can treat the slope of Q-point on input
characteristics as a constant, which has unit of conductance. The inverse of this
conductance is the small-signal resistance defined as rπ . The resistance is called the
diffusion resistance or base-emitter input resistance. It is a function of the Q-point
parameters.
 We can relate the small-signal input base current to the small-signal input voltage by
vbe  ibrπ 1 rπ where is equal to the slope of the iB-vBE curve.
 We can write
1 i   IS  v  1  IS  v  IBQ
 b   exp  BE     exp  BE   
rπ v be Q pt
v be 1  βF  v T   Qpt v T 1  βF  v T   Qpt v T
vbe v β v
 Then,  rπ  T  F T
ib IBQ ICQ
 If we initially consider the case in which the output collector current is independent of
the collector-emitter voltage, then the collector current is a function of the base-emitter
voltage. We can then write,
iC iC
iC  vbe Or, iC  vbe
vbe Qpt
vbe Qpt

 vBE 
 Now we have, iC  αIS exp  
 vT 
iC 1 v  ICQ
 Then,  αIS exp  BE  
vbe Qpt
vT  v T  Qpt v T
 The term ICQ/vT is a conductance. Since this conductance relates a current in the collector
to a voltage in the base-emitter circuit, the parameter is called a transconductance and
is written as
ICQ
gm 
vT
The small-signal transconductance is a function of the Q-point parameters and is directly
proportional to the DC bias current.
 Using these new parameters we can develop a simplified small-signal hybrid π equivalent
circuit for the npn BJT, as shown below.
 We can relate the small-signal collector current to the small-signal base current as
iC
iC  iB
iB Qpt

iC
Or, iC  iB
iB Qpt

iC
where β
iB Qpt

and is also called an incremental or ac common-emitter current gain.

 We can then write iC  βiB
 The alternative representation of the small-signal hybrid π equivalent circuit for the npn
BJT, as shown below, where vπ  vbe

 It may be noted that βF is the ratio of DC collector current to DC base current. These
currents include any leakage current that might exist. In comparison, β is the ratio of
the incremental change in collector current to the incremental change in the base current.
In ideal transistor, these terms are identical.
 β v   ICQ 
 rπ g m   F T     βF
 I 
 CQ   v T 
 Now let us consider the following BJT network

 The π-equivalent network of the circuit can be represented as

  The small-signal voltage gain of the circuit is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to
the input signal voltage, or,
Av  Vo Vs .
 The dependent current g m v be flows through RC, producing a negative collector emitter
voltage, or, Vo  Vce    g m vbe  R C .
 From the input portion of the circuit, we find
 rπ 
v be    Vs
 rπ  R B 
 The small-signal voltage gain is then
 rπ 
A v  Vo Vs    g mR C   
 rπ  R B 

HYBRID- Π EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF BJT, INCLUDING EARLY EFFECT

 In presence of Early effect, we can write

  v   v 
iC  αIS exp  BE  1  CE 
  v T   VA 
Where VA is the Early voltage.
 The output resistance is defined as
vCE
ro 
iC Qpt

1 i  
   vBE    VCE  
 ICQ
Or,  C  αIS exp    1   
ro vCE Qpt
vCE 
   vT   VA   Qpt VA
VA
 Then, ro  and is called the small-signal transistor output resistance.
ICQ
 This resistance can be thought of as an equivalent Norton resistance, which means that
ro is in parallel with the dependent current source. Following figure shows the modified
π equivalent circuit of BJT including the output resistance r o.
 The hybrid π-model derives its name, in part, from the hybrid nature of the parameter
units. The four parameters of the equivalent circuit are: input resistance rπ (Ohms),
current gain β (dimensionless), output resistance ro (Ohms), and transconductance gm
(mhos).
 The analysis, presented above, can also be applied for pnp transistors. However, voltage
polarity and current directions are to be reversed. A comparison is shown below:

 Equations corresponding to π-equivalent circuit of a pnp transistor are

Vo   g m Vπ  ro R C  ,
Vs rπ
Vπ  
RB  rπ
Vo g r β
 Av    m π  ro RC     ro RC 
Vs RB  rπ RB  rπ
EXPANDED HYBRID π-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 The expanded π-equivalent circuit includes two additional resistance rb and rμ , as

shown below.

