SPECIFICATION OF WATER WELLS

Kevin Rafferty
Geo-Heat Center

ABSTRACT the geology, no casing or screen is necessary to stabilize and

The water well or wells serving a Ground-Water Heat filter the aquifer materials adjacent to the well bore. Casing
Pump (GWHP) system are as pivotal part of the mechanical is normally placed in the upper portion of the well for a short
design as the boiler and cooling tower would be in a water distance to accommodate the installation of a surface seal.
loop system. As such they should warrant the same degree of
attention with respect to specification as the more
conventional components would receive. Unfortunately, this
is rarely the case and the HVAC design engineers lack of
familiarity with the topic is sometimes at fault. This paper is
intended to identify the key sections of water well
specifications and briefly discuss their contents.

INTRODUCTION
Design and construction of water wells is a topic
unfamiliar to many, if not most mechanical engineers. As a
result, the task is often poorly handled or worse, ignored. This
rarely results in a well completed in the best interests of the
owner. Although the HVAC engineer may not always be
directly responsible for the design of the well, it’s
specification or construction management, it is, in the context
of a ground-source heat pump system, a critical part of the
mechanical design. Consequently, it is in the interest of the
HVAC design engineer to become familiar with the
terminology of water wells and the key specification issues
relating to their construction. The goal of this paper is not to
provide suggested specification text but to briefly discuss the
key sections found in a well specification document and Figure 1. Open-hole well completion.
comment on the contents of each.
Surface Casing
Grout Surface
WATER WELL TYPES Seal
The design of a water well and the preparation of the
construction documents related to it is a function of several Casing
Shoe
issues including the purpose (domestic, municipal, irrigation,
injection, etc.), capacity (low <10 gpm [0.6 L/s], medium 10 - Pump Housing
100 gpm [0.6 - 6.0 L/s], high >100 gpm [>6.0 L/s]), geology Gravel Envelope
Casing
penetrated (consolidated, unconsolidated, combination) and
construction method (mud rotary, air rotary, reverse
circulation, cable tool) (NWWA, 1975). Since this paper is
limited to wells serving commercial GWHP systems (normally
medium to high capacity, rotary constructed), the primary
influence on design and specification is the nature of the
geology penetrated in the process of construction. Packer
Although, there are an infinite number of well
construction designs for a substantial part of the country, the Production Zone
alternatives can be reduced to some variation on one of the (unconsolidated materials
two basic designs as shown in Figures 1 and 2. Special
modifications to these basic designs can be made to Screen
accommodate conditions such as artesian aquifers, injection
rather than production, corrosive water etc. The simplest well
is one completed in rock formations in which the water is
produced from fractures in the rock. In these wells,
sometimes called open-hole completions due to the nature of Figure 2. Gravel envelope well.

GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001 25

 The second type of well, completed in
Motor
unconsolidated materials (sand, gravel, clay, soil and mixtures
thereof) is more complex. In these applications the well is
completely lined with casing, screen and sometimes an
artificial filter or “gravel pack.” In unconsolidated settings, Ground Level

the variation in the size of the aquifer materials results in the

need to adequately filter the water entering the well to control
the content of sand in the water produced. In some cases, a
screen alone, attached to the bottom of the casing, will provide Static Water Level
(non-pumping conditions)
the necessary filtering of the water. In other cases, the screen
must be accompanied by an artificial filter or gravel pack
located between the screen and the borehole wall. This gravel Cone of Depression
develops around well
Drawdown (changes with
pumping rate
is sometimes only a formation stabilizer of relatively during pumping

uncomplicated description. For other situations, a more Pumping Water Level

carefully specified filter gravel must be used. The need for (changes with
pumping rate)
accurate description of these components and their installation Pump Bowl Assembly
(lineshaft type pump
Pumping and static levels
measured from ground surface
results in a more voluminous specification document for these shown)

