Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER STRUCTURES ....................... 1
1.1. Areas of Application ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Merits and Demerits of Steel Structures ............................................................................. 7
1.3. Structural Members.............................................................................................................. 8
1.4. Structural Design .................................................................................................................. 8
1.5. Materials .............................................................................................................................. 14
1.6. Structural Steel Shapes....................................................................................................... 17
1.7. Structural Fasteners ........................................................................................................... 19

By: Garomsa Fikadu I

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER

STRUCTURES
Engineering structures are required to support loads and resist forces, and to transfer these
loads and forces to the foundations of the structures. The loads and forces may arise from the
masses of the structure, or from man’s use of the structures, or from the forces of nature. The
uses of structures include the enclosure of space (buildings), the provision of access
(bridges), the storage of materials (tanks and silos), transportation (vehicles), or the
processing of materials (machines).

Structures whose major constituent components are steel are known as steel structure while
those with large proportion of timber components timber structures. There are great many
steel and timber structures in engineering practice.

Steel and timber are used both in structural and non-structural members in various civil
engineering applications such as buildings of various types, bridges, power transmission and
communication towers, windmills, off-shore oil and gas facilities, reservoirs and other
storage structures, mines, among others. In particular, steel may also be used as a cable
system in suspension- and cable-stayed structures such as suspension bridges, cable-
supported roofs and cable-stayed towers. Their structural engineering applications of steel
also extend to manufacture of space- and aircrafts, ship structures.

From structural point of view steel structures can be broadly categorized as either frame or
skeletal types, or shell- and plate-type structures. Framed structures are the primary topic for
discussion in this course work. They consist of an assemblage of elongated or one-
dimensional members such as roof trusses, latticed towers, beams, columns, etc. Shell- and
plate-type structures are mostly made up of steel sheets. In such structures loads are mostly
taken up by the sheet plates, which also serve as covering materials. Tanks, aircrafts and
shell-roof coverings are some examples of shell structures.

1.1. Areas of Application

While some of the main applications outlined below are also related to timber, steel structural
members have found, the widest use in the fol1owing types of structures.

Framework or skeletal systems

 The framework of industrial building and related structures like crane girders,
platforms, etc.
 Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span bridges.
 Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors, domes, sports-
facility
 Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-escape facilities, etc
 Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway stations, aircraft
hangars, shipyards, railway platforms

By: Garomsa Fikadu 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

 Special structures. such as,power transmission pylons, television and radio as well
as telecommunication towers, headwork for mines, underground tunnels, oil
derricks, hydraulic engineering works (e.g, dam gates & spillway structures)
cranes, etc

Shell and plate structures

 Gas holders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases
 Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of water, fuels and other liquids
 Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose materials like cement, grain. Etc
 Special structures such as blast furnace air heaters, gas scrubbers.
 Large diameter steel piping employed at iron and steel works coke and by-
product works, hydroelectric power plants and oil and gas pipe lines.
 Ship bulls, airplane fuselage, tank armor, etc.

Steel is finding diverse application in the construction industry. The following pictures will
reveal a number of such applications in various kinds of constructions. Structural steel can be
used to constitute the complete framing system in a high-rise building. Either medium-sized,
such as the hotel building or very tall buildings, such as the office building can be constructed
from steel (see Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Multi Story Buildings

By: Garomsa Fikadu 2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Special purpose buildings such as airport terminals, railway stations, exhibition pavilions,
conference halls, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway platforms, in which large space should
be covered without obstruction of columns, are constructed from structural steels trusses.

Cross section

Figure 1.2 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars

Steel is a preferred choice when it comes to industrial structures as it also provides large
column-free space with fewer framing elements. Fig. 1.3 shows the model of such an
industrial building facility making use of steel framing.

Figure 1.3 Industrial Building (columns, beams, and roofs)

Another area where steel and timber find their use is in bridge construction. There are various
kinds of bridges where structural steel can be used effectively and efficiently. in suspension-
and cable-stayed bridges, steel plays a predominant role at least as the cabling system. Some
of the main types of steel bridges are plate girder bridges, truss arch bridges, cable stayed and
suspension bridges (see Fig. 1.4).

By: Garomsa Fikadu 3

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

a) Plate Girder Bridge b) Truss Arch Bridge

c) Cable-stayed Bridge d) Suspension Bridge

Figure 1.4 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction

Several industries and communication facilities call for towers for a variety of purposes. Steel
towers are used for types of towers including microwave transmission for communications,
radio transmission, television transmission, satellite reception, air traffic controls, flood light
stands such as in stadiums and large fly-over’ intersections, power transmission lines,
metrological measurements, tower-test. Set ups, derricks and crawler cranes, oil drilling
masts both in-land and off-shore facilities, and overhead water tanks, among others.

