Proceedings Hafpes 2021

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
PROCEEDINGS OF 1ST HANOI FORUM

ON PEDAGOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY PRESS, HA NOI

CONTENTS
PREFACE..................................................................................................................................................................9
Section 1
TEACHER TRAINING RENOVATION TO MEET
THE DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
◊ REALITY VERSUS POLICY OF TECHNOLOGY USED BY TEACHERS IN VIETNAM

Nguyen Quy Thanh, Tran Van Cong, Tran Xuan Quang, Nguyen Son Hai.................................................13
◊ ISSUES OF STUDENT PRIVACY WHEN BRINGING TECHNOLOGY INTO THE CLASSROOM
Tran Ngoc Tuan........................................................................................................................................27
◊ APPLICATION OF ANDRAGOGY IN SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Dang Thi Thanh Thuy, Tang Thi Thuy, Trinh Van Minh.............................................................................39
◊ TRAINING MANAGEMENT AT UNIVERSITIES IN THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION CONTEXT
Nguyen Vu Bich Hien, Nguyen Thi Kim Son, Dinh Thi Kim Thuong, Pham Tuan Anh................................50
◊ FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHERS’ ASSESSMENT COMPETENCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW
Ngo Ba Loi, Vu Trong Luong....................................................................................................................63
◊ ROLES OF INTERNATIONAL JOINT TRAINING IN VIETNAMESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
- CURRENT CHALLENGES IN TRAINING QUALITY CONTROL
Thuan Van Pham, Mai Thi Khuyen, Pham Huyen Thi Thu.........................................................................70
◊ DEVELOPING MATHEMATICAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TEACHING ALGEBRA
Luong Phuong Anh, Le Tuan Anh, Nguyen Thanh Hung...........................................................................81
4 PROCEEDINGS OF 1 ST HANOI FORUM ON PEDAGOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
◊ USING THE CULTURAL HERITAGES OF THE MEKONG DELTA REGION

IN TEACHING VIETNAMESE HISTORY AT THE HIGH SCHOOL OF CAN THO CITY
Nguyen Duc Toan.....................................................................................................................................96
◊ APPLYING READER - RESPONSE THEORY IN TEACHING LYRIC POETRY READING
IN HIGH SCHOOLS TO FULFILL THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE VIETNAMESE LITERATURE CURRICULUM (2018)
Nguyen Minh Nhat Nam, Chau Hue Mai, Tran Phat Dat, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy.....................................106
◊ THE CURRENT STATE OF HIGH SCHOOLS’ HOMEROOM IN HO CHI MINH CITY
IN THE CONTEXT OF GENERAL EDUCATION RENOVATION
Nguyen Thi Thuy Dung...........................................................................................................................122
◊ INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION IN TEACHING CHEMISTRY TO DEVELOP STUDENT’S
PROBLEM-SOLVING COMPETENCY
Vu Minh Trang, Nguyen Tung Lam, Nguyen Thi Phuong........................................................................133
◊ INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN ORGANIZATION OF COMPILATION AND SELECTION
OF GENERAL EDUCATION TEXTBOOKS
Nguyen Thi Hong Van, Nguyen Thi Hao..................................................................................................151
◊ INTEGRATING HANDS-ON DESIGN PROJECT IN PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN ORDER TO
ENHANCE STUDENT’S COMPETENCY OF ENGINEERING DESIGN: A CASE STUDY IN UNIVERSITY
OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION HCMC
Vo Xuan Tien..........................................................................................................................................165
◊ THE MODEL OF CONTEXTUALIZATION AND PERSONALIZATION IN LEARNING:
THE CASE OF VAR AND MOBILE LEARNING APPLICATION
Nguyen Tung Lam, Ton Quang Cuong, Nguyen Hoa Huy, Pham Thi Hai Yen..........................................175
◊ LECTURERS’ SATISFACTION WITH SHORT COURSES TO IMPROVE THEIR PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
Lai Vu Kieu Trang, Nguyen Thanh Tam..................................................................................................186
◊ THE USE OF SMARTPHONES DURING PHILOLOGY CLASS IN SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS
AND THE MATTER OF PHILOLOGY TEACHER TRAINING IN THE DIGITAL AGE IN VIETNAM
Pham Thi Thanh Phuong........................................................................................................................197
◊ MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION FOR PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS AT VNU
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
Vu Phuong Lien, Do Thuy Linh .............................................................................................................206
◊ DESIGNING AND USING EBOOK IN TEACHING 10th GRADE HISTORY TOPICS:
ISSUES AND APPLICATION
Doan Nguyet Linh, Tran Thi Hoai Thu ...................................................................................................217
CONTENTS 5
Section 2
EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
IN THE CONTEXT OF DIGITAL TRANFORMATION
◊ AUN-QA BASED CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT OF THE PRIMARY EDUCATION SECTOR