wells compared to an open-hole well. Pump Housing

Casing

WATER WELL TERMINOLOGY

Prior to discussing the details of individual well Grout
Seal
specifications sections, it is useful to review a few of the key
terms relating to water wells and their operation. Figure 3
includes many of these terms. In any well, under non- Production
Casing
pumping conditions, the level at which the water resides in the
well is known as the static water level. When the pump is
started, the water level will drop to a new level known as the
pumping level and this level is a function of the pumping rate. Screen
Perforated
Groundwater
Production
The difference between the static water level and the pumping Casing
Or Open Hole
Zone

level is referred to as the drawdown. Dividing the pumping (Well Intake)

rate by the drawdown yields a value known as the specific

capacity with units of gpm/ft (lps/m). This value provides a
rough indication of the aquifer/well capacity to produce water. Figure 3. Water well terminology.
The drawdown is the manifestation, at the well, of the “cone
of depression” which forms around the well in response to Table 1 presents the most important of these. Some issues
pumping. relate only to certain types of wells or conditions, but this
The lower portion of the well in the production zone table is a useful checklist for the specification process. There
may be completed with only a borehole (in rock formations), are two approaches to the design and specification of a water
a screen or with a screen and artificial filter (gravel pack) well. If there are other wells nearby producing from the same
depending on the nature of the aquifer materials. Casing is formation and of approximately the same yield, the design of
placed in the well to support the borehole and prevent a new well can be based upon the existing wells. This is an
collapse, to accommodate the installation of a pump, or to acceptable practice assuming the existing wells operate
facilitate the placement of a seal. The diameter of the without problems. In other cases, the well design is
innermost well casing (known as the pump housing casing)is determined to a large extent by the geology and aquifers it
primarily a function of the size pump to be installed. penetrates. A preliminary design can be developed, but it may
Submersible pumps, the type most often used in GWHP be necessary to modify this in the course of construction.
systems due to their operation at 3600 rpm, often require one
size smaller casing than line shaft driven pumps which Table 1. Key Water Well Specification Sections
normally operate at 1800 rpm or less. Other well casing is (gravel pack well)
sometimes installed in the upper portion of the well to ________________________________________________
accommodate the installation of the surface seal. The surface
seal, often a cement grout, prevents surface water from Scope of Work Logs/Records Flow testing
draining down between the casing and borehole into the Non-Technical Plumbness/Alignment Sterilization
Well Issues
subsurface.
Equipment Casing Abandonment
Requirements
WELL SPECIFICATION ISSUES Drilling Fluid Screen
There are several areas which should be addressed in Drilling Program Gravel
the course of preparing a specification for a water well and Formation Sampling Development
________________________________________________
26 GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001
 For a well completed in a consolidated formation
(rock), the sections on screen, gravel and sometimes
development can be eliminated.
SCOPE OF WORK
This is the section in which a general description of
the work is provided. The scope at a minimum, includes the
type of drilling rig to be used, approximate depth and number
of wells along with the expected yield for production wells.
When available, the scope may also provide additional detail
on the general construction of the well in terms of casing size,
depth, screen type diameter, location and development
method. If a performance guarantee with respect to yield, or
specific capacity is required, this is also included in the scope
section (Roscoe Moss, 1985).
NON-TECHNICAL WELL ISSUES
Non-technical well issues (a phrase used in this paper
and not in the specification document) include items not
directly related to the technical details of construction.
Contractor qualifications, site description, noise control,
archeological discovery and facilities provided by owner are
normally covered as individual sections, but are grouped
together here for simplicity.
The contractor qualifications paragraph normally
includes a minimum experience requirement (number of wells
similar to the current project, and years in business) and a
licensing requirement. Details for a list of reference projects
may also be spelled out. The site description is especially
important, particularly if potential drillers are from outside the
area. A physical description of the site is provided along with
background on the geology/hydrogeology. If available, well
completion reports from nearby wells are a key part of this
information. Noise is normally addressed through the
specification of acceptable operating hours for drilling
