EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATES

CLASS AGNATHA
Lampreys are jawless fish, the adult of which is characterized by a toothed, funnel-like
sucking mouth. Parasitic lampreys feed on prey as adults by attaching their mouthparts to
the target animal's body, then using their teeth to cut through surface tissues until they reach
blood and body fluid. Lampreys are both freshwater and anadromous (living mostly in the
oceans but returning to freshwater to breed), with the larvae undergoing radical
metamorphosis in freshwater.
Adult lampreys have well-developed, lateral large eyes; one or two dorsal fins; separate
sexes; one nostril on the top of the head; seven pairs of external lateral gill openings; and
teeth on the oral disk and tongueThey lack bone, do not have paired fins.They do have a
vertebrae made of cartilage and retain the notochord in the adultAdults have no scales, and
can range from 13 to 100 cm (5.0 to 40 inches) long.adult lampreys have one nostril on the
top of the head
The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous
skeleton.Adult lampreys spawn in rivers and then die. The young larvae, ammocoetes,
spend several years in the rivers, where they live burrowed in fine sediment, filter feeding on
detritus and microorganisms. Then, ammocoetes undergo a metamorphosis lasting several
months. Some species do not feed after metamorphosis, while others migrate to the sea or
lakes, [ where they feed on different species of fish and even on marine mammals.
1. External gill slits- openings that lead to the internal gills that are used to extract
oxygen from the water. Lampreys have distinctive gill slits.
2. Buccal funnel- is the beginning of the mouth cavity. It contains the numerous teeth of
the adult lamprey. It is surrounded and supported by the oral disc
3. Lateral line system- a system consisting of lines of pores that sense water currents,
water pressure changes, and movements and vibrations in the water. The visible
external pores of the lateral line system lead to the internal canal, which connect with
specialized sensory cells. This system is believed to be related to the sense of
hearing of vertebrates.
4. Medial Nostril- The medial nostril is a primitive feature unique to the lamprey. Other
vertebrate animals have paired nostrils. The nostril is responsible for detecting scents
and leads to a nasal tube in the dorsal region of the head. A lamprey can smell by
perceiving chemicals in the water. These scent particles can be detected from great
distances.
5. Eye- The eye is a sensory organ responsible for receiving visual input. It leads to the
optic nerve, which send visual impulses to the brain. In the brain the images are
deciphered. The adult lamprey eye is structurally very similar to the eyes of other
vertebrate animals, consisting of cornea, iris, lens and retina. There are no eyelid s
present in the lamprey.
6. Anterior and posterior dorsal fin- used to maintain an upright orientation in the water
while moving about.
7. Caudal Fin- A powerful fin used to thrust the lamprey’s body through the water
8. Cloaca- The common opening of the urinary and reproductive system. It receives
wastes from the kidneys and fluids from the reproductive organs and transfer them to
external environment via opening of the cloaca.
 Read the descriptions provided for the external structures and then label the lamprey
diagram

Answer the following:

1. Name the four basic characteristics that invertebrate chordates share with jawless fish.
What structure have the jawless fish evolved that the invertebrate chordates have not?
A notochord, a dorsal nerve tube, a post-anal tail, and pharyngeal gill slits are shared by all
invertebrate chordates. At some time during chordate development, all of these traits are
visible.
2. How is the mouth of the lamprey adapted to prey on other fish?
To adhere to fish, penetrate the skin, and drain the fish's body fluids, the juvenile sea lamprey
employs its suction disk mouth, which is filled with small sharp, rasping teeth and a file-like
tongue. The blood of the host fish does not clot while the sea lamprey feeds because of an
anticoagulant in their saliva.
 CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
Sharks are characterized by streamlined body, five to seven gill slits, replaceable teeth,
and a covering of dermal denticles (toothlike scales) to protect their skin from damage and
parasites paired fins, paired nostrils, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders. skeletons
made of cartilage rather than bone. Since they also lack lungs, sharks lack the natural
buoyancy of gas-filled structures. Part of the buoyancy problem is addressed by the fact that
sharks have skeletons made of cartilage, which is lighter than bone.