A number of temporary structures and shed facilities for car parks, gasoline stations, storage
facilities can also be constructed from steel.

The corrosive nature of sea water calls for special kind of construction materials for building
off-shore oil and gas facilities. Specially treated steel responds to these requirements better
than most other possible construction materials

Specially treated steel finds its wide application in petrochemical industries where chemical
attack and temperature effects could be treated at their highest. Steel structures in these
industries can form part of the facilities themselves or structural framing for the housing
structures.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 4

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Most industrial buildings need to be provided with handling and hoisting equipment. There
are variety of such equipment used the factories and nearly all of them are built up from
structural steel. Some of the common types are cranes on gantry girders (overhead cranes),
chain pulley blocks, fork lift, derrick cranes, conveyor belts; rope ways, assembly lines,
among others.

Roof trusses of stadiums and sport facilities are usually made of either cantilever (free-
standing) or cable-stayed structural steels (see Fig. 1.5)

Figure 1.5 Use of Steel for Roof Trusses of Stadiums

Concrete construction requires some kind of temporary support during construction up until
when the concrete has set and attained the necessary strength to support itself. In this
scenario, scaffolding and formworks, that can be built up from steel members can be used
effectively and efficiently.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 5

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Bracing systems are usually made from structural steel and they provide lateral stability for a
building by resisting winds and earthquakes (see Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Use of Steel Members for Bracing Systems

Steel is also used in composite construction with concrete as shown in Fig. 1.7. This
construction practice improves the fire-resistance property and prevents corrosion of steel in
addition to improving the load-resisting capacity of the resulting structural members.

Figure 1.7 Use of Steel for Composite Construction

By: Garomsa Fikadu 6

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

1.2. Merits and Demerits of Steel Structures

The principal merits of steel members are:

 The ability to resist high loads with a comparatively small size and light weight of
members. Thus for the same strength, steel members are smaller in size and lighter in
weight, as compared to members made of other materials (except for some high
strength aluminum alloys).
 Due to its high density, steel is completely non-porous.
 The possibility of industrializing the construction work by the use of pre- fabricated
members and mechanized erection at the construction site.
 A very long service life, provided care is taken
 The possibility of disassembling or replacing some steel members of a structure, for
strengthening purposes.
 It is an environmental friendly material by being recycled.
 With particular reference to high-rise buildings, Steel is favored over other
construction materials such as reinforced concrete for various reasons. Among these
are:
 Shorter erection period permits an earlier recovery of capital
 Steel offers wide-span frames. It provides column-free, uninterrupted interior space.
This offers greater interior design scope and results in more cost-efficient buildings.
 Steel structural members offer the absolute accuracy of dimensions. Uniform quality
possible only with pre-fabrication under close control in the plant that reduces man-
hour requirements at the site-an important consideration in the face of unavailability
of skilled labor
 Steel offers greater possibilities for imaginative architectural design
 Finally, cost comparison studies have revealed that the construction cost of structural
steel is generally more economical than reinforced concrete
 Structural steel is the preferred choice for speed of erection, value and quality

The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which

necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their protection. The second
drawback of steel is its low fire resistance. At high temperatures steel loses most of its
strength, leading to excessive deformation or failure.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 7

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

1.3. Structural Members

Depending on the type of load that a member resists, structural member can be classified as,
 Tension member
 Compression member
 Beams,
 Beam-Columns
 Torsion members
 Plate
 Bracing members

Beam
Tension Member

Compression Beam- Column

Member

Torsion
Member Plate

Bracing Member

Figure 1.8 Common Types of Structural Members

1.4. Structural Design

Structural design is a process by which an optimum solution is obtained meeting established
criteria.
The aims of structural design are:
 To fulfill its intended or functional purpose,
 To sustain the specified loads for its design life,
 To localize damage due to accidental overloads,
 To properly function during service loads , i.e. serviceability criteria's
 To satisfy economical requirements.

The design thus should take into account,

 Facilitate safe fabrication, transport, handling and erection
 Future maintenance, final demolition, recycling and reuse

By: Garomsa Fikadu 8

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

If proper structural design is not carried out failure would result. The structure may be said
unfit for use or have reached its limit of usefulness, if one of the following occur.
1. Carrying capacity exceeded,
2. Excessive deflection and drift under service loads,
3. Instability,
4. Fatigue and
5. Fracture.

