TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Abstract
 Introduction
 Concept
 The CHIME Technique
 Theoretical Modelling
 Defect Detection
 Defect Characterisation
 Discussion and Conclusions
 Acknowledgements
 References

CHIME- A New Ultrasonic Method for Rapid

Screening of Pipe, Plate and Inaccessible Geometries
Fiona Ravenscroft, Roger Hill, Colin Duffill & David Buttle
AEA Technology plc, National NDT Centre, Culham, Abingdon, UK.

Corresponding Author Contact:

Wilbert Martens, AEA Sonomatic BV, Krombraak 15, 4906 CR, Oosterhout (Netherlands),
Phone: +31 (0)162 42 55 88, Fax: +31 (0) 162 42 43 43, Wilbert.Martens@aea-technology.nl,
http://www.aeat.co.uk

Abstract

Global screening techniques, for the inspection of pipes and vessels at

installations or plant, are a major requirement for many operators. A
new ultrasonic technique called CHIME has been developed to meet
this need and is described in this paper. Ultrasound is directed into the
specimen at the critical angle and two probes act as transmitter and
receiver. CHIME is a medium range screening technique which
provides coverage of the full volume between the two probes separated
by a distance of up to one metre or more. The technique has
demonstrated sensitivity to corrosion or cracking over a range of wall
thickness and has been successfully demonstrated on corroded pipe
samples, in validation and field trials.

Introduction

Conventional ultrasonic methods for the inspection of large areas, such

as vessels or long pipelines, are generally time intensive and costly.
Grid thickness readings or point by point inspection is carried out to
form a C-scan image of the inspected region. In addition, inaccessible
regions such as pipes on pipe supports or under clamps generally
cannot be inspected by these conventional methods without significant
effort and cost. For these applications long range global screening
techniques have significant advantages over conventional techniques
 especially if rapid scanning of large areas and into inaccessible regions
is possible in a single measurement.

Guided wave systems using, for example Lamb waves, are being
developed for long range inspection [1,2]. The most useful modes for
inspection have wavelengths of the size of the plate thickness. These
relatively low frequencies give rise to long inspection ranges but
inevitably couple with low resolution to defects. At high frequencies
many harmonics are produced and the sound is dispersive making
interpretation of defect signals complicated.

A new ultrasonic inspection technique is described that has been

developed within the Harwell Offshore Inspection R&D Service
(HOIS) [3]. The technique utilises the properties Creeping (or Lateral
waves) and Head waves in parallel or near-parallel walled metal. This
patented technique has been named CHIME (Creeping/Head
wave Inspection MEthod) [4]. Creeping waves are alternatively known
as Lateral or, more precisely, surface skimming compression waves. As
the surface compression wave generated by a probe at the critical angle
is generally referred to as the Creeping wave, the authors will use this
name.

Concept

Creeping waves can be generated at the surface of a specimen using a

transducer angled at the critical angle, but this alone does not satisfy the
boundary conditions at a stress-free surface. The Creeping wave
continually generates a shear wave propagating into the bulk of the
object that is generally called the Head wave (Figure 1). In a wall or
plate with two opposed surfaces the Head wave will generate another
Creeping wave at the opposite surface (secondary Creeping wave), so
that Creeping waves propagate along each surface each continually
generating Head waves. The Head
wave travels as a plane wavefront at
a specific angle, the critical angle
for shear waves in the material.

