20-Apr-21

Types of loads
Permanent Loads

Bridge Loadings
Transient Loads

Transient Loads
Permanent Loads
 DC:- dead load of structural components and  BR :- vehicular braking force  LS :- live load surcharge
nonstructural attachments  CE:- vehicular centrifugal  PL :- pedestrian live load
 DD :- down drag force  SE :- settlement
 DW:- dead load of wearing surfaces and  CR :- creep  SH :- shrinkage
utilities
 CT:- vehicular collision force  TG :- temperature gradient
 EH :- horizontal earth pressure load  TU :- uniform temperature
 EQ :- earthquake
 EL:-accumulated locked-in effects resulting
 FR :- friction  WA :- water load and stream
from the construction process
 MI:- vehicular dynamic load pressure
 ES:- earth surcharge load
 EV:- vertical pressure from dead load of allowance  WL :- wind on live load
earth fill  LL:- vehicular live load  WS :- wind load on a
structure

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 20-Apr-21

Cont… MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)

Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Dead load includes weight of all components of
the structure, appurtenances and utilities Cast Iron 7200 72
Dead load determined more accurately than Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
other loading. Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Wearing surfaces Concrete 2400 24

Railings and Utilities Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18

The items that can affect the calculation of Soft Clay 1700 17

dead load are dimensional and unit weight Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
variations. Steel 7850 79

Overlay thicknesses are a source uncertainty in Stone Masonry 2725 27.3

the dead load so they are assigned a 20% Wood Hard 960 9.6
higher load factor unless cores or more detailed Soft 800 8
measurements are made. Water Fresh 1000 10

Live Loads cont…

The guidelines specify the maximum likely
number of vehicles under typical traffic
situations.
When unusual conditions exist, adjustments
made to the number of vehicles.
Highway vehicles come in a wide variety of
sizes and configurations.
No single vehicle or load model can
accurately reflect the effects of all of these
vehicles.
The variation will usually be greater than the
variation in dead load effect.
To minimize this difference, the rating Legal Truck
with axle spacing and relative axle weights similar to
actual vehicles should be selected.
Three Legal Trucks shown in Figure 4-1 to 4-3
are recommended as evaluation vehicles.
These vehicles, together with the prescribed live
load factors, give a realistic estimate of the
maximum live load effects of a variety of heavy
trucks in actual traffic.

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 20-Apr-21

cont…
This typical vehicles correspond better to existing
traffic and will provide more uniform reliability than
the old standard AASHTO H or HS design trucks.
The spacing and axle weights chosen for these
vehicle types
Figure 4-1 Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN
In computing load effects one Legal Truck shall be
considered present in each lane.
 It is unnecessary to place more than one vehicle in
a lane since the load factors shown below have been
modelled for this possibility.
These load factors shall be considered applicable for
spans up to 60m. Figure 4-2 Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN

Figure 4-3 Truck Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN

Vehicular Live Loads
Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges
structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist of
a combination of the:
Design truck or design tandem, and
Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles
and wheels for the design truck shall be as
specified in Figure below.
Design lane load

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 20-Apr-21

Design truck loading Design Tandem loading

Design Truck Load
at tire

4.3 m

Axel loads

1.2m
4.3 –9.0 m
55KN

Loading lane
1.8m
Traffic direction

1.8 m

Truck load longitudinal and plan detail Design tandem loading longitudinal and transverse

Multiple Presence of Live Load

Design Lane Load
Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a
load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal
direction.
Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width.
The force effects from the design lane load shall not be
subject to a dynamic load allowance.
Number of Design Lanes: It is the integer of W/3600, ( w is
clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers).
Multiple Presence of Live Load:
 This shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state.
 Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with
multiple design lanes
 Unlikely all adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously, this
will be considered by the multiple presence factors.
 When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads
combined with one or more lanes of the vehicular live load,
the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
“m”

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Dynamic Load Allowance (IM)