Design Procedure

There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to detailing and quantity
estimation.

i. Functional Planning/Design

The first and often the most difficult problem in design is the development of a plan that will
enable the structure to fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. If the structure
is a building, for example, the designer must create a plan which is adapted to the site; which
provides a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.; which will be
aesthetically acceptable and which can be built at a price the client is prepared to pay. This
phase of design, sometimes called functional planning.

ii. Structural Planning / Design

Structural design is the second major step in the design process although the planning of
structural scheme is never independent of the functional plan. Depending on the type of
structures, the extent to which the scheme must be developed during the functional planning
stage may depend upon the structure. For example, the location of the columns in a building
usually must be worked out with the functional plan and sufficient space must be anticipated
between finished ceiling and finished floor of adjacent stories to accommodate the floor
construction. On the other hand, the functional plans and structural schemes of highway
bridges or communication towers are usually not so strongly interdependent.

It is usually necessary to make tentative cost estimates for several preliminary structural
layouts. Sometimes this may have to be carried out while the functional plan is being
developed; sometimes it can be done at a later stage. Selection of structural materials must be
based upon consideration of availability of specific materials and the corresponding skilled
labor, relative cost, and wage scales, and the suitability of the materials for the structure.

The third stage of the design is a structural analysis. Although design specifications and
building codes usually describe the nature and magnitude of the loads to which the structure
may be subjected, at times the engineer must make the decision. Once the loads are defined, a
structural analysis must be made to determine the internal forces which will be produced in

By: Garomsa Fikadu 9

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

the various members of the structure. Although this is a fairly routine procedure, simplifying
assumptions must invariably be made before the principles of mechanics can be applied. The
designer must be conscious of his or her assumptions to ensure that the structure as designed
can be expected to behave accordingly.

In the fourth phase of the design process, the engineer proportions the members of the
structural system. The latter must be chosen so that they will be able to withstand, with an
appropriate margin of safety, the forces which the structural analysis has disclosed.
Familiarity with the methods and processes of fabrication and their limitations and with the
techniques of constructions as well as their limitations is indispensable in the design process.

The four steps in the structural design process discussed so far are seldom, if ever, distinct,
and in many cases they must be carried along more or less simultaneously. Furthermore, they
assume varying degree of importance relative to one another.

Design is necessarily a trial-and-error procedure. Most structures are statically indeterminate

and require that member properties be specified before the analysis for load effects can be
carried out. After the member forces have been determined, the validity of the member
selection must be evaluated. If changes in member properties are required, a re-analysis must
be carried out. The procedure must be repeated until the members’ selected and resultant
member forces are in acceptable arrangement. The development of the computer has greatly
facilitated this phase of the design process, but the judgment and experience of the designer
are impossible to build into a completely logical system as required by the computer.

Development of procedures for translating design specifications into computer programs

continues to receive the attention of engineers in all specialties. There are also a number of
specialized and industry-targeted such software products available nowadays. Many of such
software can now help the engineer from planning to analysis, design, detailing to quantity
estimations. Such programs, however, should be utilized only after the engineer has a
thorough understanding of the requirements of the specifications, the method of analysis
employed in the program, and the behavior of many types of structural members.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 10

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Design Philosophy

Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength, serviceability, and
economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load
conditions. The structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe
distress and damage during its lifetime.

Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its appearance,
maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load, conditions. Deflection,
vibration, permanent deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design considerations
associated with serviceability.

Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design, fabrication,
erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.

A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following conditions:

 Remain fit for use during its intended life

 Sustain the loads, which may occur during construction, installation and usage
 Localize damage due to accidental overloads.
 Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.

The above requirements can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction and, if necessary, for
maintenance program.

One or more of these conditions must form the basis for any rational design procedure and
their consideration enters into the subject matters to be presented in the subsequent-sections
for the design of several types of members and structural components.

As a result of the various design criteria, three major design methods and formats have
evolved in practice. At present, steel design can be performed in accordance with one of the
following three formats worldwide.

i. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

In the allowable stress design (ASD), a member is selected such that under expected loads,
known as service or working loads, the stress will not exceed one of the previously described
limits of usefulness. It is performed by specifying expected working design loads and
allowable stresses. The factor of safety is inherent, but usual1y not stated. Also, the limit of
usefulness is usual1y undesignated

This design methodology has been in use for decades for steel design of buildings and
bridges. It continues to enjoy popularity among structural engineers engaged in steel building

By: Garomsa Fikadu 11

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

design. In allowable stress (or working stress) design, member stresses computed under the
action of service (or working) loads are compared to some pre-designated stresses, called
allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are usually expressed as a function of the yield
stress (fy) or tensile stress (fu) of the material. To account for overload, under-strength, and
approximations used in structural analysis, a factor of safety is applied to reduce the nominal
resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its tangible capacity.