The generation and theoretical description

of these compression waves and associated
transverse Head waves have been
described in previous papers in connection
with the detection of near surface cracks
[5,6,7,8]. Creeping wave probes have been
used, for example, for short range butt
weld inspection. The region of the weld
Fig 1: Schematic snapshot of Creeping
and Head wave generation from a probe
at the ultrasonic critical angle. Illustrated
are the Creeping wave (C), Head wave
(H), direct compression waves (P) and
shear waves (S) generated due to the
finite size of the probe.
fillet can be monitored by the Creeping wave while the root region can be
monitored by the Head wave and the secondary Creeping wave [6]. They are
extremely useful for the detection of shallow surface-breaking flaws [7] as
they follow the surface but are not affected by surface spatter, liquid or
couplant. They have been used, for example, to detect radial fatigue cracks in
weep holes of airframe stiffeners [8]. Erhard [5], amongst others, carried out
theoretical work and showed that Creeping waves do not exist by themselves
on the surface and that the Head waves also formed during the generation of
the Creeping wave. This constant generation of the Head wave infers that the
first generation Creeping wave does not have a great range since energy is
being removed from it continuously. Consequently applications have
generally been for short range inspection for surface breaking defects.

The CHIME Technique

The Creeping and Head waves can be generated using a piezoelectric

transducer mounted on an angled shoe. The shoe is angled to produce
shear waves in the parallel walled material at the critical angle (Fig 2).
The transmitter fires a pulse of ultrasound which gives rise to the
Creeping waves propagating along both the surfaces, and the Head
waves are generated at all parts along these surfaces. If the receiver is
placed on the sample some distance away (up to 1m typically) then a
series of signals is observed at the receiver and the entire volume of the
sample between the transducers is inspected (Fig 2). The signal is a
series of peaks made up of a direct, Creeping wave, arrival followed by
a signal path that has carried out one full skip across the plate as a Head
wave and travelled the remaining distance as a Creeping wave. Then a
signal arrives which has carried out two full skips and travelled the
remaining distance as a Creeping wave and so on up to a maximum
number of skips. For each successive signal peak, the path length of the
Creeping wave is reduced. Note that each skip across the pipe takes
place anywhere between the transmitter and the receiver so each signal
is made up of a continuum of ray paths. In addition to the Creeping and
Head waves there will also be bulk waves generated below or above the
critical angle due to the beam divergence of a finite width transducer
(indicated in Fig 1). The first Creeping/Head wave combinations are
generally weak however the bulk waves, which travel in more direct
paths to the receiver, combine with the first few Head wave/Creeping
wave signals to produce a close pattern of peaks over the first half of
the signal (Fig 2). The Head waves are non-divergent plane waves
therefore they have little decay and show strong peaks in the latter half
of the signal.
 Fig 2a: CHIME Probe arrangement

Fig 2b: A scan of a CHIME signal typical in clean plate

The unique way in which the waves propagate provides complete

isonification of plate or pipe with little attenuation allowing the
transmitting and receiving probes to be well separated compared to
traditional Creeping wave inspection. Complete wall coverage is
achieved for typical wall thickness up to 40mm at standard operational
frequencies and inspection widths (distance between the two probes) of
over 1m have been established.

The receiver will display a characteristic signal that can provide

information about the thickness of the sample or about any defect
which locally changes the thickness. Defects due to corrosion or
cracking affect the signal magnitude and arrival time of the signal
peaks (Fig 2) independent of their location between the transmitter and
receiver. Defects may also reflect the signal train and these reflections
can be monitored in pulse echo. This is especially useful for the
detection of cracking.

Theoretical Modelling

Theoretical modelling of the CHIME signal has given

insight into the formation of the complex signal patterns.
The general approach has been to obtain a rigorous
solution to the wave equation for a plate using software
originally developed at NIST in the USA [9] and
modified for this application. Theoretical A-scans could Figamplitudes
3: Model of the peak
of Head
then be derived as a function of various operational waves generated in a
conditions. Demonstration of the coverage of the Head plate. The frequency
thickness product is
waves in the plate has been achieved by solving the 50mm.MHz.
propagation function for an imaginary receiver placed at
all points within a plate. The total Head wave peak
amplitudes were predicted and summarised using a contour representation
over a cross section of a plate.
Fig 3 shows the peak amplitude of Head waves in a plate. At a frequency
thickness product of fifty (mm.MHz) full coverage of the plate with Head
wave energy is achieved after only one skip. If the frequency-thickness is then
doubled the coverage is shown to become less uniform because the distance
between skips becomes significant compared to the decay of the Creeping
wave. The modelling has also demonstrated that a small range of ultrasonic
frequencies will provide full coverage in walls of thickness beyond the typical
range used in plant.