 The parameter rb is the series resistance of the semiconductor material between the
external base terminal B and an idealized base region B . Typically rb is few tens of Ohms
and is usually much smaller than rπ ; therefore, rb is normally negligible at low
frequencies (short circuit). However, at high frequencies, rb may not be negligible, since
the input impedance becomes capacitive.
 The parameter rμ is the reverse-biased diffusion resistance of the base-collector junction.
This resistance is typically on the order of MΩ and can normally be neglected (an open
circuit). However, the resistance does provide some feedback between the output and
input, meaning that base current is a slight function of the collector-emitter voltage.

Numerical

1. Calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the following BJT circuit. Assume the transistor
circuit parameters are: β = 100, VCC = 12 V, VBE = 0.7 V, RC = 6 kΩ, RB = 50 kΩ, and VBB
= 1.2 V. Repeat the problem including small-signal output resistance ro assuming VA =
50 V.
 Solution:

DC Solution:

VBB  VBE  on  1.2 V  0.7 V

IBQ    10 μA
RB 50 kΩ

ICQ  βIBQ  100 10 μA   1 mA

VCEQ  VCC  ICQR C  12 V  1 mA  6 kΩ   6 V

The transistor is therefore biased in the forward active mode.

ac Solution:

βv T 100  26 mV 
rπ    2.6 kΩ
ICQ 1 mA

ICQ 1
gm    38.5 mA/V
vT 26 mV

 rπ  2.6 kΩ
A v    g mR C       38.5 mA/V  6 kΩ   11.4
 rπ  R B  2.6 kΩ  50 kΩ

In presence of early effect:

VA 50 V
ro    50 kΩ
ICQ 1 mA

 rπ 
A v  Vo Vs  g m  R C ro   
 rπ  R B 

 2.6 kΩ 
Or, A v    38.5 mA/V  6 kΩ 50 kΩ     10.2
 2.6 kΩ  50 kΩ 

BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION:

 Since transistor is a three-terminal device, three basic single-transistor amplifier can be
formed – Common emitter, Common collector, and common base. Which configuration or
amplifier is used in a particular application depends to some extent on whether the input
signal is a voltage (such as microphone) or current (such as phot diode) and whether the
desired output signal is a voltage or current. Each of these three basic transistor can be
modeled as a two-port network in one of the four configuration, shown in following table.
 If we wish to design a voltage amplifier (preamp) so that the voltage is amplified, the total
equivalent circuit may look like as below. The input voltage to the amplifier is given by
Ri
vin  vs .
R i  RS
 In general we will like the input voltage vin to the amplifier to be as nearly equal to voltage
source vS as possible. This means we need to design amplifier such that input resistance
Ri is much larger than signal source output resistance RS (The output resistance of an
ideal voltage source is zero, but is not zero for most practical voltage sources).
 To provide a particular voltage gain, the amplifier must have a gain parameter A vo of a
certain value. The output voltage supplied to the load (where the load may be a second
power amplifier stage) is given by
 RL
vo  A vo vin
RL  Ro
 Normally, we would like the output voltage to the load to be equal to the Thevenin
equivalent voltage generated by the amplifier. This means that we need Ro RL for the
voltage amplifier. So again, for a voltage amplifier, the output resistance should be very
small.
 For a current amplifier, we would require R i RS and Ro RL .

COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Basic Common-Emitter Amplifier Circuit

 Let us consider the following basic common-emitter circuit with voltage-divider biasing.
Since the emitter is at ground potential, we call it common-emitter.
 The signal from the source is coupled into the base of the transistor through the coupling
capacitor CC, which provides Dc isolation between the amplifier and the signal source.
The DC transistor biasing is established by R1 and R2, and is not disturbed when the
signal source is capacitively coupled to the amplifier.
 If we choose CC = 10 µF then the magnitude of capacitor impedance is approximately 8
Ω, which is much less than the Thvenin resistance  R1 R 2 rπ  at the capacitor
terminal. Therefor the capacitor is essentially short circuit to signals with frequencies
greater than 2 kHz.
 We will also neglect any capacitance effects within the transistor. That is, the signal
frequency is sufficiently low that the transistor capacitances can be neglected.
 Such frequencies are in the mid-frequency range, or simply at the mid-band of the
amplifier,
 Under above approximations the small-signal equivalent circuit can be drawn as below.
 Now let us consider that for the transistor β = 100, V BE (On) = 0.7 V and VA = 100 V.