In so far as the method of analysis is concerned, allowable stress design is based on elastic
analysis to obtain the structural responses such as moments, shear and axial forces that a
member must be designed to carry.

The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:

Rn m
  Qi
Fs i 1

Where: Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in units of stress

Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working load type i.

i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)

m = number of load types considered in the design

Rn
 allowable stress of structural component
Fs

ii. Plastic Design

Plastic design makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond the first
yield condition, When a section is under flexure, yielding of the cross section occurs in a
progressive manner, commencing with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and
ending with the fibers nearest the neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding
referred to as plastification, means that the cross section does not fail at first yield. The
additional moment that a cross section can carry in excess of the moment that corresponds to
first yield varies depending on the shape of the cross section. To quantify such reserved
capacity, a quantity called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment (moment
that causes the entire cross section to yield, resulting in the formation of a plastic hinge) to
the yield moment (moment that causes yielding of the extreme fibers only) is used.

For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after the formation of a
plastic hinge. After complete yielding of a cross section, force (or, more precisely, moment)
redistribution will occur, in which the unfailed portion of the structure continues to carry any
additional loadings. Failure will occur only when enough cross sections have yielded to
render the structure unstable, resulting in the formation of a plastic collapse mechanism.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 12

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored loads. A
design is said to have satisfied the strength criterion if the load effects (i.e., forces, shears,
and moments) computed using these factored loads do not exceed the nominal plastic
strength of the structural component. Plastic design has the form:
m
Rn    Qni
i 1

Where: Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member

Qni = nominal load effects from the loads of type i.

i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)

m = number of load types considered in the design

 = load factor

In steel building design the load factor  is given by the AISC Specification as 1.7, if Qn
consists of dead and live gravity loads only, and as 1.3, if Qn consists of dead and live gravity
loads acting in conjunction with wind or earthquake loads.

iii. Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a structure, or part of a structure, is

considered unfit for use when such a limiting condition exceed a particular state, called a
limit state, beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance thus
making the structure unable to meet design performance criteria. All relevant limit states shall
be considered in the design so as to ensure an adequate degree of safety, serviceability and
durability.

Three classes of limit states are recognized: ultimate limit states, serviceability limit states
and durability limit states. Ultimate limit states are those which if exceeded can lead to
collapse of part or the whole of the structure, endangering safety of people. Serviceability
limit states correspond to states beyond which specified service criteria are no longer met.
Durability limit states can be regarded as subsets of the ultimate and serviceability limit states
depending on whether, for example, the corrosion affects the strength of the structure or its
aesthetic appearance. Structures should be designed by considering all relevant limit states.

A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion if the resistance

exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin. In actual design, a resistance factor ‘ m’ is
applied to the nominal resistance of the structural component to account for any uncertainties
associated with the determination of its strength, and a load factor ‘ l’ is applied to each
load type to account for the uncertainties and difficulties associated with determining its
actual load magnitude. Different load factors are used for different load types to reflect the
varying degree of uncertainty associated with the determination of load magnitudes. In
general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more predictable and a higher load factor
is used for a load that is less predictable.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 13

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Mathematically it can be expressed as:

Rn m
   li Qi
m i 1

Where:

Rn
 design strength
m

m
  li Qi  the required strength or load effects for a given load combination
i 1

Specifications and codes provide the values of  pertaining to different loads and also outline
the load combinations to be used on the right-hand side of the above equation. For a safe
design, all load combinations should be investigated, and the design is based on the worst-
case scenario.

1.5. Materials
Steel is one of the mast important structural materials. Properties of particular importance in
structural usage are high strength compare to any other available material, and ductility (i.e.,
its ability to deform substantially in either tension or compression before failure). The most
important structural properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate strength, modulus of
elasticity, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of thermal expansion, and its density.

Stress-strain Behavior of Structural steel

A schematic diagram of an engineering stress-strain curve of steel obtained from a simple

tension test is shown in Fig. 1.9.



Figure 1.9 Idealized Stress-strain Curve

By: Garomsa Fikadu 14

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Elastic region

In this region the stress is proportional to the strain, and Hooke's law applies. The constant of
proportionality is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, E. The modulus of elasticity
for steel has values ranging from 190 - 210 GPa. The modulus of elasticity does not vary
appreciably for the different grades of steel used in construction, and a value of 200 GPa is
often used for design. The elastic region ends when the stress reaches h" the yield stress.

