CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

The foundations of lifelong responsibility for the maintenance of personal hygiene are

laid down in childhood, which is important for adulthood and for a development of

positive values about health and the use of health services.

However, according to Demanyo (2003), Personal hygiene is the practice of keeping

one’s body and environment clean.

Abbey (2001) also defines personal hygiene as keeping the body clean by removing dirt

and germs. He added that it is important to wash one’s hands thoroughly with soap and

water before eating and after visiting the toilet.

Poor health among school children resulted from the lack of awareness of the health

benefits of personal hygiene. Diarrhoea diseases, skin diseases, worm infestations and

dental problems are most commonly associated with poor personal hygiene.

(Gopalakrishnan, 2015).

Children in their primary schooling age can learn specific health promoting behaviours.

Health habits can be developed in this period therefore research on this ground is

needed. The present inadequate knowledge base hinders the development of improved

strategies for enhancing the maintenance of personal hygiene, which is of great

importance to decrease the burden of communicable diseases in the developing

countries.

What prompted the researcher into this topic is that, pupil’s inability to maintain

personal hygiene has been a problem especially in Liati-Wote. About 90% of pupils in

Liati-Wote E.P primary do not maintain personal hygiene.

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Liati-Wote is a part of the Liati Traditional Area. Liati-Wote is located in the Afadzato

South District of the Volta Region. The people of Liati-Wote speaks Eυe. The

population of the community is about one thousand and five (1005) inhabitants

according to the 2010 Population Census. The main occupation of the inhabitant is

mostly peasant farming and trading. The main crops cultivated are: cassava, maize, yam

and plantain.

There is a small market in the centre of the town where people sell and buy every day.

Some of the food stuff sold includes yam, cassava, plantain, okro, pepper, palm oil,

spices etc. The town is free from chieftaincy disputes; the chief is selected from the

Royal family. Currently, the town is having one chief by name, Togbui Kordadza V.

Apart from the traditional village, there is one of the most beautiful waterfalls. (Tagbo

Falls) and the highest mountain in Ghana (Afadjato). The top reaches 885 meters and

forms part of the Agumatsa range, which runs along the Ghana – Togo border. Form the

top, visitors can enjoy fantastic panoramic views. Tagbo Falls is a water fall flowing out

of the river Tagbo.

One can reach the falls by making an easy, 45 minutes walk. On the path one can walk

pass several coffee and cocoa fields and a very thick forest which is reserved, at the

bottom of the falls, there a nice pool which is perfect for swimming in the dry season,

but can be potentially dangerous in the rainy season. Due to the fresh temperature at the

waterfall, lots of visitors choose to spend a few hours just relaxing there.

Liati-Wote E.P Primary school is managed by the Head teacher by name Mr. Gamor

Prosper. There are five (5) teachers on staff and one hundred and twenty three (123)

pupils comprising sixty-five (65) boys and fifty-eight (58) girls.

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Statement of the Problem

The problem of personal hygiene has been identified at the researcher’s school of

attachment during the in-in-out programme. During lessons, she noticed bad odour

coming out from pupil’s mouth when they answer questions and the odour coming from

their armpit and shoe when moving about was nothing to ride home about.

She also observed that pupils normally absent themselves from school due to regular

ailment. On Wednesdays, the researcher inspected their uniform, nails and teeth and she

observed that they look untidy and dirty.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to find the reasons why the pupils in Liati-Wote do not

practice good personal hygiene. Also, the purpose of the study is to create an awareness

among pupils of the importance of practising and maintaining good health habits,

develop a love and appreciation for their bodies. It is also to help them gain an

understanding of the nature of prevalent diseases, how they are spread and the various

methods which can be used to control their spread.

Research Questions

The aim of the research is that by the end of the study, relevant answers will be given to

the following questions.

1. What is personal hygiene?

2. What are the importance of personal hygiene?

3. Do pupils in Liati – Wote E.P Primary School Basic One (1) practice good

personal hygiene?

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4. What are the measures to put in place to maintain personal hygiene in Liati-

Wote E.P primary School Basic One (1)?

Significance of the Study

The researcher wishes to find the inability of the pupils of Liati-Wote E.P Primary

School to maintain personal hygiene and wish that the research work when completed

would yield positive results by improving hygienic practices in the researcher’s school

of practice and other schools confronted with similar problem. Moreover, these would

help us feel good and confident about ourselves, since those who do not take care of

their bodies and have dirty clothes, body odour and bad breath will suffer from

discrimination and this will mainly lead to mental problems.

Delimitation

The research will be best conducted in all the Basic Schools in Afadjato South District

but due to time and financial constraints, the research has been delimited to only Liati-

Wote E.P Primary. Even within this school, the scope of the research is again limited to

only Basic one (1) pupils of which only ten (10) will be sampled.

Limitation

Initially, the researcher hopes to use all sources of obtaining relevant information for

this project work. However, the researcher has come to notice that the process of

gathering information from all the Basic Schools in the Afadjato South District needs

much time and funds. The researcher came across pupils who were not willing to

answer questions that were asked truthfully.

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Moreover, combining the research work with the teaching which involves the

preparation of daily lesson notes and teaching, learning materials is a difficult task

which consume time and energy, therefore the work is limited to Liati – Wote E.P

Primary Basic One (1) pupils only.

Organization of the Study

The research work is classified under five chapters and they are described, chapter after

chapter.

Chapter One has presented a brief introduction to the study which forms the background

information leading to the organization of the study. It has stated the background to the

study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research question, and

significance of the study, limitations, delimitations and Organization of the Study.

Chapter Two focuses on the review of literature on the proposed areas of study. This

talk about where the topic have been narrowed or limited to and it also indicates what

others talks about the topic in questions (that is theories or concepts and empirical

evidence).

Methodology is heading the Third chapter of the research work. It describes the

procedures employed in obtaining data for the study. The following sub-headings were

also under the third chapter. Research design, this heading states categorically that the

design employed was action research design and with explanation why the choice of the

design and the strengths and weaknesses.

Population and sample selection. Under this subheading, description of population for

the study was provided and the members of the sampling was done. The researcher

compared the result to the study at the end of the study to the previous result.

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Research instrument: the type of data collected and the procedure used to collect them

have been described under this subheading.

Intervention process: over here, the approach the researcher used to solve the problem

have been described and her evaluation of the research work.

In chapter Four, the analysis of data and presentation of finding were carried out.

Chapter Five which climax the research study has the following: summary, conclusion,

recommendation, suggestions and modification for future improvement.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Overview:

This chapter seeks to review related literature associated with this study. The themes to

be discussed in this chapter are: Hygiene, Personal hygiene, health and disease, care for

the body, diarrhoea, the effect of personal hygiene or the pupils and teaching and

learning materials. These themes are discussed materials. These themes are discussed

below:

Hygiene Wikipedia (2001) defines hygiene as the maintenance of health and healthy

living. Personal hygiene is very important because, no one wants to be close to a person

who stinks and is dirty. Wikipedia (2001) goes on to say. Personal hygiene is the first

step to good grooming and good health. So whoever you are and wherever you go

remember to maintain personal hygiene. Ministry of Education (1993) stated that good

grooming is the total perfection of the appearance of the individual. It is the way we

dress, care ourselves, take care of our bodies, clothes and general behaviour.

According to Denanyoh (2003), personal hygiene is the practice of keeping one’s body

and environment clean. Abbey (2001) also define personal hygiene as keeping the body

clean by removing dirt and germs. They add that it is important to wash one’s hands

thoroughly with soap and water before eating and after visiting the toilet.

University of Health Sciences (2007) said this about personal hygiene, it includes health

practices such as bathing, washing your hair, brushing your teeth and washing your

clothes.