1. External Nares – These are a pair of openings (nostrils) on each side of the head,
cranial from the eyes. Water is taken into the smaller of the two openings and
expelled through the larger opening. The water passes by a sensory membrane
allowing the shark to detect chemicals in the water
2. Spiracles – These are small openings caudal from the eyes. These openings allow
water to pass through the gills even when the shark’s mouth is closed.
3. Mouth – Although the eating function is evident, the mouth is also used for the intake
of water that passes through the gills.
4. Gill Slits – Five vertical slits which allow water to exit after passing over the gills.
They are located caudally from the mouth.
5. Lateral Line – A pale line that extends noticeably from the pectoral fin past the pelvic
fin. This line is a group of small pores which open into the underlying lateral line
canal, a sensory organ that detects water movements.
6. Cloaca – This is the exit from the digestive tract combined with being the opening for
the sex organs. The cloaca lies between the pelvic fins.
7. Clasper – Found on male sharks only, these are finger-like extensions of the medial
edge of each pelvic fin. They may have a single spine associated with each clasper.
The claspers aid in sperm transfer during mating.
8. Pectoral fin- anterior pair just behind the gill slits
9. Pelvic fins- posterior pair at the junction of trunk and tail
10. Rostrum – This is the pointed snout at the cranial end of the head.
11. Dorsal Spines – Just cranial to each dorsal fin is a spine that is used defensively by
the shark. Each spine has a poison gland associated with it.

Dorsal spines
Pelvic Fins
Spiracles Lateral line
External Nares

Rostrum

Mouth

Gill slits

Clasper (male only)

Cloaca

Pectoral Fin
CLASS OSTEICHTHYES
Fish are animals that are cold blooded, have fins and backbone. Most fish have scales and
breathe with gills. There are about 22,000 species of fish that began evolving around 480
million years ago.
Label the following parts on the diagram below:
1. Mouth- terminally located, its shape gives clue on what the fish eats,
2. Eyes- Placed dorso-laterally and are used for seeing
3. Nostrils or nares- are paired apertures or slits on the snout of the fish.
4. Operculum- Gill cover
5. Caudal fin- Also called the tail fin, used to propel themselves forward through the
water
6. Anal fin- found in the lower side of the fish, near the tail. It helps the fish stay
balanced in swimming
7. Pectoral fin- Located near the head, which helps the fish move side to side
8. Second dorsal fin- softer fin on the top of the fish that helps it stay upright
9. First Dorsal fin- The harder fin on the top of the of the fish that helps it to stay
balanced
10. Lateral line- A line that runs along the side of the fish’s body. Fish use it to sense
vibrations and changes in temperature and pressure.
11. Pelvic fin- occur in pairs and are found on the ventral side of the fish below the
pectoral fin, they assist the fish in going up and down in water, turning and stopping

First Dorsal Fin

Lateral Line
Second
Caudal Fin
Dorsal
Eyes
Fin

Nostril

Pectoral
Mouth Fin

Operculum Pelvic Anal Fin

Fin
CLASS AMPHIBIA

These are the lowest vertebrates which became adapted to land habitat by using the lungs as
respiratory organ. Frogs belong to this class and among the most studied organism.
Label the following anatomical terms and external features listed on the diagram below.
1. Dorsal surface
2. Ventral surface
3. Anterior end
4. Posterior end
5. Foreleg/ fore limb/ arm- it is divided in four regions. Starting from the closest to
the body parts; upper arm, forearm, wrist and hand
6. Hind leg/ Hindlimb- also divided into four regions: thigh, lower leg, ankle and foot
7. Protruding eyes
8. Thumb
9. Webbed foot
10. Tympanic membrane- posterior to the eye
11. External nares
12. Nictitating membrane- lower eyelid, protects the eye underwater
13. Mouth

Posterior end
Ankle

Thumb
 Lower leg

Thigh

Dorsal Surface
Protruding
eyes

Anterior end

Ventral
Surface
Upper arm
Webbed foot
Forearm External nares
Tympanic membrane Hand
Wrist
Nictitating
membrane
Mouth
 CLASS REPTILIA
Reptiles are ectothermic, or cold-blooded, vertebrates that are covered with dry scaly skin.
They are adapted for reproduction on land. Most species are land dwelling, but some
species spend much time in water. Turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and alligators are
reptiles. Reptilian skin is dry, thick, and waterproof, protecting the body from drying out even
in very dry climates. The skin is covered by tough scales that protect the animal from injury.