Inelastic Region

In this region the steel section deforms plastically under a constant stress, fy- The extent of
this deformation differs for different steel grades. Generally, the ductility (the ability of a
material to undergo plastic deformation prior to fracture) decreases with increasing steel
strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural steel to
deform considerably before failure by fracture allows the structure to undergo force
redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhances the energy absorption characteristic of
the structure

Strain-Hardening Region

In this region deformation is accompanied by an increase in stress. The peak point of the
engineering stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress, fu. fu is the largest stress the material can
attain under uniaxial condition. In a uniaxial tension test, the specimen experiences non-
uniform plastic deformation (necking) once the stress reaches fu. Beyond fu deformation
proceeds at a rapid rate and equilibrium can be maintained only by a reduction in the applied
load. For design purposes, fu is often regarded as the stress at which failure is imminent.

Poisson’s Ratio

Poisson’s ratio, , is the absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal
strain under axial load. In the idealized elastic range Poisson’s ratio for structural steels is
approximately 0.3 while in the plastic range it is about 0.5.

Sear modulus

Shear modulus, G, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear modulus, G, is
presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa ) for all structural steels.

Thermal expansion

The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves concern
about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable when specifying
welding procedures, and when concerned with the effects of fire as the modulus of elasticity,
yield strength and tensile strength all reduces with increase in temperature. The coefficient of
thermal expansion, , for structural steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.

By: Garomsa Fikadu 15

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Fatigue

Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to fluctuating loads such as
crane girders, bridges and offshore structures. Failure occurs through progressive growth of a
crack that starts at a fault and the failure load may be well below its static value.

Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of steel structures. On the
other hand, bolted connections do not reduce the strength under fatigue loading. To avoid
fatigue failure, detail should be such that stress concentrations and abrupt changes of section
are avoided in regions of tensile stress.

Brittle

Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10oC, but it becomes more brittle as the
temperature falls, and fracture can occur at low stresses below 0°c. To reduce the likelihood
of brittle fracture, it is necessary to take care in the selection of the steel to be used and to pay
special attention to the design detail. Thin plates are more resistant than thick ones, abrupt
changes of section and stress concentration should be avoided. Fillets welds should not be
laid down across tension flanges and intermittent welding should not be used.

Characteristic Strengths fy and fu

The nominal values of material properties given in this section should be adopted as
characteristic values in design calculations. The nominal values of the yield strength fy and
the ultimate strength fu for structural steel should be obtained in the design of structural steel.

Table 1 Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for hot rolled
structural steel [Extracted from Table 7 of EN 10025-2]

By: Garomsa Fikadu 16

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Design values of material coefficients

The material coefficients to be adopted in calculations for the structural steels should be taken
as follows:

- Modulus of elasticity E  210,000N / mm 2

E
- Shear Modulus G  81,000N / mm 22
2(1  v)
- Poisson’s ratio in elastic range v  0.3
- Coefficient of linear thermal expansion   12x10 6 perK (for T  100C)

1.6. Structural Steel Shapes

In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-rolled, cold-
formed, and combined. Most of the rolling is done on hot steel, with the product termed hot-
rolled steel. Sometimes the thinner plates are further rolled or bent, after cooling, into cold-
rolled or "cold-formed" steel products. Regardless of the manner by which the steel shape is
formed, it must be manufactured to meet certain international standards such as ASTM or
European standards. The commonly used standard hot rolled steel shapes are as shown in Fig.
1.10.

Cold formed steel shapes are formed in rolls or brakes from sheet or strip steel. Because of
the great variety which can be produced, shapes of this type, unlike hot rolled shapes, have
not been standardized (see Fig. 1.11).

Figure 1.10 Standard Rolled Shapes

By: Garomsa Fikadu 17

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

Figure 1.11 Some Cold-formed Shapes

The dimensions and geometric properties of the various hot rolled sections utilized in design
calculation are listed in the tables of different manuals. The dimensional notations and axes
used for design in EC3 are as shown in the Figure 1.12 below.

Figure 1.12 Dimensions and axes of some steel sections

By: Garomsa Fikadu 18

Chapter 1: Introduction to Design of Steel and Timber Structures

1.7. Structural Fasteners

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened

together, usually at the ends of its members. Connections are structural elements used for
joining different members of a framework. A connection consists of fasteners such as bolts,
pins, rivets, or welds, and the local member elements connected by these fasteners, and may
include additional plates or cleats. The two main fastening means are bolting and welding
(with a few and isolated case also riveting and pins).

By: Garomsa Fikadu 19