University of Health Sciences further stated that maintaining good personal hygiene

fight infections by removing substance that allow bacteria to grow from surface of your

skin. In its contribution to promote hygiene.

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World Book (2001) said cleanliness controls the growth of bacteria and other germs that

can cause diseases.

A regular bath or shower keeps the body free from dirt and odour. In addition, it helps

to prevent skin infection that may develop if bacteria grow and multiply on the skin.

The hair should be washed regularly. Daily dental care is another important part of

personal cleanliness. Perspiration, dust and dirt and even dead skin collect on the

surface of the body.

Simpson (2009) in their Oxford English Dictionary define hygiene as that department of

knowledge or practices which relate to the maintenance of health, a system of principle

or rules for preserving or promoting health, sanitary science.

Dorling (2008) also defines hygiene as a study or set of principles for maintaining

sanitary science.

According to Hornby (2000), hygiene is the practice of keeping yourself and your living

and working area clean in order to prevent illness and disease. He advised that in the

interest of hygiene please wash your hand.

Hackett (2011) said personal cleanliness is important for having good physical health.

They further stated that, cleanliness is the habit of being well-groomed. To remain

healthy and well groomed, you need to take care of your skin, nail, hair and teeth.

Health and Disease

Heimler (2006) define disease as a condition in which a person become ill due to

breakdown or upset of body functions. Rene (2005) state that good health is a relative

term that can be defined in any general way.

They further explained that the people of Tristan Dacumha a volcanic Island in the

Atlantic are vigorous and active; they bath the roughest waters, climb up and down

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steep mountains and rarely seek medical assistance. Yet by Western Standards most of

them are unhealthy, often suffering from infestation of worms and from aneamia. By the

same token, an American city dweller who has a congenital dislocation of a hip, which

usually leads to consider himself sorely afflicted among the Navajos, this dislocation is

common, and it is not considered as disease (Rene 2005). Thus it is clear that the real

measure of health is not considered as absence of all disease but the ability to function

effectively with a given environment. They further noted that since the environment

keeps on changing, good health is a process of continuous adoption to the myriald,

microbe, irritants, pressure and problems which daily challenge men. Kenton L. (2008)

says high energy simply means an ability to live fully, to give of your very best and to

open to all good things life has to offer. She explains that once you learn how to tap into

balance your dynamic rhythms with your surrendering ones, energy will never again be

something you have to worry about.

Insel (2008) stated that health is considerably more than the absence or mirror or major

illness. It is partly biological status, a matter of how well all the body’s component parts

are working. They continue to say, it is partly a consequence of behaviour a reflection

of our ability to live in harmony with nature and with other people. And it is partly a

product of personal and philosophical values, intimately tied to our concept of self-what

we think we think we really are. They further explain that more often well, as in tune

with nature and humanity.

A particularly poignant description was given by a British author Mansfield (2003),

who, when she was dying of tuberculosis, wrote in the final page of her journal.

‘By health, I mean the power to live a full, adult, living breathing life in close contact

with what I love – the earth and the wonders therefore the sea the sun ….. I want to be

all that I am capable of becoming, so that I may be …. The only best known definitions

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of health in modern times comes from the World Health Organization which defines

health as a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the

absence of infirmity. In the last few years thus idea has been carried to a step further,

and we are beginning to realize that even disabled people (Such as paraplegies or the

mentally handicapped) who are achieving role models of good health.

But Walton (2008), wrote that optimum health – you cannot get it from your doctor,

your clinic, your astrologist, your lover, a wonder drug, or a miracle diet. They hold the

view that you can get it through what the Chinese call tzi-li keng-sheng, or

‘regeneration through your own efforts’.

They say, if this effort sound like too much of a hassle remember that as you approach

optimum health, everything in your life becomes much less trouble. They further stated

that health is the most important prerequisite for effective functioning. Payne & Halm

(2008) explain that health which encompasses not only the physical, mental and social

aspect of WHO’s perception but also embraces two additional aspect or component

intellectual and spiritual dimensions such that holistically person function as a total one.

Care for the Body

Comail (2008) advised on hand washing that all those handling food must wash hands

before handling any food or equipment.

Hands must be washed after handling raw food especially meat and chicken and other

foods. Wash hands immediately after visiting toilet, browning the nose, coughing,

sneezing, eating, combing or touching the hair and rubbish or equipment. According to

food link, some germs can stay alive on our hands for up to three hours and in that time

they can be spread to all the things we touch – including food and other people. So wash

your hands regularly throughout the day and especially at these time before preparing

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food, eating, carrying for the sick, changing dress, giving medicines, looking after

babies or the elderly, starting work especially if you are a health professional, after

handling raw food particularly meat, fish and poultry, going to toilet, touching rubbish

or waste bins, changing nakppies, caring for the sick especially those with gastoral

intestinal disorders, coughing or sneezing, handling and stroking pets or farm animals.

Ministry of Education (1993) suggested that we should wash your hands before and

after eating. According to Ministry of Education (2003), when our hands become dirty,

they may attract some germs and when we eat with dirty hands we pass the germs into

our body which can make us ill. Ministry of Education (2003) therefore advised that we

must wash our hands before and after eating. Again we must wash our hands with soap

and water when we visit the toilet. After eating, our plates and bowls must always be

washed with soap. It is unsafe to eat in a dirty bowl or plate. Dirty bowls may contain

germs.

Richmond (2007), holds the view that hands if not kept clean can be the source of ill-

health, since they come into direct contact with foods during the preparation of meals.

He suggested that hands must be washed after using the toilet. Foodlink (2000) asks; yet

up to half of men and quarter of women fail to wash their hands after they have been to

the toilet.

According to Foodlink (2000), on how to wash hand, the following remarks are made;

simply rinsing the tips of fingers under cold water does not count.

Foodlink (2000) therefore provided the steps below as proper way of hands washing.

Always use warm water, rub hands together vigorously for about 15 seconds, making

sure both sides of the hands are washed thoroughly, around and under the nails, then

rinse with clean water.

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Germs spread more easily if hands are wet, so dry them thoroughly. Use clean dry

towel, paper towel or air dryer.

Foodlink (2000) goes on to say that 1000 times as many germs spread inwet hands than

dry hands.

According to Health Services of Rochester University (2007), wash hands thoroughly

with soap and water before and after every meal and after visiting the toilet. University

of Health Science (2007) added that soaping and rinsing should cover the areas between

fingers, nails and back of the hands. Hands should be dried with clean towel after

washing. The towel at the wash stand should be washed and hanged everyday. Whilst

cooking especially packing lunches, you can prevent spoilage and minimize

contaminated by our hands been cleaned.

While cooking or handling food avoid scratching or touching ears, nose, mouth or other

body orifices. If you use a handkerchief or tissue, wash your hands after that keep your

nails short. On cholera prevention, Ministry of Education (1993) states that one way of

preventing cholera is to wash our hands after visiting the toilet. It added that one way of

preventing diarrhoea is to wash hands or cutlery very well before and after meals to

avoid germs entering into the body.

Kenworthy & Dora (2000) commenting on how to eat suggested that a bowl of water

should be there for people to wash their fingers. Royal Institute of Public Health (2007),

stated that food handlers are the most frequent source of contaminating food. Hands get

everywhere and they are the main method of transferring contamination.

Royal Institute of Public Health, (2007), writes on hands thorough and frequent washing

of hand throughout the day using hot water, unscented soap and hygiene drying facility,

hand basins must be provided in all good premises.

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He added that only wash hands in basin and not food sink. UNICEF (2007), in their

calendar booklet entitled ‘Clean Ghana’ Worm infection is often caused by poor

hygiene behaviours like not washing your hands at critical times. It revealed that to

make sure no child has worms the first thing is to wash your hands properly (under

running water and with soap) at critical times before handling or eating food and after

using the toilet. It further stated that washing hands with soap and running water helps

to prevent diseases, hands must be washed in a certain way etc.