R Th 
R1R 2

 93.7 kΩ  6.3 kΩ   5.90 kΩ
R1  R 2 93.7 kΩ  6.3 kΩ
 E Th 
R 2 VCC

 6.3 kΩ 12 V   0.756 V
R1  R 2 93.7 kΩ  6.3 kΩ
ETh  VBE 0.756 V  0.7 V
IB    94.94 μA
R Th 5.90 kΩ
IC  βIB  100  94.91 μA   0.95 mA
VCE  VCC  ICR C  12 V   0.95 mA  6 kΩ   6.31 V

Therefore the transistor is therefore biased in the forward active mode.

 The small-signal hybrid π-parameters for the equivalent circuit are

VTβ  0.026 V 100 
rπ    2.74 kΩ
ICQ  0.095 mA 
ICQ 0.095 mA
gm    36.5 mA/V
VT 0.026 V
VA 100
ro    105 kΩ
ICQ 0.095 mA
 The small-signal output voltage is Vo    g m Vπ  ro RC 
 The dependent current g m Vπ flows through the parallel combination of ro and RC, but
in a direction that produces a negative output voltage. We can relate the control voltage
Vπ to input voltage Vs by a voltage divider. We have
 R1 R 2 rπ 
Vπ    Vs
 R1 R 2 rπ  R s 
 We can then write the small-signal voltage gain as
Vo   g m Vπ  ro R C   R1 R2 rπ 
As  
Vπ
 g m    ro R C 
Vs  R1 R 2 rπ  Rs 
 R1 R 2 rπ 
 
 R1 R 2 rπ  Rs 
  5.9 kΩ 2.74 kΩ 
Or, As    36.5 mA/V    105 kΩ 6 kΩ   163
 5.9 kΩ 2.74 kΩ  0.5 kΩ 
 The input impedance to the amplifier is
Ri  R1 R2 rπ  5.9 kΩ 2.74 kΩ  1.87 kΩ
 The output resistance Ro is found by setting the independent source Vs equal to zero. In
this case, there is no excitation to the input portion of the circuit so Vπ  0 , which implies
g m Vπ  0 (an open circuit). The output resistance looking back into the output terminals
is then
R0  ro RC  105 kΩ 6 kΩ  5.68 kΩ

Circuit with Emitter Resistor:

 In the above circuit if the transistor is replaced by a new one with a slightly different
parameters so that B-E turn on voltage is 0.6 V instead of 0.7 V, then the resulting base
current is 26µA, which is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation. Therefore,
above circuit is not practical. An improved DC biasing includes an emitter resistor, as
shown below. Even though the emitter of this circuit is not at ground potential, this circuit
is still referred to as common-emitter circuit.
ETh  VBE 0.756 V  0.6 V
IB    26.44 μA
R Th 5.90 kΩ

 Assuming CC as a short circuit, the following figure shows the small-signal hybrid π-
equivalent circuit. In this case, we are using the equivalent circuit with current gain
parameter β, and we are assuming that the Early voltage is infinite so the transistor
output resistance ro can be neglected (an open circuit).
 The output voltage is Vo   βIb  R C .
 We can write the following loop equation
Vin  Ib rπ   Ib  βIb  R E
 The resistance Rib is the input resistance looking into the base of the transistor and is
given by
Vin
Rib   rπ  1  β RE
Ib
 The input resistance to the amplifier is now Ri  R1 R2 Rib
Ri
 The input voltage is Vin  Vs .
R i  RS
 Therefore,
Vo  βIb  RC I 
 Vin 
  R i  RS 
Av    βRC b  βRC    Vin 
Vs Vs Vs  r
 π  1  β  R E
  Ri 
Vin Ri βR C  Ri 
Or, A v  βR C   
rπ  1  β R E  R i  R S  Vin rπ  1  β  R E  R i  R S 
 If we assume R i RS and 1  β RE rπ then the small-signal voltage gain is
approximately
βR C R
Av   C
1  β RE RE
 Above equation shows that the voltage gain is less dependent on the current gain than in
previous case, which means that there is a smaller change in voltage gain when the
transistor current gain changes. But this advantage is at the expense of a smaller gain.
 For the given circuit, assuming β = 100 and VBE(on) = 0.7 V.

