Nm dg snbgmg 3 lnd iursj djs fmtncrgmtns lnd crupj ijdgejrgtfvj lfsiutfrçm nm nd `jrj

sjern dgs igrgitnrâstfigs nspniâ`figs lnd sfstnbg ln rfncj bçs glniuglj pgrg dgs

ijmlfifjmns y pgrçbntrjs nmijmtrgljs nm dg prfbnrg nmtrncg lnd GE_.

Nd sfstnbg ln rfncj pjr cjtnj `un nd sndniifjmglj pgrg fbpdnbnmtgr nm dg zjmg ln sgm

Pfinmtn ihuiurf yg qun sncñm dgs igrgitnrâstfigs ln dg zjmg ns nd sfstnbg qun bnajr iubpdn

ijm djs rnqunrfbfnmtjs lnd iudtfvj. Nstn sfstnbg vg lfrfcflj lfrnitgbnmtn g dg zjmg ln

fm`dunmifg ln dgs rgâins g trgvæs ln um sfstnbg ln tuenrâgs y nbfsjrns (cjtnrjs), qun

fmirnbnmtgm dg prjluitfvflgl y nd rnmlfbfnmtj pjr umflgl ln supnr`fifn.

Nm dg snbgmg 8 lnd iursj djs fmtncrgmtns lnd crupj hgrçm sus gpjrtns fmlfvflugdns nm

nd `jrj ijm fm`jrbgifùm ln dgs igrgitnrâstfigs cnmnrgdns lnd sfstnbg ln rfncj, gsâ ijbj dgs
vnmtgags y dfbftgmtns lnd bfsbj y umg lnsirfpifùm ijmirntg ln djs ndnbnmtjs bçs

rnprnsnmtgtfvjs.

Igrgitnrâstfigs lnd rfncj pjr cjtnj

Nd rfncj pjr cjtnj punln fbpdnbnmtgrsn ijm bgmcunrgs y tuenrâgs ijm jrf`fifjs `fmjs, j

ijm prjcrgbgljrns. Yn fmstgdg iugmlj nd tnrrnmj nstæ dfstj pgrg dg `gnmg y duncj sn rngdfzg dg

sfnberg j trgspdgmtn ln dgs bgtgs. Ns rnijbnmlgedn nmtnrrgr dnvnbnmtn dgs tuenrâgs y/j

bgmcunrgs pgrg fbpnlfr qun sn pfnrlg nd gcug pjr n`nitjs ln gdtgs tnbpnrgturgs y vfnmtj. G

dj dgrcj ln dgs tuenrâgs vgm fmsnrtgljs j fmijrpjrgljs fbpdnbnmtjs pgrg dg sgdflg lnd

dâquflj, djs iugdns rnifenm nd mjbern ln ljsf`figljrns cjtnrjs.

 Mjrbgdbnmtn dgs tuenrâgs nbpdnglgs sjm ln pjdfntfdnmj y iuernm nd çrng lnd iudtfvj. Nm

cnmnrgd, dgs nstruiturgs nm nd rfncj pjr cjtnj sjm `fags y bnigmfzglgs, pnrbftfnmlj nd

rnifidgan ln dgs gcugs lnsnihglgs. Yjm ln crgm fbpjrtgmifg nm nd sjstnmfbfnmtj ln crgmags

pnqun÷gs y

 agrlfmns uefigljs nm crgmlns urens.

Pnmtgags

 Bgyjr umf`jrbflgl nm dg gpdfigifùm lnd gcug.

 Bnmjrns ijstjs nmnrcætfijs, lneflj gd bnmjr tfnbpj ln ejbenj rnqunrflj pgrg

rncgr umg lntnrbfmglg çrng ln lfsn÷j.

 Ghjrrj ln hgstg <>->?% ln gcug, dj qun ijmtrfeuyn g umg bgyjr n`fifnmifg nm nd

usj lnd gcug.

 Bgyjr umf`jrbflgl nm dg gpdfigifùm lnd gcug.

 Bnmjrns ijstjs nmnrcætfijs, lneflj gd bnmjr tfnbpj ln ejbenj rnqunrflj pgrg

rncgr umg lntnrbfmglg çrng ln lfsn÷j.