Dynamic load allowance not be applied to:
Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be  Retaining walls
from two sources:  vertical reactions from the superstructure,
Hammering effect from dynamic response of wheel  Foundation components that are entirely below ground
level and
assembly to bridge surface discontinuities(deck
 pedestrian loads design lane load.
joints, cracks, potholes, and delamination's), and  The factor to be applied to the static load is:
Dynamic response due to long undulations in the Load factor = (1 + IM/100).
roadway pavement caused by settlement of fill, Table 4.4 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM
resonant excitation result from similar frequencies Component IM
of vibration between bridge and vehicle. Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
The frequency of vibration of any bridge should All Other Components
not exceed 3 Hz. Fatigue and 15%
All Other Limit States
33%

Centrifugal forces Breaking Force

Vehicular Centrifugal forces (CE):
 Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles
on curved bridges at speed.
 Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a
distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
 Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of
the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and
the factor C, taken as:
4V 2
CE 
3 gR
where: v = highway design speed (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Vehicular Breaking Force (BR):
From AASHTO 3.6.4 based on energy principles, and
assuming uniform deceleration, the braking force
determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:
V2 Where:
b
2 ga a is the length of uniform deceleration.
From AASHTO Article 3.6.4:
 BR=25 % of the axle load of design truck or tandem per lane
headed in the same direction.
 These forces act horizontally at 1.8 m above the roadway
surface in either longitudinal direction

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Collision and Pedestrian Loads Water Loads and Stream Pressure (WA)
Static Pressure:
Vehicular Collision (CT): Static water pressure act perpendicular to the surface
 Unless protections are provided a horizontal that is retaining the water.
force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the Pressure shall be calculated as :
road surface p =  * g * z * 10-9
pedestrian load: Where p = static pressure (Mpa)
 A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2) shall be  = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above point of consideration (mm)
applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Pedestrian load considered simultaneously
with vehicular design live load.

Cont… Cont…
Buoyancy: The sum of the vertical components of static
Type CD
pressures, acting on all components below design H2O
level. Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Stream Pressure: Square-ended pier 1.4
The longitudinal direction refers to the major axis of a Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
substructure unit.
The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 0.8
of longitudinal stream pressure and the projected surface 90o or less
exposed to.
p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2
Where: p= pressure of flowing water (MPa)
CD= drag coefficient for piers
V= design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in
strength and service limit states and

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Lateral:
It is uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due
to water flowing at an angle, , to the longitudinal axis
of the pier (see Figure below) shall be taken as:
PL=5.14x10-4CLV2
Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)
CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table
below.

Figure 4-7 Debris Raft for Pier Design

Figure 4.8 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Wind Loads
WL= Wind on Live load;
Table 4.6: Lateral Drag Coefficient
WS= Wind load on Structure
The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product
of the lateral stream pressure and the surface
exposed.
Angle, , between direction of flow and CL
longitudinal axis of the pier

0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0

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The pressures assumed to be caused by a
base design wind velocity, VB (160 km/h / 45
m/s).
Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed on the area exposed to the wind.
The exposed area shall be the sum of areas of
all components like floor system, railing, and
other on elevation taken perpendicular to the
wind direction.
The direction should be varied to determine
the extreme force effect on structure or its
components.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above
ground or water level, then design wind velocity,
VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z, should be adjusted
according to:
V   Z 
VDZ  2.5 * Vo  10  Ln  
 VB   Z o 
where:
V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above GL or design water level
(km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height,
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated
> 10 m (m)

Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)

 This load the product of elastic seismic response coefficient
 For concrete bridges below 50m length the Csm and equivalent weight of the superstructure.
 These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge when a
wind load on structures shall be neglected. sudden shaking of the ground occurs.
 If justified by local conditions, a different base  Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500 mm at
design wind velocity shall be selected for load each abutment.
 For multi-span structures, the minimum analysis requirements
combinations not involving wind on live load. shall be as specified below:
 The direction of the design wind shall be Table 4.11 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effect
assumed horizontal, unless otherwise specified Seismic Single- Multi-span Bridges
Zone Span
in the following subchapter Aero elastic Bridges
Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regula Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
Instability. r
1-3 No Seismic * * * * * *
SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM
4 Analysis
Seismic Analysis

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Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method
Method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and
importance of the bridge.
Essential bridges are generally those are open to emergency
vehicles and security/defense purposes immediately after the
design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return period event.
Some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design
earthquake, usable emergency vehicles, and security/ defense
purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500
year return period event.
These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.