Question:
How does the different representative species of reptiles differ from each other? Give at
least one modification in the external features per representative species.

The difference between the reptiles are the body structure and how they survive, how they eat
and how they protect themselves from predators. For example some of them have protective
layer of hard scales like crocodiles, some of them have hard shells for protection like turtles,
while others have claws and legs for more agile movement like lizards and some of them have
venom and long body length like snakes.
 CLASS AVES
Birds or Aves can be distinguished by their feather covering and forelimbs modified into wings
Label the following structures in the diagram below.

1. Abdomen - the belly.

2. auriculars (ear coverts) - the feathers that cover the bird's ear opening (located behind
the eyes).
3. breast - the area over the belly and under the throat.
4. cere - the waxy-looking bumps on the upper beak of some birds (including the parrots,
pigeons, and some hawks).
5. claws - hard talons at the end of each toe.
6. crown - the top of the bird's head.
7. forehead - the area directly above the eyes.
8. lore - the area on each side of a bird's face, between the eyes and the upper bill.
9. lower mandible - the lower part of the bill.
10. nape - the back of the neck.
11.primaries - the main flight feathers on the wings (they are located on lower [outer] parts
of the wings).
12. scapulars - feathers on the shoulder (also called lesser secondary coverts).
13. secondaries - the smaller flight feathers on the wings - they are on the upper part of the
wings (above the primaries).
14. tail feathers - flight feathers at the end of the bird (used for steering).
15. toes - the digits of the feet.
16. throat - the area under head and above the chest.
17. upper mandible - the upper part of the bill.
18. wing coverts - small feathers that cover the base of larger wing feathers (located at the
top of the wings under the scapulars)

Nape Crown
Auriculars
Lore Forehead
Cere
Scapulars Upper mandible

Wing coverts Lower mandible

Throat

Secondaries Breast
Abdomen

Toes

Primaries
Claws

Tail feathers
CLASS MAMMALIA
Mammals are vertebrates with mammary glands for nourishing their young with milk. They are
covered with hair and are warm blooded.

Read the definitions below and label the diagram

back - the part of the body between the loin and the withers.
brisket - the chest of the dog.
carpals - the wrist, the bones of the pastern joint.
dewclaw - the tiny, useless, fifth claw - located on the inner part of the leg above the other
toes.
ear - the fleshy, often triangular appendages on the head associated with hearing.
flews - the hanging part of the dog's upper lips.
forearms - The parts of the forelegs between the elbow and the pastern.
forefoot - the front feet.
hindfoot - the back feet.
hips - the joints at the uppermost part of the hindlegs.
hock - the bones that form the ankle/heel of the dog.
loin - the parts of the body located on both sides of the backbone between the ribs and the
hips.
muzzle - the front parts of the jaws.
nose - the tip of the muzzle.
pastern - the part of the leg below the carpals (wrist) of the front leg or below the hock of the
hind leg.
ruff - the long, thick hair that grows around the neck.
shoulder - the joint at the uppermost part of the forelegs.
stifle - the dog's knee, located on the hind leg above the ankle.
stop - the indented part of the skull between the eyes.
tail - the hind-most part of the backbone, set on the rump.
thigh - the upper part of the hind leg.
withers - the top of the shoulders, just behind the neck

Ear

Stop Ruff
Withers Loin
Nose Back
Hips
Thigh
Muzzle
Tail
Flews
Shoulder

Forearms Brisket
Carpals Hock
Stifle

Dewclaw
Pastern Hindfoot
Forefoot