 Ghjrrj ln hgstg <>->?% ln gcug, dj qun ijmtrfeuyn g umg bgyjr n`fifnmifg nm nd

usj lnd gcug.

Dfbftgmtns

 Lfsbfmuyn dg igdflgl lnd gcug nm nd sfstnbg ln rfncj pjr cjtnj. Nstn

nbpjernifbfnmtj ln dg igdflgl lnd gcug sn lnen g dg trgms`jrbgifùm lnd igrejmgtj

içdifij ln dgs rjigs y lnd sundj, qun mj ns sjduedn nm nd gcug, nm efigrejmgtj içdifij

qun sâ dj ns.

 Nm nd rfncj pjr cjtnj j nm dg gcrfiudturg ln snigmj, sjm bgyjrns djs rfnscjs ln

tjrbnmtgs fmtnmsgs (tjrbnmtgs snigs, crgmfzglgs) nm nd jtj÷j y ln hndglgs nm nd

fmvfnrmj. Nd ijmjifbfnmtj ln nstn hnihj sn sgen lnsln hgin egstgmtn tfnbpj, pnrj

mj sn hgm nvgduglj lfihjs rfnscjs.

  Nm dgs çrngs qun yg nrgm ln rfncj pjr fmumlgifùm, nd ijstj ndnvglj ln sustftuifùm ln

dg fm`rgnstruiturg ln rfncj pjr umg ln rfncj pjr cjtnj1 ginqufgs, tuenrâgs, sf`jmns,

pjzjs, bjtjrns, nti., qun hgm qunlglj jesjdntjs j fmutfdfzgljs.

 Dg prnsnmifg ln gdtgs ijminmtrgifjmns ln sgdns gdrnlnljr ln dgs zjmgs rncglgs, lneflg

g dg giubudgifùm prn`nrnmifgd nm nstgs zjmgs ln dgs sgdns. Nstj punln ijmstftufr um

fmijmvnmfnmtn fbpjrtgmtn pgrg dg pdgmtgifùm sfcufnmtn, sf dgs dduvfgs mj sjm su`fifnmtns

 pgrg dgvgr nd sundj.

 ^m fmijmvnmfnmtn buy fbpjrtgmtn ln nstn sfstnbg tgm pgrtfiudgr, ns nd tgpglj ln

djs jrf`fifjs, pjr dj tgmtj, mj rncgrçm ijbj mjsjtrjs nspnrgbjs.

Ndnbnmtjs rnprnsnmtgtfvjs

@unmtn

\gbefæm sn dn lnmjbfmg igenzg, nm nstn sn djigdfzgm1 Nd nqufpj ln ejbenj dg dâmng ln

`fdtrgifùm y lnsigrcg, fmynitjrns ln `nrtfdfzgmtns. Lnmtrj ln nstjs sn nmiunmtrgm djs1

@unmtn ln Gcug y Nmnrcâg

^mflgl ln prnvnmifùm j `duaj nm Unvnrsg

Fmyniifùm ln _rjluitjs Wuâbfijs

Yfstnbg ln @fdtrgifùm

Pçdvudg ln ijmtrjd

Bgmùbntrj

Bnlfljrns vjdubætrfijs
 Ijmtrjdgljrns Gutjbçtfijs

Dâmng prfmifpgd

Nm dg dâmng prfmifpgd sn djigdfzgm1 dgs tuenrâgs ln lfçbntrjs ijrrnspjmlfnmtns gd

cgstj qun ijmluinm (lnpnmlnm lnd lfsn÷j hflrçudfij), vçdvudgs ln glbfsfùm y nxpudsfùm ln

gfrn, Ijljs, rnluiifjmns, nti.

Pçdvudgs-Iruinrjs

Nm dgs Pçdvudgs qun ijbñmbnmtn sn dns ddgbg iruinrjs vgm dgs vçdvudgs pgrg dg sniifùm y

giinsjrfjs ln igbefj ln lfrniifùm, sn punlnm pjmnr glnbçs bgmùbntrjs sf gsâ sn lnsng.

Nstgs vçdvudgs lfvflnm dgs sniifjmns ln rfncj y ijmtrjdgm nd pgsj lnd gcug.

Nbfsjrns.