Earth Pressure Cont…

EH (Horizontal Earth Pressure), ES (Earth Surcharge), In estimating design earth pressures for walls backfilled
LS (Live Load Surcharge), and DD = Down drag) with cohesive materials creep effects considered.
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the: For mechanical 1/3 compaction the effect of additional
earth pressure induced by compaction shall be
Type and density of earth,
considered
Soil creep characteristics,
Hydrostatic water pressure on walls eliminated through
Degree of compaction free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material, by weep
Water content and Location of groundwater table, holes, crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains,
Earth-structure interaction, perforated drains, and geo-fabric drains that provide
drainage.
Amount of surcharge, and
Soils under saturation and seismic or other cyclic/
Earthquake effects.
instantaneous loads, must be consideration for
possibility of soil liquefaction.

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Values of /H
Type of Backfill
Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02

Loose sand 0.004 0.04

Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05
Figure 4-9 Effect of Groundwater Table

The basic earth pressure (p, in Mpa ) shall be assumed to be

EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
linearly
There are two earth pressure theories used. These proportional to the depth of earth and given as:
are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories. 𝐩 = 𝒌𝒉 𝒙𝜸𝒔 𝒙𝒁𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟗
Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for Where:
masonry and RC abutment since this theory holds 𝒌𝒉 is coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as by
the following formula or from table
better for the actual situation. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜽 + 𝝋′ )
𝒌𝒉 =
𝜻𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝜽 + 𝜹)
In which
2
𝜁 = 1+
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹+𝝋′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝋′−𝜷)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐(𝜽+𝜹)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜽+𝜷)

Where
δ:- friction angle between fill and wall
β:- Angle of fill to the horizontal
θ:- Angle of backfill of the wall to vertical
𝝋′ :- Effective angle of internal friction

10

Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can
differ on the top and bottom surfaces of abridge
because the top surface is subjected to direct solar
radiation.
4.2 Design Philosophy
In design resistance of a cross section has to exceed the
effects come from the applied loads.
Resistance ≥Effect of Loads
When loading effect exceeds section resistance the section
fails and this condition is known as Limit State.
At limit state condition bridge and its component full fill the
function for which it is designed.
Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central
goal of bridge design.
In addition, appearance and economy must get attention.
Safety is achieved by safety factors that results from collective
experience and judgment of qualified engineers and
officials.
20-Apr-21
Differential Shrinkage, (SH):
Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains of
concretes d/t age and composition, and d/t material
shall be determined.
The timing and sequence of construction determined
in order to minimize stresses due to shrinkage.
Creep, (CR):
This is force and deformations effects dependence on
time and changes in compressive stresses.
Settlement, (SE):
This will cause internal forces in continues structures.
Force effects due to extreme differential settlements of
substructure and individual substructure considered.
DESIGN WORKING LIFE
Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be
designed for 100 years working life.
Concrete and Steel culverts with an opening or
Φ2.0 m and all timber bridges shall be
designed for 50 years working life.
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Cont...
  Rn   i  Qi
The equation involves load factors and resistance
factor due to this the design method is called load
and resistance factor design (LRFD) method.
In AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification the
equation is given by:
Cont...
In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD
provision is used for bridge design.
The section resistance multiplied by statistically
resistance factor whose value less than one.
The load effect side is multiplied by a statistically
load factor value is usually greater than one.
The load effect at a particular limit state involves a

   i  Qi    Rn combination of a different load types (Qi)

The load effect is written in a summation form.

Cont... TYPES OF LFD

γi :- load factor a statistical multiplier applied to Under the umbrella of the LRFD we have :
force effects specified in tables B and C below strength limit state,
Qi:- force effect extreme event limit state,
 φ :- resistance factor applied to normal resistance service limit state and
Rn:- nominal resistance fatigue and fracture limit state exist
ηD:- ductility factor
ηR:- redundancy factor
ηI:- operational importance factor
Rf :-factored resistance ϕRn