AT QUANG BINH UNIVERSITY
Vuong Kim Thanh ..................................................................................................................................229
◊ THE CORRELATION BETWWEEN THE CURRENT STATE OF TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION
AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SMART PEDAGOGIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Bui Thi Thuy Hang, Nguyen Hoai Nam...................................................................................................241
◊ TEACHER ASSESSMENT POLICIES AND REGULATIONS TOWARD LEARNERS - CENTER APPROACH:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN CANADA AND VIETNAM
Ngo Ba Loi, Duong Thi Anh....................................................................................................................254
◊ COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION: OPPORTUNITIES
AND CHALLENGES IN ERA 4.0
Bui Thi Kim Phuong, Nguyen Quy Thanh, Le Thai Hung.........................................................................264
◊ DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY
Le Van Hinh, Do Dinh Thai, Nguyen Van Y.............................................................................................275
◊ APPLIED ART DESIGNER TRAINING IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATIONAL
AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AT UNIVERSITIES IN HANOI
Nguyen Thanh Giang..............................................................................................................................285
◊ THE KEY FACTORS FOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES OF UNIVERSITY GRADUATES IN VIETNAM
Pham Duc Long, Nguyen Thuy Nga........................................................................................................294
◊ A NUMBER OF MEASURES FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
FOR EXPERIMENTAL PRIMARY SCHOOL IN THE CONTEXT OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
Tran Thi Kim Yen...................................................................................................................................305
◊ THE INFLUENCE OF PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS ON THE PERCEPTION OF TEACHER QUALITY
AMONG PUBLIC PRESCHOOL TEACHERS IN DONGDA DISTRICT, HANOI
Nguyen Thi Hien, Nguyen Thi Thanh......................................................................................................315
◊ SOME THEORETICAL ISSUES ON THE QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Nguyen Duc Huu, Nguyen Xuan Hai.......................................................................................................323
◊ EVALUATION OF SCHOOLS’ TEACHERS ON MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS
OF SCHOOLS’ PRINCIPALS IN HO CHI MINH CITY: APPROACH FROM GENDER PERSPECTIVES
Kieu Thi Thuy Trang, Nguyen Quy Thanh, Hoang Gia Trang...................................................................336
◊ CONTENT OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN VIEWPOINT OF AUTONOMY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
Nguyen Thi Hue .....................................................................................................................................343
◊ INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN FINANCIAL AUTONOMY AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND IMPLICATION FOR VIETNAM
Nguyen Thi Huong, Nguyen Thi Hue ......................................................................................................354
◊ THE EFFECT OF ACCREDITATION ON THE PERCEPTION OF LEADERS AND LECTURERS
ABOUT QUALITY TRAINING
Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc, Le Huy Tung, Pham Thi Thanh Hai ...................................................................362
◊ REINFORCING THE ADVISORY ROLE OF FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTS IN DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
AT UNIVERSITIES TODAY
Pham Duy Vu, Pham Minh Phong..........................................................................................................374
◊ COLLABORATION IN TRAINING BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND INDUSTRY TOWARDS MEETING THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE CURRENT LABOR MARKET
Pham Thi Thanh Hai, Nguyen Huu Nang................................................................................................382
◊ MANAGING UNIVERSITY BRANDS IN THE CONTEXT OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
AND GLOBAL INTEGRATION - A CASE STUDY ON PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN HANOI, VIETNAM
Hoang Thi Minh Hue, Nguyen Trung Kien .............................................................................................390
◊ DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY FOR LECTURERS IN THE FIELD
OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF RESEARCH-ORIENTED UNIVERSITIES
Pham Van Thuan, Nghiem Thi Thanh, Nguyen Thanh Xuan ..................................................................404
◊ AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
ON STUDENTS’ SATISFACTION TOWARDS ONLINE COURSES
Le Thi Hoang Ha, Nguyen Phuong Vy, Thanh Anh Minh.........................................................................414
Section 3
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES WITH THE RENOVATION
OF GENERAL EDUCATION
◊ TRAINING SOCIAL - EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE FOR PRESCHOOL