Cleaning hands in a communal water ‘bowl’ may spread germs so hands must be

washed with soap under flowing or running water for example pipe or poured from a

container. ‘Washing hands at critical times helps to prevent diseases’ as quoted in Clean

Ghana.

When children clean themselves after using the toilet or latrine they end up with tiny

particles of faeces on their finger, which is not visible to the naked eyes. Faeces contain

germs and can cause disease such as diarrhoea. If children do not wash hands properly

after defecating, they can pass the germs to other people when they shake hands or

handle food. To prevent disease such as diarrhoea, children should wash their hands

with soap.

If you use a toothbrush change it every three months. University of Health Science UHS

(2007) also support Wiredu for brushing of teeth twice daily and rinsing well after every

meal. Brushing before going to bed is important. UHS (2007), added, while brushing,

pay attention to the fact that you are getting rid of the food particles stuck between the

teeth and in the crevices of the platter teeth at the back, the molars and the pre-molars. It

also recommended that the upper teeth should be brushed downwards and upwards. It

also encourages brushing in the circular motion. Pay attention to the tongue and the

inner surface of the teeth as well. The brush should have resilient bristles. It should be

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rinsed well and left dry after use. Kenworth & Setor (2000) have this to say on oral

hygiene. Teeth make a great deal of difference to a person’s good look. However, well

dressed you may be and how tidy your hair and hands may be, you will make a bad

impression if you have bad and decayed teeth. They further recommended cleaning of

teeth as captured ‘clean your teeth regularly every day both in the morning and at night

just before you go to bed’ On his past, Werner (1993) said, taking good care of teeth

and gum is important because strong, healthy teeth are needed to chew and digest food

well, painful cavities and sore gum can be prevented by good tooth care. Decayed or

rotten teeth caused by lack of cleanliness can lead to serious infection that may lead to

other parts of the body.

On brushing the teeth, Werner (1993) advised; Brush your teeth everyday and after each

time you eat sweats. If you do not have toothbrush and toothpaste, rub your teeth with

salt and baking powder. What Werner said is in agreement with what is said in

Environmental Studies Syllabus for primary one (1) to six (6).

Hackett J.K. (2011), write that when you eat, particles of food may stick to your teeth

or may be caught between your teeth. These particles may form plaque. Plaque is a

sticky material that forms on teeth and is harmful to dental health. Brushing and flossing

are two ways to remove and prevent plaque from forming on your teeth, they stressed.

Hackett (2011) advised that brushing teeth at least twice a day preferably morning and

evening before going to bed. They also stressed that dental check-ups and fluoride

treatment are extra steps you can take to avoid problems. Taking care of your teeth is

important for a well-groomed appearance. Richmond (2007) writing about cleaning of

the teeth says’ A chewing-stick, used properly is a good and expensive way of

strengthening and cleaning the teeth. He says the action of chewing increase the

circulation of the blood to the game thus bringing nourishment to the teeth. Also,

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particles of food which become lodged between the teeth can be removed by gentle use

of stick, without breaking the very delicate skin over the gums. He however warns that

it is very dirty habit to spit during or after using a chewing-stick. Spitting must always

be ‘condemned; It is not only dirty, but also exceeding dangerous, because it spread

germs so rapidly. After use, the chewing stick must be wiped/clean and put away in a

drawer. It should be wrapped in a paper. After two or three days it must be burnt and

new one used, he advised.

Richmond (2007), however suggests that when a toothbrush is used, the movement

should be up and down, not across the teeth. In this way particles of food are more

thoroughly removed. It is equally important to brush the back of the teeth and gums.

Hair

Talking about personal hygiene without considering the hair is as weak as a building

without a foundation because hair stands among the most important area of concern. It

is for this reason that the researcher wants to bring on board what some writes have to

say about hair hygiene. According to Kenworthy & Setor (2000), Hair should be

combed or brushed at least every morning and night. This will help to get out any dry

dust or sand which added frequently using either a good shampoo or green spirit soap.

Hair must not only be kept well washed, it must be kept from vermin.

Richmond (2007), considering the care of the hair writes, the skin gives out oil and seat

all over the scalp, as it does over the rest of the body. The hair, being thick, holds the

grease and this can be removed only by washing. Another reason for washing the hair

regularly is that after a time the sweat would dry on the scalp and close the pores. The

surface skin, deprived of its supply of oil, would become dry and for dandruff. Thus the

hair would not grow healthily and would look neglected.

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He therefore provided method of washing the hair as below:

The hair must first be moistened all over with warm water. Toilet soap or a shampoo

must then be used. He however warned about the use of household soap saying it

contains soda, and this make the hair dry and brittle. Rub the hair and the scalp until a

rich lather is formed. Then with a finger-tips rub the skin of the scalp in a circular

direction.

This opens the pores and makes the blood circulate to the scalp. The blood feeds the

roots of the hair and make it grow. The hair must then be rinsed with clean water until

every trace of lather is removed. To dry, rub the hair briskly with a clean towel, then

comb with a clean comb and set it in a way that suit you best.

A hair-brush is very good investment. It strengthens the hair by stimulating the scalp.

Both brush and comb must be kept very clean. Raeburn & Raeburn (1975) suggested

that the hair should be brushed to prevent it becoming matted and should be washed

frequently. Great care should be taken, especially in children to prevent harbouring of

parasites. Hackett (2011) hold the view that shampoo must be used to wash the hair at

least two times a week. They however provided a step of washing the hair, when using

shampoo, wet your hair and apply the shampoo. Then rub it into your scalp with your

finger tips and rinse well. Apply more shampoo, rub it in and rinse well again. They

advised that, be sure to rinse out all the shampoo so that your scalp will not itch from

leftover shampoo and your hair will shine.

Commitment on head lice, Kenworthy & Setor (2000) unveiled that one head louse can

lay up to 300 eggs called nits, and these grow very quickly and can themselves begin to

lay eggs in a fortnight. Lice cause itching and sometimes skin infection.

To avoid lice, take great care with personal cleanliness. Bath and wash hair often check

children’s hair. If they have lice treat them at once. Wener (1993), on treatment of lice

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said: Wash hair well, apply permethrine lotion. To get rid of nits (lice eggs), soak hair

with hot vinegar water for half an hour, then comb it thoroughly with fine-toothed

comb.

Skin Care

According to Raeburn & Raeburn (1975) the body gets rid of certain waste product and

sebaceous gland gives off grease. If these organic matter is allowed to accumulate, it

produces an unpleasant smell and medium for the growth of germs; it clogs up the sweat

ducts and the sweat gland cannot function properly.

To remove it the skin should be washed thoroughly with soap, which emulsifies the

grease. They suggested that if possible the body should be bashed or sponged everyday

and part of the body which perspire a great deal should be washed or sponged more

often.

Raeburn & Raeburn (1975) went on to say that cold bath if they suit the individual, are

excellent first thing in the morning, since they stimulate all the vital function of the

body. Soap and water are essential for keeping the skin clean. They advised that a good

bath once or twice a day is recommended, especially in tropical countries. Those who

are involved in active sports or work out to a sweat would do well to take a bath after

the activity. A mild soap will do the job adequately.

According to University of Health UHS (2007), around middle age, the skin tends to go

dry a bit. A moisturing oil or cream can be used. It is better to use this at night because

if you go out in the sun or commute on dusty roads when the skin is wet, dust sticks to it

and oil may also give you a ten (yellowish brown, brown colour of sunburn skin).