operations. Facilities provided by the owner is one of the few
specification issues actually requested by
contractors–particularly in the case of site access and water
availability. Sufficient water supply for the drilling operation
is a critical issue.
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
In this section, either a specification is made with
respect to the drilling rig capabilities required and/or a form is
provided on which the contractor must submit a description
the equipment to be used in the construction of the well. In
cases of shallow wells, such issues as mast, hook and draw-
works load limits are not often approached even for small rigs.
As a result, it is possible to omit this section in some small
projects.
DRILLING FLUID
This is a section that relates primarily to conventional
(direct) rotary drilling operations. In this section, an
acceptable value (or range of values) for key drilling fluid
(sometimes called “mud”) parameters is provided. The
drilling fluid or mud is circulated down the rotating drill pipe,
out the bit and back up the annular space between the borehole
GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001
wall and the drill pipe. It serves to lubricate and cool the bit,
carry away the cuttings and form a “cake” stabilizing the
borehole walls. Included are such characteristics as weight
(11 lbs/gal maximum), marsh funnel viscosity (32-38 seconds
maximum), 30-minute water loss (15 cc maximum), filter cake
formation (2/32" [1.6 mm] maximum) and sand content (2%
maximum). It should be understood that fluid parameters are
regularly adjusted in the course of drilling to accommodate
situations encountered in the construction process. In some
fluid specifications, reference is made to a requirement for a
drilling mud engineer’s involvement in the project. On small
projects, these services are usually available to the drilling
contractor from the mud vendor and the specification of a mud
engineer’s availability to the contractor rather than his on site
presence is appropriate.
DRILLING PROGRAM SUBMITTAL
This section provides the requirements for
submission, by the contractor, of a schedule of tasks to be
completed in the process of completing the well. Included are
personnel, schedule of tasks (drilling, casing, screen gravel
installation, development), and details of the drilling fluid
make-up (additives) (Roscoe Moss Company, 1985)
FORMATION SAMPLING
Formation sampling, described in this section is a
pivotal part of the well drilling process. It is the samples
from the production zone of the well from which decisions are
made as to the screen slot size and gravel pack gradation
necessary for completion. In rotary drilled wells, if a pilot
bore is used, the samples are taken as the pilot hole
progresses. If the approximate depth of the producing zone
is known, it is normal practice to specify a regular interval
over which samples will be taken, the handling, appropriate
containers and labeling of the samples along with the
individual (or organization) to whom they should be delivered.
Sieve analysis of these samples provides the data upon which
screen slot size and gravel pack size distribution are based.
This consists of passing the samples through a set of
progressively finer sieves or screens to determine the size
distribution of the sampled material.
LOGS/RECORDS
Depending on the depth, drilling method and purpose
for the well, a variety of logs and reports may be specified in
this section. For wells of the type used for GSHP systems, it
is normally sufficient to specify that the driller report on the
depth and physical description of strata penetrated, depth of
water producing intervals, and associated static water levels
and penetration rates accomplished. If well completion
reports are required by regulatory agencies, copies should be
provided to the owner/engineer as well. Reporting require-
ments for flow testing, development and plumbness/alignment
are covered in those respective sections.
PLUMBNESS/ALIGNMENT
Plumbness (deviation from the vertical) and
alignment (“straightness”) of the well are issues of importance
27
with respect to the installation of a pump in the well. In
particular, lineshaft type pumps are much more sensitive to the
alignment issue than are submersible pumps. With a rotating
shaft extending from the surface to the pump (sometimes
hundreds of feet down in the well), wells in which lineshaft
pumps are to be installed must be held to tighter tolerances
than submersible installations. Two approaches can be taken
to this specification. For small projects using a submersible
pump, the required test often involves a 40 ft (12 m) section
of pipe ½"(12 mm) smaller in diameter than the inside of the
casing, which must be capable of passing freely through to the
bottom of the pump housing casing. For larger wells or those
using lineshaft pumps, a more sophisticated test involving a
device for measuring deviation of the bore is necessary.
CASING
Casing is a term that refers to tubular material
extending from the surface to some depth in the well. It is
installed to accommodate the sealing of the well, to stabilize
the walls of the borehole or to allow the installation of screen