Djs nbfsjrns sn pjmnm sjern dg dâmng dgtnrgd j tnrifgrfg, djs nbfsjrns punlnm snr cjtnrjs j

bgmcunrg ijm cjtnrj fmtncrglj.

Dg ijmnxfùm ln dg dâmng sniumlgrfg ijm dg dgtnrgd sn rngdfzg bnlfgmtn fmfifgdns y gd `fmgd ln dg

ifmtfddg j bgmcunrg sn pjmnm tnrbfmgdns pgrg qun mj sn lrnmn nd gcug gd `fmgd ln nstg.

Lrnmglj

Nm nd lrnmglj, sn lnagm prfmifpgdbnmtn pgrg nd dgvglj ln dgs tuenrâgs, sn nmiunmtrgm vçdvudgs

ln ejdg, vçdvudgs ln glbfsfùm y nxpudsfùm, nti.

Nstgs vçdvudgs ln lrnmglj j purcgs sn lnagm gd `fmgd ln dg dâmng sniumlgrfg. Nm dg fmstgdgifùm

dgs tuenrâgs sn ddnmgm ln tfnrrg y pgrg qun mj sn ddncunm g tgpgr djs cjtnrjs sn dgvgm dgs

tuenrâgs gerfnmlj nstgs vçdvudgs. Dgs tuenrâgs sn dgvgm gmtns ln pjmnr dg ifmtfddg j bgmcunrg

ijm cjtnrjs.
 Nm dg snbgmg 6 y 7? lnd iursj djs fmtncrgmtns lnd crupj trgegagrçm ln

bgmnrg ijdgejrgtfvg y ijmsjdflgrçm fm`jrbgifùm ln um nanbpdj ln gpdfigifùm

lnd sfstnbg ln rfncj nm um sftfj cnjcrç`fij sfbfdgr gd nstgedniflj, nm nd iugd sn

bunstrn um

nsqunbg ijm djs ndnbnmtjs ijmstftutfvjs, gsâ ijbj dgs igrgitnrâstfigs tæimfigs ln
djs bfsbjs (tfpj ln nbfsjr, igulgd lnd nbfsjr, tuenrâgs1 bgtnrfgd, lfçbntrj y

djmcftul, lfstgmifg nmtrn dgtnrgdns, tfpj ln ejbeg1 igulgd, gdturg ñtfd, pjtnmifg)

Iudtfvj

Nd iudtfvj gd iugd dn vgbjs g fmstgdgr nd sfstnbg ln rfncjs ns nd igigj nd iugd mninsftg

umg eunmg igmtflgl ln gcug.

Gcug1 Dg `gdtg ln gcug ns nd `gitjr bçs dfbftgmtn nm dg prjluiifùm ln igij nm dgs

zjmgs trjpfigdns. Iugmlj hgy nstræs hâlrfij j snquâg lurgmtn dgs prfbnrgs ntgpgs ln

nstgedniflj lnd iudtfvj punln jigsfjmgr pærlflgs ln pdgmtgs aùvnmns, rnluifnmlj gsâ

dg

lnmsflgl pjedgifjmgd j nstgmigr su irnifbfnmtj.

Nm cnmnrgd, nd iudtfvj lnd igigj mninsftg pjr dj bnmjs ln 7>?? g 5>?? bb ln

 prnifpftgifùm gmugdns. Nd igij ns buy snmsfedn tgbefæm gd nmihgrigbfnmtj; ns lnifr, g

djs sundjs sgturgljs y sjernsgturgljs.

Hubnlgl y rfncj1 Dg igmtflgl ln gcug mninsgrfg pgrg gaustgr nd sfstnbg lnpnmln

lnd tfpj ln Çrejd, su crglj ln lnsgrrjddj, nd vfnmtj, dg hubnlgl gbefnmtgd, dg

igmtflgl ln dgs ñdtfbgs dduvfgs, nd tfpj ln sundj1 sf ns grifddjsjs lnen ddnvgrsn g igej

gmtns qun, nm djs grnmjsjs, yg qun rntfnmnm dg hubnlgl pjr bçs tfnbpj. (@nrmçmlnz

Y., 5?7<)

Nd iudtfvj mninsftg umg eunmg igmtflgl ln gcug, gmtns ln bfrgr qun sfstnbg ln rfncjs

vgbjs g utfdfzgr, vgbjs g jesnrvgr dg igrgitnrâstfig ln dg zjmg, yg qun nstg

fm`jrbgifùm

 aumtjs ijm dg lnd iudtfvj vgm hginr nsnmifgd pgrg sgenr qun fmstgdgifjmns ln sfstnbg ln
rfncjs vgbjs hginr, pgrg qun dg pdgmtgifùm tnmcg eunm lnsgrrjddj y g sâ bfsbj umg

 eunmg prjluiifùm.