According to Riddle (1985), the skin is not only a complete covering for the body but it

is the largest and one of the most active organs. Talking about it function, Riddle says it

has many functions. Under normal circumstances the skin keeps out micro-organisms, it

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is water-proof, excretes waste products, regulates body temperature and is important

sensory organ. It deserves to be well cared for and can only function properly if it is

kept clean, and if air circulate around freely. It is therefore important that when covered,

it should be with the correct type of clothing. Writing on the effect or consequences of

an uncared for skin may be infected by micro-organisms producing pustules and boils,

or it may become infected by an animal parasites.

Hackett (2011) on the skin care write that the outer layer of your skin is made of dead

cells that are constantly being replaced by new cells. It is also a place where body of an

uncared for skin, Riddle says an uncared for skin may be infected by micro-organisms

producing pustules and boils, or it may become infected by an animal parasites.

Hackett (2011) on the skin care write that the outer layer of your skin is made of dead

cells that are constantly being replaced by new cells. It is also a place where body oils,

dirt and perspiration collect.

When you bath or shower regularly with soap, you break down oils on your skin. You

also wash away extra oils, dirt, germs and perspiration and dead skin cells.

Hackett (2011) suggested that bathing or showering regularly is important for clean

healthy-looking skin. They advised that face and hands skin need special attention.

Wash your face at least twice a day with soap and water, and wash your hands more

often.

On what scientists have discovered about hands, they stated that hands spread more cold

germs that coughing or sneezing. They however advised that washing hands before

eating or preparing food and after using the bathroom, help to remove the skin forms a

smooth, elastic covering over the entire body. It is the outer protection. It must be kept

whole and clean, or it will become an entrance for germs and impurities, instead of

being a protection for the body against them. Richmond suggested the skin must be

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washed frequently and regularly in order that, the pores will be kept free from dirt so

allowing the oil to do its work and the air to pass freely, to remove stale, sweat from the

surface, to keep the skin smooth, so that it will not crack and expose the fresh to germs.

Bathing

According to Hackett (2011), when you bath or shower regularly with soap, you break

down the oils on your skin. You also wash away extra oil, dirt, germs, perspiration and

dead skin cells. Bathing or showering regularly is important for clean, healthy-looking

skin. On why we should bath daily with soap and with sufficient water. Ministry of

Education (2001) in the Environmental Studies syllabus outlined the following reasons:

to prevent diseases such as ringworms, and scabies, to appear clean and tidy and

acceptable to other and not to have bad odour, to make us feel good and healthy,

refreshed and comfortable. Wiredu (2005), said bathing with soap and water removes

dirt, sweat and bad smell from our bodies. Water alone may not remove oil and grease.

Warm soapy water is best for our bodies. Washing the body everyday removes sweat

and dirt. This prevents some germs from living on our skin. Washing also removes

some other things that cause itching commenting on bathing as part of personal hygiene,

University of Health Science UHS (2007), is of the view that bathing or washing

removes dirt, dead skin cells and body odour.

In the United States, most people bath or shower daily or every other countries or

cultures. A person may not need a full bath or shower everyday but the face, under-arms

and groin should be kept clean daily.

University of Health Sciences (2007), concluded that the body produces oil that traps

dirt, dust and cells. Soap helps dissolve and remove this oil from the skin and enables

oil to be washed away.

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Nail Care

According to Hackett (2011), nails (both finger and toe nails) must be cleaned daily. A

nail-brush or nail file should be used to clean under the nail. Keep finger nails and toe

nails trimmed neatly and use a nail file to smooth away rough edges. Short nails make

less trouble. Clip nail short, along their shape. Do not cup them so close that it pintches

the skin. A healthy body encourages a healthy nail. Brittle or discoloured nails show up

deficiencies or disease condition. They warned that nails should not be kept painted

continuously. It causes keratin, of which nails are made to split. However they

recommended manicure once every three weeks.

Care of the feet

According to Richmond (2007), the feet are exposed to dirt and damp more than any

other part of the body. They must be washed daily to remove dirt and insects, which

might easily lodge there. Also toe-nails must be trimmed in a straight line across, not

low at the sides. They will then grow evenly not into flesh. Dirt, which is bound to

collect daily behind the nail, must be removed without damaging the toe. After the feet

are washed they must be rinsed before the towel is used.

Clothing

According to University of Health Sciences (2007), wear clean underwear daily.

Clothing should be washed or sent to a cleaner on regular basis. Christcity Council

(2008) recommended that all food handlers should wear clean washable clothing.

Wiredu (2005) also said that dirty pants smell very bad. They also cause itching and can

help spread diseases. They added that we must keep all our clothes clean to avoid bad

smell. Ministry of Education (2001) in its Environmental Studies syllabus gave the

20
following reasons on the wearing of clothes, to make us feel good and healthy, to appear

clean, tidy and acceptable to others, to protect us from getting diseases such as scabies

and to prevent body odour. Raeburn & Raeburn (1975) take a look at the characteristics

of good clothing:

The Effect of Improper Personal Hygiene on Pupils

Burkinshaw J. (2012) holds the view that when the body is infected by disease-

producing intruder (virus or bacteria ) which we will call a germ for short, the disease

runs its appointed course and ends in one of two ways. The patient may die or he may

survive. Minnett P. (1990) assert that many disease are caused by infection as a result

of improper practice of personal hygiene.

Bibby Cyril (2000), holds the view that disease may only be a minor loss of discomfort

or on the other hand it may be so serious as to lead to death. He says many disease are

caused by microbes, especially the bacteria and virus. Some of these infect the skin,

causing boils or acne.

These are spread mainly by personal contact and can be largely avoided by general

cleanliness by everyone washing their hands after going to the lavatory and before

touching food. Dubos (2005) stressed that yaws, a highly contagious and disfiguring

disease, endemic in many parts of Africa and the Philippines could be eradicated if

people in these regions were not ignorant of even the simplest rules of hygiene.

Teaching and Learning Materials

Educational materials are very important in the classroom. It captures and sustains

learners' interest in the learning situations. It also serves as a motivational factor, which

helps children to understand difficult concepts. Instructional materials provide easy

21
communication between an instructor, pupils and among pupils. It was as well provide

new opportunities for sharing questions, answers and discussions during the teaching

and learning situation. A key feature of effective teaching is the selection of

instructional materials that meets the needs of students and fit the constraint of teaching

and learning environment (Mckeachie, 2004).

Mckeachie (2004) classified instructional materials into two categories. These

instructional materials are pupils -centered and teacher -centered instructional materials.

Pupils - centered instructional materials help pupils to easily solve problems, discover

and review important issues. With teacher - centered instructional materials mode of

materials are used of presentation of lesson in the classroom.

According to Bulgreen, Deshler & Shumaker (2007), pupils can assist them with

devices which they can feel and touch. It is believed that students learn to develop their

own answers for works given by the teachers when teaching and learning materials are

used. The textbooks serving as a good instructional material can also become a useful

supplement, which can aid the participation of the pupils in the lessons.

22
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Overview:

This chapter deals with the methodology aspects of the project report. The chapter also

describes the research design, how the target population were sampled intervention used

as well as tools used to collect the data. This chapter ends with how the data collected

were analysed.

Research Design

A research design indicates the basic structures of a study, the nature of the hypothesis

and the variables involved in the study. The design spells out the basic strategies that the

researcher adopted to develop information that was accurate and interpretable (Gay

1992).

The research design adopted by the researcher in this study was “action research.”

Action research is a kind of research activity in which the researcher works

collaboratively with other people to solve perceived local problems. According to

Waters-Adams (2006), it is an approach which was aimed at improving a problem-

related situation through change. The researcher decided on this type of research design

because she wanted to identify the causes of Basic One (1) pupils of Liati-Wote E.P.