or liner (tubular products not extending to the surface). In
shallow wells of the type serving GWHP systems, at least two
types of casing are often found. Surface casing is installed a
short distance (to the first impermeable strata or minimum of
18 ft [6 m] by many codes) from the surface to a depth
sufficient to allow the installation of the surface seal (usually
cement grout) between the surface casing and the wellbore.
The surface casing also helps to support near surface
unconsolidated materials during the drilling operation.
Sometimes, this surface casing is removed as the grout is
placed.
The second casing type is the pump housing casing
which as the name implies is the casing in which the pump is
installed. This casing is installed inside the surface casing,
from the surface to the top of the screen in gravel pack wells
or to the top of the producing interval in shallow open hole
wells. If used, the screen would be attached to the bottom of
the pump housing casing.
In the casing portion of the specification, information
is provided on the size, wall thickness, material, and
installation method of the casing along with the location
(depth), in some cases. Surface casing is normally at least two
inches larger than the pump housing casing in order to
accommodate the placement of the grout to an adequate
thickness. Diameter of the pump housing casing is a function
of the pump to be paced in the well. Generally, it is desirable
to have a pump housing casing of two nominal sizes larger
than the pump to be installed. Pump bowl (impeller housing)
diameter is related to pump type and flow rate. Submersible
pumps, which typically operate at 3600 rpm, produce more
flow per unit diameter than lineshaft pumps which operate at
1800 rpm or less. In most commercial applications, a
minimum of 6"(150 mm) casing would be used with 8" (200
mm) for flows >100 gpm (6 L/s) and 10"(250 mm) for flows
>300 gpm (18 L/s)(Kavanaugh and Rafferty, 1997). Casing
wall thickness is normally specified in this section. Wall
thickness requirements vary with drilling method, depth,
28
diameter and seal placement. In general for sizes up to 14"
(350 mm) and depths to 600 ft (180 m), 0.250"(6 mm) wall
thickness is acceptable (AWWA, 1997). Most wells serving
commercial applications use carbon steel well casing. Plastic
materials can be used in very shallow applications permit.
Detailed specifications are available on the placement of the
casing; however, drilling method (rig type) largely determines
the techniques used and in many cases, this issue simply adds
needless detail to the well specification.
SCREEN
The screen plays a critical role in the performance of
the well since it provides the filtering of the water entering the
well. In this section, the type of screen, aperture size,
diameter, length, entrance velocity, and material of the screen
is described along with the installation method. The
determination of aperture (slot) size is made based on the
results of a sieve analysis of the drill cutting samples from the
production interval of the well. On occasion, when sufficient
information is available, the screen can be specified based on
the performance of existing wells in the same aquifer. For this
to be an effective strategy, detailed knowledge of the geology
must be available. In applications where no gravel pack will
be used, the screen slot size is specified as that which will
retain 30 to 50% of the aquifer materials depending on the
corrosiveness of the water and the uniformity coefficient of
the aquifer materials. In applications where a gravel pack will
be used, the slot size is selected for retainage of 70 to 100% of
the gravel pack materials (AWWA, 1997). All slot size
selections are based on the aquifer materials sieve analysis
distribution curve. The specification can allow the contractor
to have a lab do the analysis with the results delivered to the
owner/engineer for approval or the samples can be delivered
directly to the owner/engineer for analysis.
There are several types of screens available and two
of the most common are wire wound and louvered. Wire
wound screens (continuous slot) provide a higher degree of
open area, through which the water can pass (a critical issue
in fine sand aquifers), are generally more expensive than other
types and in larger diameters are lower in collapse strength.
Louvered screens are generally less expensive, have higher
collapse strength, lower open area and provide for more
effective development using swabbing. Entrance velocity
specification influences the type of screen. In many
references (some written by a major manufacturer of wire
wound screen), an entrance velocity limit of 0.1 ft/sec (0.03
m/s) is cited. This low velocity tends to require the use of
screens with high open area ratios (wire wound). Other
research suggests that entrance velocities of as much as an
order of magnitude greater than this do not significantly
reduce well performance in many applications. Wire wound
screens are normally constructed of 304 stainless steel to
reduce corrosion problems. Louvered screens can be of
carbon steel in many applications due to their higher strength.