R Th 
R1R 2

56 kΩ 12.2 kΩ   10.02 kΩ
R1  R 2 56 kΩ  12.2 kΩ

ETh 
R 2 VCC

12.2 kΩ 10 V   1.79 V
R1  R 2 56 kΩ  12.2 kΩ
ETh  VBE 1.79 V  0.7 V
IB    21.61 μA
R Th  β  1 RE 10.02 kΩ  101 0.4 kΩ 
IC  βIB  100  21.61 μA   2.16 mA
 VCE  VCC  IC  RE  RC   10 V   2.16 mA  0.4 kΩ  2 kΩ   4.81 V
 The small-signal hybrid π-parameters for the equivalent circuit are
VTβ  0.026 V 100 
rπ    1.20 kΩ
ICQ  2.16 mA 
ICQ 2.16 mA
gm    83.1 mA/V
VT 0.026 V
VA
ro  
ICQ
 The input impedance to the base can be determined as
R ib  rπ  1  β R E  1.20 kΩ+ 101 0.4 kΩ   41.6 kΩ
 The input impedance to the amplifier is
Ri  R1 R2 Rib  10 kΩ 41.6 kΩ  8.06 kΩ
 The exact voltage gain is
βR C  Ri   100  2 kΩ   8.06 kΩ 
Av       4.53
rπ  1  β R E R
 i  R S  1.20 kΩ   
101 0.4 kΩ  8.06 kΩ  0.5 kΩ 
 The approximate gain is
RC 2 kΩ
Av     5
RE 0.4 kΩ

Circuit with Emitter Bypass Capacitor

 There may be times when the emitter resistor must be large for the purpose of DC design,
but degrades the small-signal voltage gain too severely. We can use an emitter bypass
capacitor to effectively short out a portion or all of the emitter resistance as seen by the
ac signals, as shown below.
 The circuit has been biased with both positive and negative voltages. Both R E1 and RE2
are factors in the DC design, but only RE1 is part of ac equivalent circuit, since CE provides
a short circuit to the ground for the ac signals.
  Assume input voltage level is 12 mV and it has to be amplified to 0.4 V.
 Therefore the magnitude of gains need to be 0.4 V/12 mV = 33.3.
 The DC base emitter loop
 Since for a CE amplifier with emitter resistance gain is R C/RE1, we have RC  40RE1 .
 The DC base-emitter loop equation is 5  IBR B  VBE  on   IE  R E1  R E2 
 If we assume β = 100, VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and IC = 0.2 mA
0.2 mA
5 100 kΩ   0.7V   0.2 mA   RE1  RE2 
100
Or, RE1  RE2  20.5 kΩ
 Assuming IE  IC and VCE  4 V the collector-emitter loop equation provides
5  5  ICR C  VCE  IE  R E1  R E2    0.2 mA  R C  4 V   0.2 mA  20.5 kΩ 
Or, RC  9.5 kΩ
 Then RE1  RC 40  0.238 kΩ and RE2  20.3 kΩ .

AC Load Line Analysis

 A DC load line gives us a way of visualizing the relationship between the Q-point and the
transistor characteristics. When capacitors are included in a transistor circuit, a new
effective load line, called ac load line, may exist.
 The ac load line helps in visualizing the relationship between the small-signal response
and the transistor characteristics. The ac operating point is on the ac load line.
 For a given CE amplifier circuit with emitter resistance, bypass capacitor, and both
positive and negative biasing the KVL in collector-emitter loop is given by (for DC load
line)
V   ICR C  VCE  IE  R E1  R E2   V 

 Since IE  1  β β IC , we can write the above equation as

 1  β  
VCE  V   V   IC R C     R E1  R E2  
  β  
 From the small-signal analysis, the KVL equation around the collector-emitter loop is
icRC  vce  ieRE1  0
 Assuming ic  ie , then vce  ic  R C  R E1  . This is the ac load line equation.
1
 The slope of ac load line is given by Slope   .
RC  RE1
 When vce  ic  0 , we are at the Q-point. When ac signals are present, we deviate about
the Q-point on the ac load line.
 The slope of ac load line differs from that of the DC load line because the emitter resistor
is not included in the small-signal equivalent circuit. The small-signal C-E voltage and
collector current are functions of the resistors R C and RE1 only.
 When symmetrical sinusoids are applied to thr input of an amplifier, symmetrical
sinusoidal are generated at the output, as long as the amplifier operation remains linear.
We can use ac load line to determine the maximum output symmetrical swing.
 If the output exceeds this limit, apportion of the output signal will be clipped and signal
distortion will occur.