Primary School inability to maintain personal hygiene and devise strategies to minimize

the menace.

Action research according to Evered (1978) has some merits. It encouraged the teacher

to be aware of his or her own practice, to be critical of that practice and to prepare to

change. It is thus, participatory in nature. It is also collaborative in nature. This was

because, it involved other people as part of the shared enquiry. Furthermore, action

23
research was a research “with” rather than research “on”. Its values allow both the

teacher and the pupils to learn experimentally about the research process, by being there

and by doing it instead of being told how to do it. Lastly, it does not focus on generating

new knowledge but also enables both participants to develop appropriate intervention

strategies aimed at ending solutions to the problems identified in the teaching-learning

situations. Since there were two sides to every coin, action research seeked to solve only

organizational problems and does not seek to improve knowledge like other research

designs. Moreso, it demands a lot of time to give adequate and reliable findings due to

its cumbersome nature. Similarly, it interferes with the instructional process as it was

usually carried out during instructional hours (Best & Kahn, 2008).

Population

The population for the study included pupils and teachers of Liati-Wote E.P. Primary

School as well as parents. The total number of pupils in the school is One hundred and

twenty-three (123). The number of boys are sixty-five (65) while the number of girls are

fifty-eight (58). There were seven (7) teachers in the school which comprises four (4)

males and three (3) females. The number of parents involved in the study is five (5).

These formed the target population. The accessible population was however, the Basic

one (1) pupils of Liati-Wote E.P. Primary School. The number of the accessible

population, that is, the number of Basic One(1) pupils of Liati-Wote E.P Primary

School is twenty (20) which comprises twelve (12) boys and eight (8) girls. This

population was relevant to the study because the problem of personal hygiene was

peculiar with them.

24
Sample and Sampling Procedure

The purposive sampling technique was used to obtain a sample size of ten (10)pupils

which represents fifty percent (50%) of the twenty (20) pupils in the class. This was

done through the identification of the inability to maintain good personal hygiene in the

class which numbered up to ten. The researcher decided on this sampling procedure

because not all the twenty pupils in the class were involved in poor personal hygiene so

ten of them were sampled for the study.

Five parents of the ten pupils sampled were also selected for the study with the use of

the purposive sampling technique. Additionally, four teachers out of the seven teachers

on staff were also sampled using simple random sampling procedure. This was done

through balloting where by the names of the teachers were written on pieces of papers.

The researcher chose this sampling procedure for the teachers because she wanted all of

them to have equal and independent chance of being selected.

Research Instruments

All research studies involved data collection (Gay, 1992). This data collection involved

obtaining relevant information regarding the major ideas of the hypothesis or research

questions for the purpose of analysis and drawing inferences in order to answer them.

Research instruments were used in collecting data for the study. These were interview

and observation.

Interview

According to the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002),

interview is a meeting which someone asked another person, especially a famous

person, and ask questions about themselves, their works or their ideas in order to

25
publish or broadcast the information. It involves posing of questions in the face to face

situation. The purpose was to find what exactly was in people’s mind.

The interview was conducted with ten pupils and five parents on the causes of pupil’s

inability to maintain personal hygiene. Both structured and un-structured interview were

used to solicit and enable respondents divulge accurate responses for the study.

A fifteen-item interview scheduled was prepared for the pupils. Items one and two on

the interview scheduled were on the biographical data of the pupils. The third item was

meant to find out how they practice personal hygiene in their homes. Items four to

fifteen were aimed at finding out the causes of poor personal hygiene among the pupils.

Items four and nine were however on the causes which the pupils were solely

responsible for. These causes which the teacher might be responsible for were items ten

and eleven while the remaining four items were attributed to factors in the home.

The researcher chose this instrument because, the respondents involved could neither

read nor write. Also, she wanted to check accuracy of and to verify or refute the

impression she gained through observation. The technique was very useful in giving out

information needed because it had a high response rate and also, non-verbal behaviours

were observed.

Observation

According to the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002),

observation is the process of watching someone or something carefully in order to find

something out. It also referred to the method of collecting data on current status of

subject by watching them, listening and recording what was observed. It paved a way

for the researcher to use vision as the main means of collecting data. An eight-item

26
observation guide was prepared by the researcher for the pupils on their inability to

maintain personal hygiene at the pre-intervention stage and the post intervention stage.

The researcher chose this instrument for the respondents because it paved a way for the

pupils to behave naturally to reveal the actual situation in the school with regards to

personal hygiene.

Data Collection Procedure

Pre-Intervention Data Collection

The researcher observed that pupils of Basic One (1) were not practicing good personal

hygiene. She again observed the pupils for another two weeks and realized that the trend

continued. During this period, the researcher identified ten pupils out of the twenty

pupils in the class.

In order to identify the causes of pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene, the ten

of them were interviewed on by the researcher.

Additionally, five parents of the pupils selected were also interviewed in their various

homes to find out the causes of their wards inability to maintain personal hygiene. An

interview scheduled was prepared to guide the researcher in the process.

Words were sent to these parents through their wards on the researcher’s planned visit

three days prior to the interview days. The various causes identified in the pre-

intervention stage were useful to the study in that they helped in devising the right

intervention measures to minimize the problem of inability to maintain personal hygiene

among the pupils.

27
Intervention

The researcher employed strategies to minimize the problem of inability to maintain

personal hygiene among the Basic One pupils of Liati-Wote E.P Primary School. These

educated pupils on the importance of maintaining personal hygiene. The researcher

designed teaching and learning materials to and taught the pupils about maintaining

good personal hygiene

Step 1:

The researcher greeted the pupils and introduced the topic. She stated that the session

will make them aware of how hygienic practices help us remain healthy, now and in the

future.

She told them that they will play a game, -“passing the parcel”. She asked them to make

a circle. This was done outside the classroom because the classroom does not have

enough space for the activity.

Step 2:

The researcher designated one student as the “music master” who will stand outside the

circle facing away from the group. She asked the person to start clapping. She then

asked the children to move the parcel (book) in the circle; the parcel stops when the

music stops ( i.e. the music master stops clapping). The person holding the parcel at that

moment has to state a “good personal hygiene” habit. If the pupil is unable to come up

with such a habit he or she must leave the circle. The “music master” starts clapping

again and thus the game continues.

Step 3:

She asked them to continue the game till the participants have run out of ideas. She

helped the students by hinting at some of the habits given throughout the ‘factsheet’ and

28
below in the ‘Note for Teachers’. She sees to it that the simple things like washing

hands regularly, cutting nails, brushing teeth etc. are not missed out.

Step 4:

She told the pupils that they will be playing a very interesting game. She divided them

into teams. Ensured that girls and boys are equally divided in different teams.

She kept four buckets of water, mugs, soap and paper napkins/towels at a distance of

25-30 cm. She spread out the buckets so that there is a distance of 3-4 cm between one

bucket and the other. She allocate each bucket a number from 1-4. At a distance of

another 5-6 cm from the buckets keep the combs (at least one for each student) and the

mirror on a table. She state that when she says “Go!”, the team members will run –

“ONE BY ONE”- towards their allocated buckets, wash their hands and face, dry them

on a towel run and pick up the comb, comb their hair and check in the mirror how they

look. She asked them to keep the comb with themselves, they can carry it home. The

team that does the tasks in the minimum time wins! She announced that she will check

the students on whether they have actually carried out the tasks properly or not! She

reminded them about the rules once again. She started the game by saying Go! The

pupils had fun, while they were learning an important lesson.

After the game is over, she announced the winning team.