Placement of the screen, like the placement of the
casing is best left to the contractor; since, it is determined to
a large extent by drilling method.
GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001
GRAVEL
Gravel is sometimes placed outside the screen to
support the aquifer materials (called formation stabilizer) or to
increase near bore permeability and to assist in filtering
aquifer materials (called artificial filter). Regardless of
function, the common term for the practice is gravel pack.
The importance of the selection of the size distribution of the
gravel material is much greater when it is intended to serve as
an artificial filter. Issues to be addressed are size, gradation
(uniformity coefficient), geology, thickness and placement.
As in the case of the screen slot size selection, the
determination of the gravel pack parameters is based on the
cuttings sieve analysis results. One common criteria for the
gravel pack specifies that it have a 70% retained grain size of
4 to 6 times the 70% grain size of the cuttings sample and a
uniformity coefficient (40% size divided by 90% size) of not
greater than 2.5 (NWWA, 1975). Gravel material should be
clean and well rounded with a maximum of 10% flat surfaces
and should be a minimum of 95% siliceous in content (to
avoid dissolution in low pH water).
The thickness of the gravel pack should be between
3 and 8" (75 and 200 mm) thickness. Placement of the gravel
is generally accomplished by either pouring from the surface
(in shallow wells) or by placement through a tremie (in wells
of greater than 1000 ft depth [300 m])(Roscoe Moss
Company, 1985). In most shallow wells of the type serving
GWHP systems, the pack material will be poured from the
surface. This is done while circulating drilling fluid down the
drill pipe and up the annular space (between the casing and the
bore wall). A key part of the specification is the requirement
to maintain drill fluid density below a specific density limit
(9.1 lb/gal). The fluid tends to pick up drilling mud from the
walls of the borehole as the gravel is placed. The viscosity
limit requires this material to be continuously removed during
the process. The gravel placement should be completed in one
continuous operation.
DEVELOPMENT
The process of development is one in which the fines
in the aquifer material or gravel pack and any remaining
drilling fluids in the near bore area are removed by a variety
of methods. The development process is divided into two
phases--initial development using the drilling rig and final
development by pumping after the rig has been removed. To
some extent, the type of development is influenced by the
geology and well type. Specifications describe the type of
development, when it should be terminated and most
importantly in the final development, what the acceptable sand
production for the well is.
In gravel pack wells, preliminary development is
often by the so called “flushing” method using a tool known
as a “double swab” which can be accomplished with the rotary
rig. A more effective method known as line swabbing
requires the use of a cable tool rig. Both of these methods are
best applied with louver type screens. Jetting is a develop-
ment technique often used most effectively with wire wound
screens and it involves directing high velocity water jets at the
GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001
screen/gravel pack. Air lift pumping and sand pumping (used
in naturally developed wells) are other methods of
development.
Preliminary development is carried on until all of the
fines and sediment have been removed from the gravel pack
and the pack ceases to settle. Final development is carried on
until the specified sand content of the production water is
reached. This limit is typically expressed as a sand content in
ppm after some period of pumping. Water samples for
chemical analysis can be taken toward the end of the
preliminary development or during final development
pumping.
WATER SAMPLES
Water samples for the purpose of analysis for system
design (corrosion and scaling) should be taken during the
development pumping. The specification describes the size of
the sample and the type of container in which it will be stored
(normally a container supplied by the lab doing the analysis)
and when the sample should be taken (after 1 hr of pump
operation). Finally, the chemical constituents to be tested for
are listed. All major anions and cations along with alkalinity,
total hardness, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and oxygen
should be included.
FLOW TESTING
Flow testing of the well provides important data for
the design of the heat pump system, since the groundwater
flow rate chosen is based on pumping power (flow and
drawdown).
There are several types of flow tests which can be
done on a production well. In many cases, a step drawdown
test is done for wells serving GWHP systems. In this test, the
well is pumped at three rates until water level has stabilized.
The specification describes the flow rates, instrumentation (for
water level and flow data), frequency of readings, length of
test and facilities for disposal of the water. This so-called