TEACHERS TO MEET INNOVATION REQUIREMENTS
Phan Thi Thuy Hang...............................................................................................................................427
◊ MONTESSORI APPROACH PRACTICUM IN EARLY CHILHOOD TEACHER EDUCATION:
A COLLABORATIVE AUTOETHNOGRAPHY
Nguyen Thi Phuong Nam, Mai Thi Cam Nhung, Tran Kiem Minh...........................................................437
CONTENTS 7
◊ VIETNAM’S CULTURAL VALUE SYSTEM IN DEVELOPING SCHOOL CULTURE

Tran Van Phong, Nguyen Thi Hoai Thanh...............................................................................................446
◊ TEACHERS’ TPACK COMPETENCY FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF GENERAL EDUCATION RENOVATION
Le Ngoc Hung, Nguyen Phuong Huyen, Nguyen Van Hong, Vu Thi Thuy Hang,
Nguyen Thanh Ly, Nguyen Thi Na..........................................................................................................456
◊ A STUDY ON TEACHING PRACTICES WITH THE ORIENTATION
OF DEVELOPING LEARNERS’ COMPETENCIES
Nguyen Van Hieu...................................................................................................................................474
◊ ENHANCED WELL-BEING OF SECOND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS THROUGH EXPERIENCE
IN SCHOOL ACTIVITIES
Nguyen Hong Thuan...............................................................................................................................486
◊ OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON TALENTED EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 4.0
Tran Thanh Nam, Lu Thi Mai Oanh, Pham Minh Tam.............................................................................493
◊ IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES AT
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL IN THE CURRENT INNOVATION EDUCATION IN OUR COUNTRY
Nguyen Duc Huu....................................................................................................................................503
◊ ASSESSMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING: A RESEARCH OVERVIEW
Tran Thanh Nam, Nguyen Phuong Hong Ngoc, Nguyen Thi Bich Lien, Tran Van Cong...........................512
◊ ESTABLISHING MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN’S MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS FOR
VIETNAMESE GRANDPARENTS - THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BASIS
Tran Thanh Nam, Tran Thi Hai Yen........................................................................................................522
◊ RESEARCH ON CONDITIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF SMART SCHOOL MODEL IN HANOI
Nguyen Trung Hien, Vu Minh Trang, Lai Phuong Lien, Bui Thi Thuy Hang.............................................537
◊ LITERATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE: APPROACH TO PROFESSIONAL
STANDARDS OF PRESCHOOL TEACHERS
Tran Thanh Nam, Nguyen Thieu Da Huong............................................................................................550
◊ THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF BLENDED LEARNING WITH MOODLE
ON THEIR GOAL SETTING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
Tang Thi Thuy, Nguyen Thi Thao Linh, Pham Tuan Anh.........................................................................563
◊ DIFFERENTIATED TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOL BASED ON DAVID A. KOLB’ S LEARNING STYLES
Ho Thu Quyen........................................................................................................................................575
◊ IMPROVED METHODS FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE
OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Nguyen Thu Huong, Le Thi Huong..........................................................................................................585
◊ CHANGES IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