Post-Intervention Data Collection

After the implementation of the intervention process, the researcher observed how

effective the strategies had been. She observed the pupils for two weeks to find out the

extent to which pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene had improved. Data was

collected with the use of the observation, to find the number of pupils currently

involved in the inability to maintain personal hygiene.

29
Data Analysis Plan

Data collected with the research instruments were analyzed using frequencies,

percentages and means in order to answer the research questions. Details of the analysis

of data were reported in the next chapter.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Overview:

The purpose of the research is to find out the causes of inability of pupils to maintain

personal hygiene. Data collected from interview and observation has been analysed

using figures, tables and percentages. The data gathered were analysed under financial

constraints.

Table 1: poverty

Causes No. of pupils Percentages %

Non-financial constraint 2 20

Financial constrained 8 80

Total 10 100

Form the table 1, 2 pupils representing 20% disagreed that poverty does not affect them

in terms of practicing personal hygiene.

From the above observation, most pupils do not practice personal hygiene because of

financial challenges (constraints) which agrees with the assertion of Gibbons (2006) that

functional and financial constraints affected an individual’s practice of personal

hygiene.

31
Table 2: Psychological conditions

Causes No. of pupils Percentages

Yes 8 80

No 2 20

Total 10 100

From the table 2 above, 8 pupils representing 80% pupils responded that psychological

conditions caused them to be unable to maintain personal hygiene while 2 pupils

representing 20% disagreed to that effect.

The psychological conditions agrees with Johnson (2016) with the view that any mental

health problem can affect a person’s ability and motivation for caring for their hygiene

need. Depression, anxiety, and others are all known to have the potential to affect a

person’s ability to care for oneself.

32
Table 3: Analysis of Observation results for pupils during Pre-Intervention

Aspect of Observation Pupils who Percentage Pupils who do Percentage

practice not practice

1. Washing of hand after 2 20% 8 80%

using the latrine

2. Washing of hands after 2 20% 8 80%

collecting rubbish

3. Neat appearance in 1 10% 9 90%

school uniform.

4. Clean shoes or footwear 3 30% 7 70%

5. Body odour 1 10% 9 90%

6. Cut fingernails 2 20% 8 80%

7. Trim hair 2 20% 8 80%

Total Number of Pupils = 10

From the table 3, it is seen that, 2 pupils representing 20% wash their hands after using

the latrine whiles 8 pupils representing 80% do not wash their hands. This confirmed

that, majority of the pupils do not know that, they are to wash their hands with soap and

water after using the latrine to prevent them from infecting food or water which they

may handle later. This confirms the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, (2015)

which says that, many diseases and conditions are spread by not washing our hand with

soap and clean running water.

It can also be seen that, 2 pupils representing 20% wash their hands after collecting

rubbish and 8 pupils representing 80% do not wash their hands. This is a very serious

way of spreading disease among pupils since they use their hands to collect rubbish on

the floor and at the same time will use these hands to handle anything that goes into the
33
stomach. They also spread disease to their friends and other part of their bodies with the

same hands used to collect rubbish. This prove that, the pupils are not aware that,

according to the center for Disease Control and Prevention (2005) again, keeping our

hands clean through improved hand hygiene like washing them properly with soap and

clean water is the most important step we can take to avoid getting sick.

Again, 1 pupil representing 10% appear looking neat in school uniform whiles 9 pupils

representing 90% do not appear neat. This implies that, the pupils are not really concern

of appearing neat in their uniform but are only interested in just putting on any attire to

school.

In terms of clean shoes, only 3 pupils representing 30% had their shoes clean but 7

pupils representing 70% had unclean shoes.

It again shows on the table that, 1 pupil making a percentage of 10 do not have body

odour whiles 9 pupils representing 90% have body odour. This indicates that, more than

half of the pupils smells badly at all-time whiles just a few of them do not smell. The

odour in pupils may be as a result of improper bathing or not bathing at all on the part of

majority of the pupils. This proves that, pupils do not know that, unwashed sweat

overtime produce the smell commonly associated with body odour (Sherwood, 2005).

Another aspect recorded from the table was cut nails and out of the total of 10 pupils, 2

pupils representing 20% cut their nails regularly whiles 8 pupils representing 80% do

not cut their nails. Most of the pupils do not see it necessary to cut their nails regularly.

Finally, 8 pupils representing 80% do not trim their hair regularly whiles 2 pupils

representing 20% do trim their hair regularly.

Table 4: Analysis of Interview Result for pupils during pre-intervention.

34
Aspects of personal hygiene Pupils who Percentage Pupils who Percentage

responded responded

Yes/Twice No/Once

1. How many times do you 1 10% 9 90%

bath a day?

2. Do your parents provide 5 50% 5 50%

you with soap for bathing?

3. Do you bath with sponge? 5 20% 5 50%

4. Do you air your uniform in 2 20% 8 80%

the sun for a while after

school?

5. Do you cut your nails 2 20% 8 80%

regularly?

6. Do you trim your hair 2 0% 8 80%

regularly?

7. How many times do you 0 0% 10 90%

wear your uniform before

washing it?
Total number of Pupils = 10

From the table above, 1 pupil representing 10% bath twice a day whiles 9 pupils

representing 90% bath once a day. Looking at this, it is clear that, majority of the pupils

thinks that, it is not really necessary for them to bath two times or more a day.

According to Gibbons (2006), bathing releases stress and reduce tiredness in the human

body. With this view, bathing more than once can help reduce the stress and dirt, and

make them look fresh and more active again.

35
Also, 5 pupils representing 50% responded yes as indicated in the table when it was

asked do your parents provided you with soap for bathing whiles 5 pupils also

representing 50% responded no, their parents do not provide them with soap. This

shows that half of the parent provide soap for their ward for bathing whiles half do not.

This could be due to financial challenges which agrees with Gibbons (2006) that

functional and financial constraints as well as personal life style choices affects an

individuals practice of personal hygiene.

It can also be seen that, it was same 50 percent when the pupils were asked if they bath

with sponge. It shows that, not all the pupils bath with sponge. Again, 8 pupils

representing 80% do not air their uniform in the sun for a while after school whiles only

2 pupils representing 20% do air their uniforms. It implies that, almost all the pupils are

not aware that, airing their uniforms in the sun makes the sweet dried up and release any

smell in the uniform, not only the uniforms should be aired but also all cloths that pupils

wear and do not interns to wash them immediately.

From the table again, 8 pupils do not cut their nails regularly whiles 2 pupils does. In

terms of trim hair, out of the 10 pupils, 8 of them do not trim their hair regularly whiles

8 pupils trim theirs regularly. Finally, all the pupils that, is, the 10 pupils wear their

uniform for the whole week before washing. It indicates that, pupils with only one

uniform, do not know they are to wear the uniform for two days, wash it and wear for

the rest of the days.

Table 5: Analysis of Interview Results for Parents during Pre-Intervention

Aspects of Questions Parents who Percentage Parents Percentage

36
 responded who

Yes/Twice responded

No/once

1. How many times does your 2 40% 3 60%

ward bath a day?

2. Do you provide your ward 2 40% 3 60%

with soap for bathing?

3. Do you provide your ward 1 20% 4 80%

with toothpaste for brushing

their teeth?

4. Do you leave the house for 2 40% 3 60%

work before your ward goes to

school?

5. Do you make sure your 1 20% 4 80%

ward wash their hands after

using the latrine?

6. Do you observe your ward 2 40 3 60

anytime they return from

school?
Total Number of Parents = 5

From the table above, 2 parents representing 40% said their wards bath more than once

a day and 3 parents representing 60% said their wards bath once a day. This means that,

some parents do not really pay much attention to what their wards do to keep their

bodies clean.

37
Also, 2 parents representing 40% provide soap for their wards whiles 3 parents

representing 60% do not provide soap for their wards to use for bathing. This could be

due to financial issues on the part of some parents.