Igrgitnrâstfigs ln dg

zjmg

Fmlfigljrns ln J`nrtg gbefnmtgd y sundjs ln djs Gcrj nijsfstnbgs

Ygm Pfinmtn ln
ihuiurf-
Djigdfzgifùm Ygmtgmlnr 

 Gdturg (bs mb) 069

_nmlfnmtn 5?%

_rnifpftgifùm g mugd
(b b) 785?
Wunerglg inrig g dg
_rjvfsfùm ln gcug  pdgmtgifùm

 Bnsns ln bgyjr prnifpftgifùm (bb) Jituern 5>6 bb

Bnsns l n b nmjr prnifpftgifùm (bb) Nmnrj 6 5 b b

 \nbpnrgturg _ rjbnlfj (¿ I) 5>

 Hubnlgl U ndgtfvg (% ) 06%

Pndjiflgl l n v fnmtj (k b/h) 76

Erfddj s jdgr ( Mj h jrgs d uz/lâg) 75

 Uglfgifùm s jdgr ( kfdjvgtfj h jrg) >

Yfstnbg g rfncjs ijm nd iugd sn vg g trgegagr

nd sfstnbg ln rfncjs ijm nd iugd sn vg g trgegagr ns pjr cjtnj, yg qun nstn ns nd bçs

n`fifnmtn ijm um 6>%, dj iugd hgin qun nstn sfstnbg tfnmn um ghjrrj buy sfcmf`figtfvj

nm dg igmtflgl ln gcug gpdfiglg, glnbçs ln nstn sfstnbg ln lnen lnstgigr qun sn punln

gpdfigr fmsubjs (`nrtfdfzgmtns, hnrefiflgs, fmsnitfiflgs, nti.) dj iugd bnajrg nd

rnmlfbfnmtj lnd iudtfvj lnd igigj, y nstg ijbefmgifùm rnluinm dg gpdfigifùm lnd gcug
nmtrn um 9> g >> % nm nd iudtfvj g ijbpgrgifùm ln jtrjs sfstnbgs.

Nd ghjrrj mj sn lnen pjrqun nstn sfstnbg mj punlg prjpjrifjmgr gcug sfcufnmtn, nstj

sn lnen g nstn sn djigdfzg nd rfncj austj ljmln nstçm dgs rgâins ln dg pdgmtg, nvftgmlj

 pærlflgs nm dg ijmluiifùm; nm iugmtj nd subfmfstrj ln gcug, nd bgâz rnqufnrn ln um

 eunm subfmfstrj ln gcug, pnrj nstn igbefg nm sus lf`nrnmtns ifidjs, ns pjr nsj jtrgs ln

dgs rgzjmns pjr dgs iugdns sn nsijcn ns sfstnbg, yg qun nstn pnrbftn nm djs ifidjs ln

rncglj, gaustgr g dgs mninsflglns lnd sundj y nd iudtfvj, pnrbftfnmlj subfmfstrgr nd

gcug rnqunrflg pgrg nd iudtfvj tnmcg um eunm lnsgrrjddj y sn rn`dnan nm umg eunmg

 prjluiifùm.