Defect Detection

The CHIME technique can be effectively used to screen for any defects
in the sample as the presence of a defect will affect the transmission of
the Creeping/Head waves. In order to monitor for these changes the
data collection is been carried out using an
ultrasonic digital data acquisition system
[10] and the data is displayed as a B-scan
(Fig 4).

To detect a defect the signal transmission (and, in Fig 4: CHIME B-scans over a
machined notch a) probes
some cases, reflections) is monitored whilst arranged in pitch catch,
coupling monitors check the integrity of the separation 260mm and b) single
coupling. When the transmission signal changes probe in pulse echo. Defect start
(D1) and Defect end (D2) is
significantly (over and above random indicated on the scans.
fluctuations) then a defect is flagged. Total
transmitted signal loss will occur on large defects,
making them easily and reliably detected with this technique.

Fig 4 shows an example of the CHIME signal response over a machined notch
of width 50mm, length 20mm and depth 4mm, in a 305mm diameter pipe of
wall thickness 11mm. The pitch catch and pulse echo responses show the
effect of the notch on the signal. In pitch catch the probes are either side of the
defect moving perpendicular to the line between the probes. The flat base of
the defect allows the signal to continue to the receiver but the arrivals are
displaced in time due to the shortened path length. The pulse echo signals
from one probe show reflections from the steep side of the notch.

Fig 5 and 6 show the pitch-catch responses due to real

defects. Fig 5 is an example of a CHIME B-scan on a
sample containing isolated corrosion pitting. The regions Fig 5: CHIME B-scan
of signal change in the CHIME signal are indicated and over three isolated pits
the pits identified. In this sample the probe separation is P1, P2 and P3 in pitch-
catch.
around 350mm and the isolated pits are located
somewhere between the probes.
The sizes of the pits are shown in Table 1. It is significant to note that the
amount of signal loss in the CHIME signal relates to the area and depth of the
pit.

Full Diameter at Depth at centre

Pit Depth at
inner surface (% of wall
ID centre(mm)
(mm) thicknesst)
P1 11 2.4 31
P2 62 7.8 100
P3 30 4.8 61
Table 1. Diameter and depths of three corrosion pits inspected and detected
using CHIME.

Large area corrosion is also detected and an example of

this is shown in Fig 6. The sample is a large diameter
pipe section taken out of service due to an area of
corrosion developing at the base of the pipe. The wall
thickness is nominally 13mm and a 50mm wide line of
corrosion is present that penetrates from 3 up to 6.8mm
Fig 6: CHIME B-scan
into the wall (between 23 to 52% of wall thickness). The over general corrosion
sample is inspected from the external surface which is
the opposite surface to the corrosion. As the beam of
sound moves over the corroded region the signal transmission is disrupted.

Experimental work has also been carried out to determine the sensitivity of
CHIME to non-parallel walls and curved surfaces such as pipe. For CHIME
signals to be established in a specimen, it is necessary for Head waves to be
generated in the material to intersect with the walls of the sample at the
critical angle. If the Head waves do not strike at the critical angle then the
conversion to a Creeping wave does not take place. It is important therefore to
investigate this effect on the detectability of defects, especially small volume
changes such as cracks

. In curved plate or pipe the outer and inner surfaces are necessarily not
parallel and experiments were carried out on a range of 6" tubes of
different wall thickness. The results show that complete ultrasonic
coverage of the wall is dependant on the angle of reflection at the inner
surface, which in turn is related to the ratio of the outer to inner wall
radii. The estimates of the maximum wall thickness to pipe diameter
ratio for sustaining the CHIME signals is 12mm in 6" pipe. The
conclusion from these results is that CHIME inspections and wall
thickness measurements can be carried out on any tube whose
outer/inner ratio does not exceed a value of 1.19. For example a one
metre diameter pipe with a wall thickness up to 80mm could be
inspected. For larger outer/inner ratios, CHIME inspection can still be
carried out however full volume coverage of the pipe is not guaranteed.
 A second set of experiments was carried out on a sample with varying
levels of wall divergence to test when the CHIME signal breaks down.
The regular peaks shown in a typical CHIME signal on clean plate (Fig
2) break up when the wall thickness changes by 1mm over a distance of
75mm (13%).