Again, only 1 parent representing 20% provide toothpaste for their wards to brush their

teeth while 4 parents representing 80% do not provide toothpaste for their wards. It is

clear that, parents as well as their wards do not see it necessary to bush their teeth, they

are not aware that brushing the teeth twice a day can help prevent the teeth from

destroying and even gum diseases. American Dental Association (2015).

Two (2) parents representing 40% do not leave the house before their wards goes to

school but 3 parents representing 60% leave the house before their children goes to

school. This proves that, not all the parents are at home to see to it that the child is

properly and neatly dressed before going to school.

Again when we talk of washing hands after the latrine, only 1 parent make sure the

ward washes the hands after using the latrine but the rest 4 do not ensure that.

Finally, 2 parents representing 40% observe their wards when they return from school

but 4 parents representing 80% do not observe that. This means that, parents in this

community do not really show interest in the personal hygiene of their wards.

Table 6: Analysis of Interview Results for Teachers during Pre-Intervention

Aspects of Questions Teachers who % Teachers who %

38
 responded yes responded No

1. Do you give pupils 0 0% 4 100%

education on personal

hygiene?

2. Do you inspect pupils’ 0 0% 4 100%

uniforms regularly?

3. Do you inspect pupils 0 0% 4 100%

nails and hair regularly?

4. Do you provide pupils 0 0% 4 100%

with soap for washing their

hands?

5. Is water provided at 0 0% 4 100%

school for pupils to wash

their hands?

6. Do you inspect pupils’ 0 0% 4 100%

teeth often?
Total Number of Teachers = 4

From the table above, the teachers do not give pupils education on personal hygiene.

This may be due to lack of time on the part of teachers or pupils since the students do

not come to school early and would like to leave early after closing. Their reason being

that, they will be going to the farm and some of them will be going to sell. Teachers do

not also inspect pupils uniform when they come to school, claiming that almost all the

parents of these pupils are poor and do not have enough finance to buy uniforms and

shoes for their wards so pupils are allowed to wear any attire to school and wear any

sandals as well including bathroom slippers. For nails and hair, they do not inspect them

39
regularly. The teachers said pupils do not come to school early to clean the compound

on time so that they will inspect that during the morning assembly before class, they

claim that, inspection of nails, hair, uniform and teeth will eat into the time for the first

lesson. Soap and water is not also provided at the school for pupils to use in washing

their hands.

From all the analysis above, it is seen clearly that the poor state of pupils’ personal

hygiene is as a result of lack of guidance from both parents and teachers. From the

observation and interview guides, it can be deduced that, financial constrains also

contribute to pupils’ inability to maintaining personal hygiene on the part of the pupils,

the reason for their inability to maintain personal hygiene is self-neglect.

The intervention used helped in discovering the circumstance leading to pupils’ inability

to maintain personal hygiene. For example, during the drama, the pupils saw for

themselves that, it is necessary to keep themselves as well as their surrounding clean in

order to prevent them from getting sick. After the intervention, it was necessary for

another observation as well as interview to be conducted again on pupils, parents and

teachers. The results for post-intervention are analysed below.

Table 7: Analysis of Observation Results for Pupils during Post-Intervention

40
 Aspects of Questions Pupils who Percentag Pupils who Percentage

Practice e do not

practice

1. Washing of hands after 10 100% 0 0%

using the latrine

2. Washing of hands after 10 100% 0 0%

collecting rubbish

3. Neat appearance in 8 80% 2 20%

school uniform

4. Clean shoes or footwear 8 80% 2 20%

5. Body odour 8 80% 2 20%

6. Cut fingernails 8 80% 2 20%

7. Trim hair 8 80% 2 20%

Total Number of Pupils = 10

It is clear from the table above that all the pupils do wash their hands after using the

latrine. During the post-intervention observation, it was seen that the pupils now wash

their hands after using the latrine. The pupils do not just wash their hands with only

ordinary water but they make sure that they use soap. Again, only 10 pupils

representing 100% wash their hands after collecting rubbish. 8 pupils representing 80%

appeared neat in uniform whiles 2 pupils representing 20% did not appear neat. This

shows clearly that, pupils have improved in their looks. Again, 8 pupils now wear clean

shoes while 2 representing 20% pupils only do not have clean shoes yet. Also, it is seen

that, after the intervention, only 2 pupils representing 20% had body odour but the

reaming 8 pupils making a percentage of 80 no longer have body odour. In terms of cut

nails, 8 pupils now cut their nails on regular basis whiles 2 pupils do not. Finally, 8

pupils representing 80% trim their hair whiles only 2 pupils presenting 20% do not.
41
From the analysis in the post-intervention observation, it is clear that, the intervention

used, really played a major part in the lifestyle of the pupils. They thereby started

practicing proper personal hygiene to prevent them for pulling sick.

Table 8: Analysis of Interview Results for Pupils during Post-Intervention

Aspects of Questions Pupils who Percentage Pupils who Percentage

responded responded

Yes/Twice No/once

1. How many times do you 9 90 1 10%

bath a day?

2. Do your parents provide 9 90 1 10%

you with soap for bathing?

3. Do you bath with sponge? 9 90 1 10%

4. Do you air your uniform

in the sun for a whiles after 8 80 2 20%

school?

5. Do you cut your nails 8 80% 2 20%

regularly?

6. Do you trim your hair 8 80% 2 20%

regularly?

7. How many times do you 9 90% 1 10%

wear your uniform before

washing?

Total Number of Pupils = 10

From the table above 9 pupils representing 90% bath twice a day whiles only 1 pupil

representing 10% bath only once. Also, 9 pupils representing 90% said their parents

provide them with soap for bathing whiles only 1 pupil presenting 10% said still their
42
parents do not provide them with soap for bathing. Furthermore, 9 pupils representing

90% said they now bath with sponge while as few as 1 pupil representing 10% said they

do not bath with sponge. Also, almost all the pupils now air their uniforms in the sun for

a whiles after school, that 8 pupils do that whiles only 2 of them do not do that. Out of

the 10 pupils 8 of them representing 80% now cut their nails as well as trim their hair

regularly while 2 pupils representing 20% do not do any yet. And finally, 9 pupils

representing 90% now wear their uniforms for 2 days before washing but 1 pupil

representing 10% wear theirs for a whole week.

From the above analysis, when pupils were interviewed during the post-intervention,

almost all expect a few now practice personal hygiene and from what is seen, they do

not just practice personal hygiene but they practice proper personal hygiene.

Table 9: Analysis of Interview Results for Parents during Post-Intervention

Aspects of Questions Parents Percentage Parents Percentage

who who

43
 responded responded

Yes/Twice No/once

1. How many times does your 4 80% 1 20%

ward bath a day?

2. Do you provide your ward 4 80% 1 20%

with soap for bathing?

3. Do you provide your ward 4 80% 1 20%

with toothpaste for brushing

their teeth?

4. Does your ward leave for 5 100% 0 0%

school before you go to work?

5. Do you check whether your 4 80% 1 20%

ward looks neat before going to

school?

6. Do you make sure your 4 80% 1 20%

ward wash their hands after

using the latrine?

7. Do you observe your ward 4 80% 1 20%

anytime they return from

school?
Total Number of Parents = 5

From the table above, it is clear that, after the intervention, almost all the parents now

take much interest in their wards personal hygiene at home and at school. It indicated

that, 80% of parents, ensure that their wards bath twice a day, same 80% provide soap

as well as toothpaste for their wards to use for bathing and brushing their teeth. From

the table, 100% of the parent makes sure that their wards leave home for school before

44
they also leave for their daily activities. 80% of the parents again check whether their

wards look neat before going to school. The same percentage ensures that the ward

wash the hands after using the latrine, they don’t just wash but they make sure they

wash with soap and clean water. Finally, 80% of the parents observe their wards to

ensure that they (pupils) look neat at school throughout the day till they come home.