Numerical:

Determine the DC and ac load lines for the circuit shown. Assume the transistor parameters
are VBE(on) = 0.7 V, β = 150, and VA = ∞. Also determine the maximum symmetrical swing in
the output voltage.
Solution:
The Dc load line equation is

V   IER E  VEC  ICR C  V 

   1  β  
Or, VEC  V  V  IC R C    RE 
  β  

Assuming 1  β  β  1, the DC load line is shown below.

To determine the Q-point parameters, write a KVL equation around the B-E loop as follows

V  1  β IBQRE  VEB on  IBQRB

V   VEB  on  10 V  0.7 V
Or, IBQ    5.96 μA
1  β R E  R B 15110 kΩ   50 kΩ
Then,

ICQ  βIBQ  150  5.96 μA   0.894 mA

IEQ  1  β  IBQ  151 5.96 μA   0.9 mA

VECQ  V  V  ICQRC  IEQRE

Or, VECQ  10 V   10 V    0.894 mA  5 kΩ    0.9 mA 10 kΩ   6.53 V

Assuming all capacitors are short circuits, the small-signal equivalent circuit is shown below.
The small-signal hybrid π-parameters are
 VTβ  0.026 V 150 
rπ    4.36 kΩ
ICQ 0.894 mA

ICQ 0.894 mA
gm    34.4 mA/V
VT 0.026 V

VA
ro  
ICQ

The small-signal output voltage is

vo  vce    g m vπ  R C R L 

Where g m vπ  ic .

The ac load line, written in terms of the E-C voltage, is defined by

vec  ic  RC RL 

The maximum negative swing in the collector current is from 0.894 mA to zero; therefore, the
maximum possible symmetrical peak-to-peak ac collector current is

ic  2  0.894 mA   1.79 mA

The maximum symmetrical peak-to-peak output voltage is given by

vec  ic  R C R L   1.79 mA 5 kΩ 2 kΩ   2.56 V

Therefore, the maximum instantaneous collector current is

iC  ICQ   ic 2  0.894 mA  0.894 mA  1.79 mA

COMMON COLLECTOR (EMITTER-FOLLOWER) AMPLIFIER:

 An example of common-collector circuit configuration is show below. Here the output
signal is taken off the emitter with respect to ground and the collector is connected
directly to VCC. Since VCC is at signal ground in the ac equivalent circuit, we have the
name common-collector. The more common name for this circuit is emitter follower.
 The DC analysis of the circuit is exactly the same as before.
 Assuming coupling capacitor CC act as a short circuit, the following figure shows the
small-signal equivalent circuit of the emitter follower.
 The circuit can be further rearranged, as shown below, so that all signal grounds are at
the same point.
 We see that, I0  1  β Ib .
 So the output voltage can be written as Vo  Ib 1  β ro RE 
 Using a KVL equation around the base-emitter loop, we obtain
Vin  Ib rπ  1  β ro RE 
V
Or, R ib  in  rπ  1  β ro RE 
Ib
 We can also write
 Ri 
Vin    Vs
 Ri  RS 
Where Ri  R1 R2 Rib
 From the above equations, the small signal voltage gain is
V0 Ib 1  β  ro R E   R i  Ib 1  β  ro R E   Ri 
Av      
Vs Vin  R i  R S  Ib rπ  1  β ro R E    R i  R S 

1  β ro R E   R i 
Or, A v   
rπ  1  β ro R E   R i  R S 
  Assuming that for the given common-collector circuit the transistor parameters are β =
100, VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and VA = 80 V.
 For the given circuit