single well test provides information primarily on the well
itself (yield, drawdown, and specific capacity). A more
sophisticated test in which nearby wells are monitored,
provides information on the aquifer. These tests are rarely
done for GWHP systems.
Generally, the flows chosen approximate 1/3, 2/3 and
full design flow anticipated for the system served. Starting
with the lowest flow the pump is operated at constant rate
until the water level in the well has stabilized at which time
the flow is increased to the next rate. Water level is typically
measured with an electric continuity device on the end of a
calibrated spool of wire. Flow is measured with an orifice
plate discharging to atmosphere and pressure across the plate
monitored with a manometer. Flow tests are often sub-
contracted to a well pump contracting firm.
Some jurisdictions require that any well penetrating
a potential drinking water aquifer be sterilized. The paragraph
relating to sterilization describes methods, chemical concen-
tration and length of the sterilization procedure which
normally consists of chlorine treatment.
29
ABANDONMENT
In the event that the well is unsuccessful and cannot
be used for the intended purpose, it must be abandoned
according to the requirements of the regulatory agency
responsible for water wells. Most states have very specific
regulations covering abandonment which typically require
filling the well with an impermeable material--often cement
grout. It is not necessary to cover these procedures in detail.
Referencing the appropriate state administrative rule will
suffice.
INJECTION WELL ISSUES
Injection wells, used for disposal of the water after
passing through the heat pump system, differ from production
wells in several ways. Two of the more important are screen
design and seal placement. Most references recommend a
water velocity through the screen of one half that used in the
production well. It appears that this guideline is primarily
related to the allowance for plugging of the injection screen
with particulate carried into the well with the water. From this
comes the widely held perception that the injection well
should be a larger diameter than the production well. This is
not the case. The reduced screen velocity can be achieved by
screening more of the aquifer since production wells in water
table aquifers normally screen only the lower ½ to 1/3 of the
aquifer. Beyond this, the need for the additional screen area
assumes the presence of particulate in the injected fluid. If the
production well is sand-free or if a surface strainer is used to
minimize sand, the additional screen may not be necessary.
Sealing of an injection well should be done in much
the same way as a production well penetrating an artesian
aquifer. The reason for this is that in the course of the opera-
tion of the well, the pressure exerted on it is greater than the
natural pressure of the aquifer it penetrates. As a result, there
is a tendency for water to migrate up around the casing toward
the surface. If the well is exposed to a positive pressure at the
ground surface, the potential exists for water to leak out
around the casing at the surface. To prevent this, injection
wells should be sealed from just above the injection zone, con-
tinuously to the surface with a minimum 2" (50 mm) annular
(between the casing and the wellbore wall) cement seal.
30
The injection stream should be introduced into the
well using an injection tube terminating below the water
surface. This prevents the injected water from cascading
down from the well head and generating air bubbles in the
process. Bubbles driven out into the aquifer can act as an
obstruction to water flow in much the same fashion as
particulate matter.
SPECIFICATION TEXT
The goal of this paper has been to identify the key
sections necessary in the specification document for a water
well and to comment on the general contents. Actual guide
specification text has been published by many others (Roscoe
Moss Company, 1985; AWWA, 1997; EPA, 1975, Montana
Water Well Drillers Assoc, 1970). In many cases, these
references are published in the form of guidelines for the
specification of water wells in which explanatory paragraphs
are included ahead of actual specification sections. Editing
is normally required to use these sources in construction
documents.
REFERENCES
American Water Works Association, 1997. ANSI/AWWA A
100-97 Standard for Water Wells, American Water
Works Association, Denver, CO.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. Manual of Water
Well Construction Practices EPA 570/9-75-001, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Supply
Division, Washington, DC.
Montana Water Well Drillers Association, 1970. Recom-
mended Standards for Preparation of Water
Well Construction Specifications, Montana Water
Well Drillers Association, Helena, MT.
Kavanaugh, S and K. Rafferty, 1997. Ground-Source Heat
Pumps: Design of Geothermal Systems for Com-
mercial Buildings, American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.
Roscoe Moss Company, 1985. The Engineers Manual for
Water Well Design, Roscoe Moss Company, Los
Angeles, CA.
GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001