Le Ngoc Hung, Trinh Van Minh, Mai Quang Huy....................................................................................594
◊ EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DIGITAL AGE: OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS
Pham Kim Chung...................................................................................................................................605
◊ PERCEPTIONS OF VIETNAMESE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ON THE INTEGRATION OF HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY IN GENERAL EDUCATION
Nguyen Phung Tam, Nguyen Ngoc Anh, Nguyen Van Ngo .....................................................................611
◊ VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION: THE CASE OF XU DOAI CULTURE TOPIC
Bui Thi Thanh Huong, Nguyen Thuy Linh, Nguyen Thi My Hanh, Dinh Thi Kim Thuong..........................624
◊ TEACHER MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
AND GENERAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS: THE CURRENT SITUATION AND SOLUTIONS
Trinh Thi Anh Hoa..................................................................................................................................633
PREFACE
The year of 2021 witnesses a global crisis due to pervasive perils that COVID-19 has brought
in many respects, including education. We are still facing the crisis, addressing issues posed by the
situation and drawing lessons for education. Adaptation and reform endeavours by education systems
have incrementally catalyzed the re-defining of research, teaching, and learning activities and the
reconceiving of quality and quality assurance in education. Simultaneously, new thinking in leadership
and management has contributed to tremendous changes in and reshaping of the education landscape.
In this context, the first Hanoi Forum on Pedagogical and Educational Sciences (HAFPES 2021)
has been jointly organized by the VNU University of Education and the Vietnam National Institute of
Educational Sciences. Hafpes 2021 aim to create an academic space for discussion, research and policy
consultation on approaches to adaptation in education and pedagogical. This forum focuses on three
topics: (1) Teacher training renovation to meet the development requirements of science and technology;
(2) Education and educational management in the context of digital transformation; (3) Educational
science with the renovation of general education. After the announcement, the forum organizing board
received and conducted peer-review for 88 papers, 57 papers were selected. The Scientific Council
and the Editorial Board were selected with professors, scientists who are prestigious and proficient in
the field of education. The peer-review process ensures impartiality, objectivity and seriousness. The
selected papers are qualified research to meet the HAFPES 2021 goals.
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who submitted, reviewed competitive papers,
session chairs, discussants, moderators, and attendees. Special thanks go to the distinguished members
of the Scientific Committee whose contributions are invaluable to the profile and quality of the forum.
FORUM ORGANIZING BOARD

SECTION 1
TEACHER TRAINING RENOVATION TO MEET

THE DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
REALITY VERSUS POLICY OF TECHNOLOGY
USED BY TEACHERS IN VIETNAM
Nguyen Quy Thanh, Tran Van Cong, Tran Xuan Quang

(VNU University of Education)
Nguyen Son Hai
(Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam)
Abstract: Although several policy documents on technology use in education were issued in Vietnam, the
current situation of this matter is unclear due to lack of study in the field. This research aims to answer the
question: Does the reality of technology used in education meet the policies? An extensive survey was completed
by 1220 pre and in-service teachers from 14 provinces and cities in Vietnam. Information on the frequency, ability,
and effectiveness of using technology activities were collected. Results showed that most teachers met the basic
standards differed by region, age, gender, and between teachers and trainees. Some results differed from previous
studies and other regions/countries. Recommendations for improving technology use in education in Vietnam were
thus proposed.
Keywords: technology use, teacher, policy, reality, Vietnam.
1. INTRODUCTION
Information and communication technology (ICT) has been used in education worldwide for
decades because of its unique benefits. Over the years, ICT also changes and improves itself to adapt to
the fullest extent in the fields it is being applied. This situation has required individuals and organizations
to improve their qualifications and capacity to appropriately and thoroughly take advantage of ICT’s
valuable features. For many reasons, educators must enhance and renew their ability to partner with ICT.
According to Mahini, Forushan, and Haghani (2012), technology as a tool develops thinking skills and
supports inclusive education. It also helps learners become involved in complex issues, develop their
approach to group problem-solving, and take individual accountability for advancing their learning.
Other advantages of technology in education are that it: (1) accelerates and develops the exchange
of information; (2) supports active learning and various learning strategies; (3) enhances learning
and interaction between learners, teachers, and programs; (4) develops the attention and motivation
of learners; (5) improves and promotes information literacy skills; and (6) promotes learner-centered
education. In general, with current activities and practices in education, it can be said that the ICT’s
development in education impacts the whole learning and teaching activities (Henderson, 2020).
The essential activity of education is a teaching-learning process, in which learning mention to