R Th 
R1R 2

50 kΩ 50 kΩ   25 kΩ
R1  R 2 50 kΩ  50 kΩ

E Th 
R 2 VCC

50 kΩ 5 V   2.5 V
R1  R 2 50 kΩ  50 kΩ
ETh  VBE 2.5 V  0.7 V
IB    7.93 μA
R Th  β  1 RE 25 kΩ  101 2 kΩ 
IC  βIB  100  7.93 μA   0.793 mA
VCE  VCC  ICR E  5 V   0.793 mA  2 kΩ   3.4 V
 The small-signal hybrid π-parameters for the equivalent circuit are
VTβ  0.026 V 100 
rπ    3.28 kΩ
ICQ  0.793 mA 
ICQ 0.793 mA
gm    30.5 mA/V
VT 0.026 V
VA 80 V
ro    100 kΩ
ICQ 0.793 mA
R ib  rπ  1  β ro R E    3.28 kΩ   101100 kΩ 2 kΩ   201 kΩ
Ri  R1 R2 Rib  50 kΩ 50 kΩ 201 kΩ  22.2 kΩ
 The small-signal voltage gain is

Av 
1  β ro R E   R i 
 
rπ  1  β ro R E   R i  R S 

Av 
101100 kΩ 2 kΩ   22.2 kΩ 
Or,    0.962
3.28 kΩ  101100 kΩ 2 kΩ   22.2 kΩ  0.5 kΩ 

Input and Output Impedance:

 In the given common-collector circuit the input resistance looking into the base is denoted
as Rib, which can be expressed as R ib  rπ  1  β ro R E  .
 Since emitter current is (1+β) times the base current, the effective impedance in the
emitter is multiplied by (1+β). This is called the resistance reflection rule.
 The following figure can be used to determine the output resistance of the emitter-follower
circuit looking back into the output terminals. The independent voltage source is set
equal to zero (vs = 0), which means vs acts as a short circuit. A test voltage Vx is applied
to the output terminals, and the test current is I x. The output resistance is given by
Ro  Vx Ix .
 In this case, the control voltage Vπ is not zero, but is a function of the test voltage Vx .
The dependent current source must be included in this analysis.
 Summing current at the output node is
 Vx Vx Vx
Ix  g mVπ   
RE ro rπ  R1 R2 RS
 The control voltage can be written in terms of test voltage by a voltage divider equation
as
 rπ 
Vπ     Vx
 rπ  R1 R 2 R S 
 Therefore,
 g mrπ  Vx Vx Vx
Ix    Vx   
 rπ  R1 R 2 R S  R E ro rπ  R1 R 2 R S
 Noting that g mrπ  β , we find
Ix 1 β 1 1
  
Vx rπ  R1 R2 RS RE ro
 rπ  R1 R 2 R S 
Or, R o    RE ro
 1 β 

 Above equation says that the output resistance says that the output resistance looking
back into the output terminals is the effective resistance in the emitter RE ro , in parallel
with the resistance looking back into the emitter. In turn, the resistance looking into the
emitter is the total resistance in the base circuit divided by (1+β). This is the inverse of
the resistance reflection rule looking to the base.
 For the given transistor circuit we have already found that β = 100, rπ  3.28 kΩ , and
ro  100 kΩ . Therefore input resistance looking into the base is
R ib  rπ  1  β ro R E    3.28 kΩ   101100 kΩ 2 kΩ   201 kΩ
 The input resistance seen by the signal is
Ri  R1 R2 Rib  50 kΩ 50 kΩ 201 kΩ  22.2 kΩ
 The output resistance is
 r  R1 R 2 R S 
Ro   π  R E ro
 1 β 
 3.28 kΩ  50 kΩ 50 kΩ 0.5 kΩ 
Or, Ro    2 kΩ 100 kΩ  36.6 Ω
 1  100 
Small-Signal Current Gain
 We can determine the small-signal current gain of an emitter follower by using the input
resistance and the concept of current dividers.
 For the small-signal emitter follower circuit, shown before, the small-signal current gain
is defined as Ai  Ie Ii .
Where Ie and Ii are the output and input current phasors.
 Using a current divider equation, we can write base current in terms of the input current
as follows
 R1 R 2 
Ib    Ii
 R1 R 2 R ib 
 Since g mVπ  βIb ,then
 R1 R 2 
Io  1  β Ib  1  β   Ii
 R1 R 2 R ib 
 Writing the load current in terms of I o produces
 ro 
Ie    Io
 ro  R E 
 Therefore,
 ro 
  Io
 ro  R E   R1 R 2   ro 
A i  Ie Ii   1  β   
Io  R1 R 2 R ib   ro  R E 
 R1 R 2 
1  β  
 R1 R 2 R ib 
 If we assume that R1 R2 Rib and ro RE then A i  1  β which is current gain of
the amplifier.
 Although the small-signal voltage gain of the emitter follower is slightly less than 1, the
small-signal current is normally greater than 1. Therefore, the emitter-follower circuit
produces a small-signal power gain.

COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER:

 The following figure shows the basic common-base circuit, in which the base is at signal
ground and the input signal is applied at emitter. The load is connected to the output
through a coupling capacitor CC2. The DC analysis of the common-base circuit is
essentially the same as for the common-emitter circuit.
 The following figure shows the hybrid π-model of the small-signal equivalent circuit of
the common-base circuit, where the output impedance r o is assumed to be infinite.
 The small-signal output voltage is given by
Vo    g m Vπ  R C R L 
 Writing a KCL equation at the emitter node, we obtain
Vπ Vπ Vs   Vπ 
g m Vπ    0
rπ R E Rs
 Since , above equation can be written as
Vπ Vπ Vπ Vs Vπ
β     0
rπ rπ RE Rs Rs
1  β 1 1  Vs
Or, Vπ    
 rπ R E Rs  Rs
Vs  rπ 
Or, Vπ    RE Rs 
Rs 1  β 
 Therefore,
Vo   g m Vπ  R C R L  g m  r 
Av  
Vπ R s
  RC RL   π RE Rs 
Vs  Rs 1  β 
 rπ 
 R E Rs 
1  β 
 As Rs approaches zero, the small-signal voltage gain becomes g m  R C RL  .
 The small-signal current gain is defined as Ai  Io Ii .
 Writing KCL equation at the emitter node, we have
Vπ V
Ii   g m Vπ  π  0
rπ RE
Vπ βVπ Vπ
Or, Ii    0
rπ rπ RE
1  β 1 
Or, Ii  Vπ   
 rπ RE 
 1  β 1 
Or, Vπ  Ii  
 rπ RE 
 The load current is given by
 RC 
Io    g m Vπ   
 RC  RL 
 Therefore,
 RC 
  g m Vπ   
I
Ai  o   R C  R L   g  R C   rπ 
RE 
m 
Ii
Vπ 
1  β 1 
  RC  RL   1  β 

 πr R E 

 If we take the limits as RE approaches infinity and RL approaches zero, then the current
gain becomes short-circuit current gain given by
g mrπ β
Aio   α
1 β 1 β
 Above equations indicate that, for common-bas circuit, the small-signal current gain is
slightly less than 1. However we still have a small-signal power gain.

Input and Output Impedance

 The following figure shows the small-signal equivalent circuit of the common-base
configuration looking into the emitter. In this circuit, for convenience only, we have
reversed the polarity of the control voltage, which reserves the direction of the dependent
current source.

 The input resistance looking into emitter is defined as Ri  Vπ Ii .

 If we write a KCL equation at the input, we obtain
Vπ 1  β 
Ii  Ib  g m Vπ   g m Vπ  Vπ  
rπ  rπ 
 Therefore,
Vπ r
R ib   π  re
Ii 1 β
 Where re is the resistance looking into the emitter, with the base grounded, and is usually
quite small.
 The circuit, used to calculate the output resistance, is shown below. The independent
source vs has been set equal to zero.

 Writing KCL equation at the emitter, we find

Vπ Vπ Vπ
g mVπ    0
rπ RE Rs
 This implies Vπ  0 , which means that the independent source g m Vπ is also zero.
Consequently, the output resistance looking back into the output terminal is then
Ro  RC .
 Because we have assumed ro is infinite, the output resistance looking back into the
collector terminal is essentially infinite, which means that the common-base circuit looks
almost like an ideal current source.