They also ensure that pupils who look dirty when they return home are punished so that

it will not be repeated the next day.

From the analysis above, it is the satisfaction of the investigator that, parents are now

giving support to their wards in the maintenance of proper personal hygiene.

Table 10: Analysis of Results for Teachers during Post-Intervention.

Aspects of Questions Parents Percentag Parents Percentage

who e who

responded responded

Yes/Twice No/once

45
1. Do you give pupils 4 100% 0 0%

education on personal

hygiene?

2. Do you inspect pupils’ 4 100% 0 0%

uniforms regularly?

3. Do you inspect pupils 4 100% 0 0%

nails and hair regularly?

4. Do you provide pupils 4 100% 0 0%

with soap at school for

washing their hands?

5. Is water provided at 4 100% 0 0%

school for pupils to wash

their hands with?

6. Are pupils’ teeth 4 100% 0 0%

inspected often?
Total Number of Teachers = 3

It is seen from table 10 that, the teachers now perform all the activities hundred percent

after the intervention, the talk given to them on helping the pupils to maintain personal

hygiene. They now educate pupils on personal hygiene, inspect their nails, hair, uniform

and teeth on daily and weekly basis. They also provide water, soap and other necessary

things needed to maintain proper personal hygiene among school children. Teachers

now make sure that, pupils who come to school unkept are punished to weed after

which they go home dress neatly and return to school show themselves to the

headmistress before entering the class.

46
In other to encourage and motivate pupils to maintain personal hygiene, the teachers

implemented the neat pupils awards, within the days in the week, that is Monday to

Friday, pupils are closely watch by their class teacher as well as other teachers, after

every week, the three neatest pupils are given books, pens, and pencils for keeping

themselves neat throughout the week.

With all these measures put in place by both parents and teachers, it clearly indicates

that, there were much improvement in the level of personal hygiene among pupils both

at school and at home.

Conclusion

Respondents for the study were pupils, parents/guardians and teachers. Some parents

and teachers have had interaction with the research centre with a year up to over ten

years.

The respondents were also residents of the town in which the school is sited. Views

collected revealed that personal hygiene is not enforced at home. The parents/guardians

are poor and ignorant about basic practice of personal hygiene hence its adverse effects

on their wards. Books on personal hygiene are not readily available at the basic schools.

Moreover social health workers are not up to their task hence poor hygienic conditions.

Also pupils often fall sick due to the adverse effects of bad personal hygiene practices

on the parts of the pupils and as a result often absent themselves from school. The

results of the study revealed that the problem of personal hygiene existed and after a

series of intervention, pupils improve on their personal hygiene to some extent. The

result of the study revealed that the causes of poor hygiene in the school was mainly due

to non-availability of facilities to facilitate good practices of hygiene, financial

challenges, lack of education on the importance of good practices of hygiene in their

47
lives and lack of monitoring with bad hygiene practices. The teacher and parents agreed

that it was important for the pupils to practice good hygiene in order to prevent the cases

of diarrhoea and sickness which affect teaching and learning.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of the study, conclusion drawn from it,

recommendations made by the researcher and areas for further study.

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Summary

The study sought to develop appropriate measures to help minimize the problem of

pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene at Liati-Wote E.P. Primary School Basic

One class. It was the aim of the researcher to help pupils maintain personal hygiene. To

achieve this, the researcher formulated four research questions which guided her

throughout the study. A review of related literature was also done with the help of the

research questions.

Interview and observation were the research instruments the researcher used in

identifying the causes of pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene. These causes of

pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene were attributed to the pupils themselves,

the school or the teacher as well as the home. Based on the causes identified throughout

the use of instruments, the researcher organized talk for the pupils, teachers as well as

parents on pupils’ inability to maintain personal hygiene. These were followed by the

implementation of some classroom intervention measures. Results from the instruments

used for the study were tabulated and analyzed. The data were analyzed using tables,

percentages and mean. The strategies employed were very effective as they yielded the

required outcomes.

Conclusion

It is often said that all is well that ends well. After going through the research finding,

the researcher realized that most of the findings were supported by previous studies on

the subject. The study revealed that most pupils reported late to school for no apparent

reasons. This is in line with the findings of Agboatalla (2005), which states that,

49
personal hygiene pertains to hygiene practices performed by an individual to care for

one's bodily health and well-being, through cleanliness. Motivations for personal

hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness,

optimal health and sense of well-being.

Personal hygiene is achieved by using personal body hygiene products including: soap,

hair shampoo, toothbrushes, tooth paste, cotton swabs, antiperspirant, facial tissue,

mouthwash, nail files, skin cleansers, toilet paper, and other such products (Agboatalla,

2005).

Brush your hair three to four times a day with a soft bristled brush or a wide toothed

comb. Wash your brush and comb every time you wash your hair.

Soap and water are essential for keeping the skin clean. A good bath once or twice a day

is recommended, especially in tropical countries like Indian. Those who are involved in

active sports or work out to a sweat would do well to take a bath after the activity. A

mild soap will do the job adequately. Germicidal or antiseptic soaps are not essential for

the daily bath. The genitals and the anus need to be cleaned well because of the natural

secretions of these areas and not to be left in unhygienic conditions because it can result

to irritation and infection. The above places should be washed off well with water after

soaping. Brush teeth twice a day and rinse well after every meal. Brushing before going

to bed is important (especially recommended for people with a sweet tooth). For normal

teeth this is adequate.

Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water before and after every meal and after

visiting the toilet. Soaping and rinsing should cover the areas between fingers, nails and

back of the hand. Hands should be dried with a clean towel after wash.

Do not keep your nails painted continuously. It causes the keratin, of which nails are

made, to split. Pamper your hands and nails once every three weeks with a manicure.

50
This requires soaking your hands in warm water for ten minutes, massaging of hands,

thorough cleaning and shaping of nails. Choose your manicure kit with care. In some

kits, the instruments are crudely made and they will do more harm than good.

Recommendation

On the successful completion of the study, the researcher wishes to recommend among

other things the following to the rightful authorities.

1. Parents should be educated frequently through the Parent – Teacher Association

(P.T.A.) meetings, School Management Committee (SMC), the church, chiefs and

opinion leaders to help their wards to maintain personal hygiene.

2. The school should organize games related to personal hygiene frequently to serve as

a reminder to pupils so they can practice it.

Areas for Further Study

The researcher suggested that further studies should be conducted on the topic in all

Basic Schools in the country so as to identify other causes and strategies which were not

included in this study.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Interview guide for parents

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1. Do you leave the house for work or farm before your wards goes to school?

2. Do you provide your wards with soap to wash their dirty clothes?

3. Do you see to it that your wards bath regularly in the house?

4. What materials do your female wards use during menstruation?

5. How many times does your ward clean their teeth in a day?

Appendix B

Interview Guide for pupils

1. Do you clean your teeth twice everyday? If yes, with which material?

55
2. How often do you take your bath?

3. Do you use lime or deodorant to keep your armpit clean and free from odour?

4. Why must you keep yourself clean?

5. How often do you cut your hair down when bushy?

Appendix C

Interview Guide for Teachers

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1. Is the number of students who practice good personal hygienic in your class as

compared to others class encouraging?

2. How often do you carry out inspection on students’ personal cleanliness?

3. Do you invite health personnel or resource person to come and talk to pupils on

personal hygiene?

4. Do you use appropriate TLMs such as toothbrush, deodorant in teaching topics, like

personal hygiene in science?

57