a change that involves developing a new skill, understanding scientific law, changing attitude, and
teaching is a set of events outside the learners which are designed to support the internal process of
learning (Sequeira, 2012). This process can only occur continuously and sustainably when intermediary
participation of teaching tools, including ICT. Previous studies have reported on the status of technology
usage in the teaching and learning process of in-service and pre-service teachers, who use technology for
many purposes: administration, technology education, non-educational tasks, instruction preparation,
teacher-directed instruction delivery, student homework, and instruction assessment (Kurt, 2013). The
effectiveness of using ICT in the teaching-learning process was reported. Technology can help teachers,
students, and administrators to improve the quality and relevance of the teaching-learning process
(Keswani, Banerjee, & Patni, 2008). The findings of research in Malaysia, both teachers and students,
reported that ICT use provides the chances for students to be active and undertake more parts and
roles for their best learning experience; allow students to be more creative and imaginative; and their
ability to express the ideas and thoughts better (Ghavifekr and Rosdy, 2015). Compared to traditional
teaching, research shows that technology in learning has a more significant positive impact on learners’
motivation and learning outcomes than conventional teaching (Lin et al., 2017; McConatha, Praul, &
Lynch, 2008). According to Raja and Nagasubramani (2018), technology has revolutionized the field of
education. With the advent of computers in education, it has become much easier for teachers to impart
knowledge and for students to acquire it. The use of technology has also made the process of teaching
and learning all the more enjoyable, for example, in teaching English, the English core skills could best
be taught by using audio and video tools, the English classes could undoubtedly be more exciting and
attractive with flexibility in using ICT (Dash and Kuddus, 2020).
Besides studies examining the effectiveness of ICT in education, the difficulties and barriers of
this impact are also reported. When was interviewed of barriers that hinder technology integration,
the teachers in the United Arab Emirates indicated the lack of training on how to integrate technology
effectively, mostly self-learned; another barrier is the negative attitude of parents and teachers toward
the importance and benefits of technology for learning and teaching (Almekhlafi and Almeqdadi, 2010).
While, the lack of funding, internet access, and a large number of students in the class were among
the significant perceived barriers to the use of computers in high schools in Greece (Nikolopoulou and
Gialamas, 2016). In Sierra Leone, a country in West Africa, the barriers include a lack of access to
electricity, limited numbers of qualified teaching staff (Samarakoon, Christiansen, and Munro, 2017).
Three common obstacles in using ICT in English teaching are teachers’ confidence in using technology,
inadequate training, and time (Hashemi, 2021). The students in Palestine indicated that they usually
faced challenges: lesson duration, access to modern devices, and problems with information research
skills (Qaddumi & Qashmar, 2021).
In reality, the finding in Malaysia showed that the primary teacher used more ICT in the teacher’s
room for their work than in their classroom for teaching and learning (Ghavifekr et al., 2014). The data
collected by the US Department of Education and the National Center for Education Statistics regarding
technology preparation by teacher education programs in the United States were mapped and analyzed.
Undergraduate programs were found to prepare teachers to a “major extent” to use technology on average
9.48% of the time, graduate programs 16.37%, professional development activities 23.04%, training
programs 25.35%, and independent learning 46.31%. These findings suggest improved technology
preparation is needed for pre-service teachers (Riegel & Tong, 2017). In Botswana, exploring the use of
technology by pre-service teachers during teaching practice, Batane and Ngwako (2017) confirmed that
section 1: teacher training renovation to meet the development... 15
most pre-service teachers did not use technology to deliver their lessons, even though the researchers
reported high competency levels in the use of technology resources. In Vietnam, studies have been
conducted to examine this situation. In recent years, e-learning has become an emergent learning method
that several institutions in Vietnam have deployed (Tran & Nguyen, 2017). According to Nguyen (2016,
42), in an extensive survey at a major language university with more than 1,500 English teachers in 14
provinces and cities, results showed that the majority of teachers had a positive attitude to the application
of ICT in teaching, with 75% of the teachers and lecturers saying they were interested in applying ICT
in education. The majority of teachers believed the Internet to be the representative source for ICT
applications. These teachers were also confused about which technologies are helpful for teaching. The
introduction of ICT applications in high school education has been underway since the 1990s, and many
programs and projects have been applied to promote ICT implementation in teaching. However, many
localities and individuals still do not understand ICT applications in teaching and learning. Applications
mainly stop at the pilot stage and are not scaled up to become essential tools that every teacher