These examples illustrate the potential of CHIME as a fast screening

inspection technique reducing the inspection time significantly
compared to a detailed wall thickness survey. For example, isolated
pitting can be detected using only two probes up to one metre apart.
The probes could be placed on the top surface of a pipe to provide
complete circumferential coverage. A schematic of a pipe inspection
system is shown in Fig 7. CHIME has been tested on samples
containing general and isolated corrosion, stress corrosion cracking,
hydrogen cracking and has demonstrated tolerance to surface condition
such as general roughness or thin layers of coating. Cracks are not
necessarily likely to disrupt transmission but they can be reliable
reflectors and CHIME has potential for the detection of even shallow
cracks.

Defect Characterisation

Once the presence of corrosion has been identified, the operator then
requires to know the extent and the remaining wall at the corrosion site.
The CHIME signal response to defects shows no direct relation to the
remaining wall but the loss of signal is some function of the cross
section and depth of the defect. For large areas of accessible plate or
pipe CHIME acts as an ideal technique to carry out initial screening to
locate regions and then to examine the flagged areas in more detail with
a thickness monitor.

However for inaccessible areas such as corrosion under pipe supports, the
operator needs information on the defect severity and a yes/no decision as to
whether to take any action over any corrosion detected.
Some recent validation trials have shown a strong
correlation between signal loss and defect severity. The
CHIME signal can be divided into the first arrivals,
mainly due to bulk wave arrivals, and the latter arrivals
due to the Creeping/Head waves combinations. The
Fig 7: Schematic of a
latter peak arrivals are the first signals to disappear when CHIME pipe inspection
the uniform nature of a plate/pipe profile is disrupted, system
such as in the presence of corrosion. However the bulk
waves have well-defined paths that can survive in the presence of shallow
corrosion. Their transmission is only disrupted in the presence of deeper
defects usually greater than 40 to 60% penetration into the sample wall.
Recent work has shown this correlation and some validation trials are ongoing
for the use of CHIME as an operator tool for monitoring pipe supports and
other inaccessible regions where corrosion can be a major problem.

Discussion and Conclusions

CHIME is a novel technique principally for the rapid screening for, and
flagging of, defects in pipe or plate. CHIME is the transmission of
ultrasound between two probes placed a distance apart (up to 1m) in
parallel (or near parallel) walled material. The sound travels as a
Creeping wave along the surfaces and as a Head wave between the
surfaces. The unique way in which the waves propagate provides
complete isonification of plate or pipe with little attenuation allowing
the transmitting and receiving probes to be well separated compared to
traditional Creeping wave inspection.

The main features of the technique are:

 100% wall coverage between two probes up to more than one

metre apart.
 Large probe separation allows for rapid large area screening and
circumferential pipe inspection.
 Complete coverage in pipe for outer/inner ratio not exceeding
approximately 1.2.
 Measurement of wall thickness in areas between corrosion.
 Wall thickness up to around 40mm.
 The signal change is not directly proportional to the remaining
wall thickness but the signal loss can provide some information
on defect severity.
 Tolerance to surface conditions and thin coating.

Some applications that have been identified to date are: Inaccessible

regions such as pipe supports, saddles or sleepers, riser clamps, vessels,
long pipelines, tank floors and pipes with limited access, e.g. half
buried.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the members of the Harwell Offshore
Inspection R&D Service who have sponsored this development. The
current HOIS members are Amerada Hess, British Gas, BP, DNV,
Norsk Hydro, Phillips Norway, Phillips UK, RTD, Saga, Saudi
Aramco, Shell, Statoil, Texaco Britain & HSE.

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