Nd sfstnbg g rfncjs dj hgin lfstfmcufr pjr ifnrtjs ijbpjmnmtns ijbj1

 Dg ejbeg

 Igenzgd ln fmstgdgifùm

 Unl ln lfstrfeuifùm ln tuenrâgs

 Nbfsjrns j cjtnrjs

Nm nstjs ijbpjmnmtns vgbjs g vnr quæ tfpj ln ejbeg, igenzg, tuenrâgs y cjtnrjs
vgbjs g utfdfzgr sncñm dgs ijmlfifjmns lnd tnrrnmj y lnd iudtfvj

dj prfbnrj qun vgbjs g tnmnr nm iunmtg ns qun ns umg qunerglg, dj iugd qufnrn lnifr

qun mjs sfrvn nd sfstnbg nd iugd vgbjs g trgegagr, yg qun ns mj gyulgrg g tnmnr um

ghjrrj, gsâ bfsbj mj g`nitgr gd rnstj ln dg ijbumflgl, jtrjs pumtjs buy fbpjrtgmtns

nm dg pnmlfnmtn, yg qun nstn tfnmn umg ln 5?% pjr iugd lnenbjs ln tnmnr nm iunmtg ns

`gitjr.
Ejbeg1

Yn vg fmstgdgr umg ejbeg subnrcfedn, yg qun nstg

rnsudtg bçs n`figz iugmlj nd gcug sn nmiunmtrg nm

crgmlns igmtflglns, —Nm nstn igsj snrç mninsgrfj

ijmjinr nd lnsinmsj bçxfbj qun nxpnrfbnmtn nd mfvnd

ln gcug ln dg qunerglg lurgmtn nd ejbenj, pgrg

nvftgr qun æstn punlg lnsinmlnr pjr lnegaj ln dg

nmtrglg g dg

 ejbeg‒ (Fmcnbnigmfig 5?78). Nstg ejbeg vg tnmnr um

lfçbntrj ijmsflnrgedn, yg qun nstj tgbefæm fm`duyn nm su rnmlfbfnmtj. G ijmtfmugifùm,

bjstrgbjs umg fbgcnm rn`nrnmtn g umg ejbeg subnrcfedn

\nmfnmlj qun ijm nstg ejbeg sjm ln giifjmgbfnmtj ndæitrfij, ljmln nd bjtjr

ndæitrfij qun tjtgdbnmtn subnrcflj nm gcug, pjr dj qun ns mninsgrfj um ijmluitjr

tjtgdbnmtn gfsdglj.

Igenzgd ln fmstgdgifùm

Nd igenzgd, sjm dgs fmstgdgifjmns ln gpgrgtjs lnstfmgljs g trgtgr, bnlfr y `fdtrgr nd gcug,

glnbçs ln djs lfspjsftfvjs ln fmyniifùm ln `nrtfdfzgmtns.

@fdtrgifùm1 dg `fdtrgifùm qun sn vg utfdfzgr pgrg nd sfstnbg rfncjs vg hginr nd ln bgddg

ijm dfbpfnzg gutjbçtfig, pnrj nstn sn vg hginr ijm nd `fm ln fbpnlfr qun pgsn

`nrtfdfzgmtn mj lfsundtj g trgvæs lnd `fdtrj.

@nrtfrrfcgzfjm1  Nd nqufpj ln `nrtfrrfcgzfjm sn vg hginr pjr bnlfj ln um tgmqun, nd

iugd tfnmn dg igpgiflgl ln 5? g 5?? dftrjs, nstn vg g nstgr fmstgdglj pgrgdndgbnmtn g dg

rnl ln rfncj.
Nstn tgmqun vg g nstg tueudglurgs, dgs iugdns tfnmn umg ln nmtrglg y umg ln sgdflg;

nmtrn djs pumtjs ljmln sn ijmnitg nd tgmqun vg fr umg vçdvudg dg iugd pnrbftn nd pgsj ln

umg

 pgrtn ln gcug gd tgmqun ln gejmj; nstn tgmqun tfnmn um purcgljr nm dg pgrtn gd pgrg

ndfbfmgr nd gfrn qun sn vgyg ndfbfmgmlj. G ijmtfmugifùm, sn bunstrg umg fbgcnm lnd
tgmqun ln gejmj.

Fbgcnm jetnmflg ln (Fmcnbnigmfig 5?78).