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Limit States
General
Bridges is designed by limit states to achieve the
objectives of constructability, safety, and
serviceability, with due regard to issues of
inspectability, economy, and aesthetics.
Load Factors and Load Combinations:
All limit states shall be considered of equal
importance.
   Qi  R
i i n  Rf
For loads for which a maximum value of γi is
appropriate:
i  D R I  0.95
SERVICE LIMIT STATE
The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions
on stress, deformation, and crack width under regular
service conditions.
The service limit state provides certain experience
related provisions that cannot always be derived
solely from strength or statistical considerations.
FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
The fatigue limit state is restrictions on stress range
as a result of a single design truck occurring at the
number of expected stress range.
It is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive
loads to prevent fracture during the design life
20-Apr-21
Load Factors and Load Combinations
for loads for which a minimum value of γi is
appropriate:
1
i   1.0
D R I
Where: ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to
ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
 Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety
of bridges.
 Ductility, redundancy directly relate to physical
strength, operational importance.
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
Used to ensure that strength and stability, both local
and global, are provided to resist the specified
statistically significant load combinations
Extensive distress and structural damage may occur
under strength limit state, but overall structural
integrity is expected to be maintained.
EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES
Used to ensure the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake or flood, possibly under
scoured conditions.
Extreme event limit states are considered to be
unique occurrences whose return period greater than
the design life.
13

STRENGTH IV
STRENGTH I Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the
bridge without wind.
A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations,
specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage
(SH), used when calculating force effects other than displacements at
the strength limit state, represents an expected reduction of these force
effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the structure. The
calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.
STRENGTH II Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified
special design or permit vehicles, without wind.
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified
herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the
design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in its lane,
should be considered.
STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity
exceeding 90 km/h.
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high
winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind
V of 90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity SERVICE III
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT I This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major
flood and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small.
Therefore, consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on
mean discharges shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an
earthquake is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a
90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also
related to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate,
and thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete
structures. This load combination should also be used for the investigation FATIGUE
of slope stability.
Compression in Prestressed concrete components is investigated using this
load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in
Prestressed concrete components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip
of slip critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures,
and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level,
this combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and
Strength I Limit States.
20-Apr-21
Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load
force effect ratios.
The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists
of trying out various combinations of load and resistance factors on
a number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield
a safety index close to the target value of  = 3.5 are retained for
potential application. From these are selected constant load factors 
and corresponding resistance factors  for each type of structural
component reflecting its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of
bridges with spans not exceeding 60 m. For the primary
components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and live load force
effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors
different from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span
bridges. It is believed to be more practical to investigate one
additional load case than to require the use of two sets of resistance
factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load Combination
I, depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up
to 180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where the dead
load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
Load combination relating only to tension in Prestressed
concrete structures with the objective of crack control.
The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among
other things, exclusion weight limits. The statistical
significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event is
expected to occur about once a year for bridges with two
traffic lanes, less often for bridges with more than two traffic
lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic
lane.
Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive
gravitational vehicular live load and dynamic responses under
a single design truck having a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m
between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load
level found to be representative of the truck population with
respect to a large number of return cycles of stresses and to
their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and
connections.
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Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of these
DD IM CR at a time
DW CE SH
EH BR Type of Load Load Factor (p)
EV PL EQ CT
ES LS
Maximum Minimum
EL DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
STRENGTH 1 p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted) DD: Down drag 1.80 0.45
STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - - DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - - EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
STRENGTH IV - -  Active 1.50 0.90
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -  At-Rest 1.35 0.90
DC ONLY 1.5

STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - - EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 - EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
EVENT I  Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -  Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
 Flexible Buried Structures other than Metal 1.95 0.90
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - - Box Culvert 1.50 0.90
ONLY  Flexible Metal Box Culverts

ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

Load Modifiers,
For example, at Strength I Limit State where the
i = D R I :
permanent load reaction is positive and live load
D = a factor relating to ductility, as
can cause a negative reaction, the load specified below
combination would be:
R = a factor relating to redundancy as
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM) specified below
If both reactions were negative, the load I = a factor relating to operational
combination would be: importance as specified below
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM). Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are
significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of
bridges.