COMPARISON OF CE, CC AND CB AMPLIFIERS

Configuration Voltage Current Input Output

Gain Gain Resistance Resistance
CE Av  1 Ai  1 Moderate Moderate to High
(~kΩ)
CC/Emitter Av  1 Ai  1 High Low
Follower (50 kΩ to 100 kΩ) (~Tens of Ω)
CB Av  1 Ai  1 Low Moderate to High
(~Tens of Ω)

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS – CASCADE CONFIGURATION:

 The following circuit is a cascade configuration of two common-emitter circuits. The DC

analysis shows that both transistors are biased in the forward-active mode.
 The small-signal equivalent circuit, shown below, assumes all capacitors ac as short
circuits and each transistor output resistance r o is infinite.
 The small-signal voltage gain is
 Vo  Ri 
Av   g m1g m2  R C1 rπ2  R C2 R L   
Vs  R i  Rs 
 The input resistance of the amplifier is
Ris  R1 R2 rπ1
Which is identical to that of a single-stage common emitter amplifier.
 To determine the output resistance, the independent source Vs is set equal to zero, which
means that Vπ1  0 . Then g m1Vπ1  0 , which gives Vπ2  0 and g m2Vπ2  0 . The output
resistance is therefore RC2, which is same as the output resistance of a single-stage
common-emitter amplifier.

 The above circuit gives larger current gain than a single-stage amplifier. In some
applications, it would be desirable to have a larger current gain than can normally be
obtained with a single bipolar transistor.
 The following circuit shows a multi-transistor configuration, called a Darlington Pair or a
Darlington configuration that provides increased current gain.
 The small-signal equivalent in which the input signal is assumed to be a current source
is shown below.
 To determine the small-signal current gain Ai  Io Ii , we see that Vπ1  Ii rπ1 .
 Therefore, g m1Vπ1  g m1Ii rπ1  β1Ii .
 Then, Vπ2   Ii  β1Ii  rπ2 .
 The output current
Io  g m1Vπ1  g m2Vπ2  β1Ii  β2 1  β1  Ii
Where g m2rπ2  Vπ2 .
 The overall current gain is then
Io β1Ii  β2 1  β1  Ii
Ai    β1  β2 1  β1   β1β2
Ii Ii
 Above equation shows that overall small-signal current gain of the Darlington pair is
essentially the product of the individual current gain.
 We can write
Vi  Vπ1  Vπ2  Ii rπ1  Ii 1  β1  rπ2
  Therefore input resistance is
Vi
Ri   rπ1  1  β1  rπ2
Ii
 The base of transistor Q2 is connected to the emitter of Q1, which means that the input
resistance to Q2 is multiplied by a factor of (1+β1), as we saw in circuits with emitter
resistors.
 We can write
β1VT
rπ2 
ICQ1
and
ICQ2
ICQ1 
β
 Therefore,
β V 
rπ1  β1  2 T   β1rπ2
I
 CQ2 
 The input resistance is therefore,
R i  rπ1  1  β1  rπ2  β1rπ2  1  β1  rπ2  2β1rπ2
which is very large, because of β multiplication.

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS – CASCODE CONFIGURATION:

 A slightly different multistage configuration, called a cascade configuration, is shown

below. The input is into a common-emitter amplifier (Q1), which drives a common-base
amplifier (Q2). The ac equivalent circuit is also shown. We see that the output signal of
Q1 is the input signal of Q2.
 One advantage of this circuit is that the output resistance looking into a collector of Q2
is much larger than the output of a common-emitter circuit.
 The small-signal equivalent circuit is shown for the case when capacitors act as short
circuits. We see that Vπ1  Vs since we are assuming an ideal signal voltage source.

 Writing KCL equation at E2, we have

Vπ2
g m1Vπ1   g m2Vπ2
rπ2
 Solving for the control voltage Vπ2 we find

g m1Vπ1  rπ2   rπ2   rπ2 

Vπ2    g m1Vπ1    g m1Vπ1    g m1Vs
 1   1  rπ2g m2   1  β2   1  β2 
  g m2 
 rπ2 
 The output voltage is
 r 
Vo    g m2 Vπ2   R C R L   g m1g m2  π2   R C R L  Vs
 1  β2 
 Therefore, the small-signal voltage gain is
Vo g r   β 
Av   g m1  m2 π2   R C R L   g m1  2   R C R L   g m1  R C R L 
Vs  1  β2   1  β2 
β2
as  1.
1  β2
The voltage gain is same as for a single-stage common-emitter amplifier. This is expected
since the current gain of common-base circuit is essentially unity.