Fmynitjr vnmturf1 —I  jmsfstn nm um tuej ijm um nstrnihgbfnmtj qun, crgifgs gd n`nitj

vnmturf, irng umg lfsbfmuifùm ln prnsfùm ln dg ijrrfnmtn nm nsn pumtj y g dg vnz um

gubnmtj ln dg vndjiflgl lnd `duaj.‒ (Fmcnbnigmfig 5?78). G nstn tgbefæm vg

ijmnitglj

nd tgmqun ln gejmj qun lnen nstgr sfnbprn g dg prnsfùm gtbjs`ærfig

Pçdvudgs1 Pgbjs hginr utfdflgl ln umg vçdvudg ln pgsj, dg iugd tfnmn `umifjmgbfnmtj

gutjbçtfij, um nanbpdj ln dg utfdflgl ln nstg ns qun iugmlj sn lntfnmn dg ejbeg,

nvftg nd `duaj nm snmtflj ijmtrgrfj, ns pjr nsj qun jptgbjs pjr utfdfzgr nstg.

Unl ln lfstrfeuifùm ln tuenrâgs

Dg tuenrâg prfmifpgd vg hginr ln 9 pudcglgs, nstg ns umg tuenrâg _N, yg qun —ns um

bgtnrfgd pdçstfij lnrfvglj lnd ntfdnmj, qun sn `gerfig ijbj umg bnzidg ln ntfdnmj
 pjdfbnrfzglj, gmtfjxflgmtns y mncrj ln igreùm, qun dn fm`fnrn su igrgitnrâstfij

ijdjr mncrj pgrg prjtncnrdj ln dg lncrglgifùm pjr rglfgifùm sjdgr‒ (Fmcnbnigmfig

5?78), glnbçs nstgs g ijbpgrgifùm ln jtrgs sjm bnajr, yg qun1

 Dgs tuenrâgs ln pjdfntfdnmj sn `gerfigm bnlfgmtn nxtrusfùm lnd bgtnrfgd.

Yjm bçs `dnxfedns y bnmjs `rçcfdns qun dgs ln _PI, gumqun nm cnmnrgd sjm

bçs igrgs.

 \gbefæm dgs tuenrâgs ln _N tfnmnm bnmjr rnsfstnmifg g dg trgiifùm qun dgs ln

_PI, pjr dj qun, pgrg um bfsbj lfçbntrj mjbfmgd y prnsfùm, lnenm tnmnr

bgyjr nspnsjr ln pgrnl qun su hjbùdjcg ln _PI.

Dg tuenrâg sniumlgrfg vg hginr ln 5 pudcglgs, nstg vg hginr lnd bfsbj bgtnrfgd ln dg

 prfbgrfg —pjr quæ _grg djs rgbgdns pjrtg cjtnrjs sn nbpdngm tuenrâgs `dnxfedns ln

 pjdfntfdnmj ln egag lnmsflgl pjdfbnrfzglj qun, ijbj sn hg vfstj, ijmtfnmnm nm su

ijbpjsfifùm pgrtns ln gmtfjxflgmtns y mncrj ln igreùm (qun dn fm`fnrn su igrgitnrâstfij

ijdjr mncrj), ijm jeantj ln prjtncnr g dg tuenrâg ln dg rglfgifùm sjdgr y djs rfcjrns ln

dg fmtnbpnrfn, lglj qun nstjs rgbgdns lfsiurrfrçm gærnjs sjern dg supnr`fifn lnd

tnrrnmj.‒ (Fmcnbnigmfig 5?78).

Nbfsjrns j cjtnrjs

_grg djs cjtnrjs vgbjs g utfdfzgr cjtnrjs gutjijbpnmsgmtns, puns nstjs sjm igpgins ln

bgmtnmnr um igulgd rndgtfvgbnmtn ijmstgmtn ln lnsigrcg ln gcug sfnbprn qun dg

 prnsfùm lnd rgbgd ljmln vg fmstgdglj nd cjtnrj sn nmiunmtrn lnmtrj ln um lntnrbfmglj

rgmcj ln prnsfjmns qun `fag nd `gerfigmtn.

Nstjs nbfsjrns j`rninm um igulgd `faj lnmtrj ln um rgmcj bçs j bnmjs gbpdfj ln

 prnsfùm. Dg utfdflgl ln nstjs ljs cjtnrjs rglfig nm dg igpgiflgl ln hjbjcnmnfzgifùm

lnd rfncj g dj dgrcj ln umg dâmng ln rfncj, yg qun djs ñdtfbjs nbfsjrns ln dg dâmng

mjrbgdbnmtn tfnmnm

Nsqunbg ijm dg uefigifùm ln djs ndnbnmtjs lnd sfstnbg ln rfncj

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