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Ductility Redundancy
• Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be • Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be
proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of used unless there are compelling reasons not to use
significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and
extreme event limit states prior to failure. them.
• For the strength limit state: For the strength limit state:
• D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections R 1.05 for non redundant member
• D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying =1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
with these Specifications
• D  0.95 for components and connections for which
0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy
additional ductility-enhancing measures have For all other limit states:
been specified beyond those required by these
R = 1.00
Specifications
• For all other limit states:
• D = 1.00

Operational importance
This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme select load modifiers (Art1.3.2.1)
event limit states only.
Strength Service Fatigue
Such classification should be based on social/survival
ductility 𝜂𝐷 0.9 1.00 1.00
and/or security/defense requirements. Redundancy 𝜂𝑅 1.05 1.00 1.00
 For the strength limit state: inmportancy 𝜂𝐼 1.05 N/A N/A

l 1.05 for important bridges 𝜂 = 𝜂𝐷 ∗ 𝜂𝑅 ∗ 𝜂𝐼 1.05 1.00 1.00

=1.00 for typical bridges

0.95 For relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:
l = 1.00

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Analysis of Vehicles Live load

For Conventional Construction Resistance Factors φ shall
be taken as  For design purpose, we are interested the kind of
For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9
vehicles that produce the worst effect.
For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9  AASHTO has three types of LL called HL-93
For bearing on concrete  = 0.7
loading (standard for highway loading ,year 1993)
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8  Design truck
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
 Design tandem
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0
 Design lane loads
Name Resistance factor
Flexure and tension 0.90
Shear and torsion 0.90

Analysis strategy of live load on the bridge structure Vehicle load Analysis for simply supported deck bridge
Analysis of lave load is by using the intensity of legal
vehicle Live lad placement in longitudinal direction:
Design Truck Load
at tire The method of finding the effect of live load on bridge
(i.e. support reaction, moment and shear effect due
4.3 m
to vehicle) available are:
 Influence line method
4.3 –9.0 m
 Design equation
 Design chart
1.8 m

Legal rating truck and tandem load arrangement for analysis

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Influence line method Reaction influence line determination

 Influence line is the graphical method of finding the

variation of the “structural response” at a point as a
concentrated live load moves across the structure
 Structural response can be support reaction, shear,
and moment or displacement. 

Shear influence line determination Moment influence line determination

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Influence function for shear and moments due to vehicular
live loadings.
A. Design truck
Influence line for shear forces at „x‟ distance from support “A”
Shear influence line determination for design tandem
B. Design Tandem
i. Influence lines for shear force at „x‟ distance from end
support.

2span @4.3m

Shear influence line determination for design tandem Shear influence line determination for design tandem
B. Design Tandem C. design lane loading
ii. Influence lines for moment at „x‟ distance from end Influence line for shear force at „x‟
support.

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Design Equation for simply support bridge only Design Equation for simply support bridge only
Using Barre‟s theorem for simply supported span:
The absolute maximum moment in the span occurs under
the load closet to the resultant force and placed in such a
way that the center line of the span bisects the distance
between that load and the resultant.

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Distribution of live load to girder Distribution of live load to girder

DFs are differ for different types of superstructure
The bridge usually have more than one girder so the system
question is how it can the lane (deck) load distribute to
DFs are different for interior and exterior beam/girder
girders
There are two main method used:
 Using AASHTO‟S table: for typical design get
approximate value
Distribution factor
Lane moment Girder moment
Lane shear Girder shear
 DFs are available for one lane and two or more
no need to consider multiple presence factor design lane (the larger value control for design)
 Refine analysis by using finite element method Must make sure the bridge is within the range of
no need to consider multiple presence factor applicability of the equation

Distribution of live load to girder

Factors affecting distribution include:
length of bridge (L)
Girder spacing (S)
Modulus of elasticity of steel
Moment of inertia and torsional inertial slab
thickness
Width depth area of beam
Number of design lane (NL)
Number of girder (Nb)
Width of bridge (W)

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Distribution factor for interior beam Where

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Distribution factor for exterior beam Distribution factor for Shear in interior girder

 For One Design lane Loaded

 Two or more Design lanes Loaded

Distribution factor for Shear in exterior girder

The Typical cross sectional dimension
of Slab Bridge.
 For One Design lane Loaded
-Determined from lever arm rule

 Two or more Design lanes Loaded

Actual span length

Clear span

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