needs to use. Research findings on 616 senior high school teachers in Indonesia showed that more
than half of participants never or rarely use ICT in learning activities. Common ICT includes slides/
PowerPoint presentations, computers, and the internet (Mahdum et al. 2019). In 2020, the art teachers
in the southern state reported the little use of technology to support students with special needs and had
limited technology experiences in their training (Strycker, 2020). In Florida, the finding indicated that
the confidence and comfort of teachers have a substantial indirect impact on using instructional software
through technology skills. If teachers suppose they have skills in using particular software, they will use
it more in the class (Dogan, et al., 2021).
As a Low and Middle-Income Country (LMIC), Vietnam considers education a significant
investment in national development (i.e. Hien, 2018). Thus multiple measures were taken to improve
learning and teaching quality, including policies for promoting technology use. Related policies are
adopted and promulgated by the government, the Ministry of Education and Training, and the Ministry
of Information and Communications. Policies and regulations on information technology in education
and training have been issued since 2007. In the years 2007-2018, according to statistics from the
Ministry of Information and Communications, 61 documents related to information technology in
education and training were issued. Figure in Appendix 1 describes the primary documents that specify
the requirements for applying information technology in school management, teaching, and learning.
The content required for the application of information technology by teachers has been concretized
and provided in documents for some time. According to the General Plan for Information Technology
and Human Resource Development to 2015 and Orientation to 2020, one of Vietnam’s development
objectives by 2015 was that 65% of teachers should apply IT1 to support their teaching. In 2018, the
requirements became more specific. For example, in the Guidance on implementing an IT application
model in high schools (2018), the deployment model offered basic and advanced levels. As stipulated
in Circular No. 03/20 14ITT-BTTTT (2014) of the Ministry of Information and Communications, at the
primary level (required), at least 80% of teachers should be proficient in using IT software and tools
to support classroom teaching, at least 15% of lessons should use IT applications, and at least 70% of
teachers and school staff should possess basic IT skills. According to the Guidance on implementing
IT tasks in 2018-2019, 500 teachers were required to contribute one quality e-learning course to the
e-learning curriculum repository. Moreover, an important milestone was the Ministry of Education and
1 Information Technology
Training professional standard for general education teachers. The application of information technology
and the use of technology equipment in teaching are criteria. The policy documents and development
timelines are presented in Appendix 2 and Appendix 3.
In summary, according to the current policy documents, 100% of in-service teachers should use
basic IT tools in their work, including essential Microsoft Office software, lesson design, communication,
smart devices, search tools, email, and messaging software.
In reviewing the policy documents on technology use in education in Vietnam, it is essential to
learn how, in reality, technology is used by teachers. Hence, this study aims to answer the following
questions: (1) What is the difference between the current technology use by teachers in Vietnam and the
policies? (2) What are the factors related to the use of technology by teachers in Vietnam? (3) What
is the difference between an in-service and pre-service teacher in terms of ICT use? Since Vietnam is
LMIC, the research results can be generalized for other countries with the same economic situation. The
answers to these three questions may provide a valuable contribution to the literature in the field and a
scientific basis for policymakers in education worldwide.
2. METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants comprised 1,220 pre-service or in-service teachers and administrators working at
educational institutions. Participants were selected by a convenient sampling method in 14 provinces
with 104 institutions, of which 15 were universities, one was an ethnic minority high school, three were
multi-level schools63 were high schools, and 22 were middle schools, and.
Pre-service teachers are university students in pedagogical majors such as mathematics, literature,
physics, chemistry, and history, from the first to the last year of their training. In each of the 15
universities, five students were randomly selected for each year and each major. In-service teachers
are those currently teaching at high schools. In addition, some education leaders and school principals
answered the survey.
Around two-thirds (72.79%) of the participants were female. Participant average age was 25.13
with SD1 = 8.56; teaching experience ranged from 0 to 36 years; 58.5% of participants had not received
any technical training in the previous five years. All participants live in urban areas and large cities
like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh (44.4%). While all pre-service teachers are from big cities since they are
students attending universities in those areas, some in-service teachers live in smaller cities or towns
(8.7%). Participant characteristics are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Characteristics of participants (N = 1220)
Variables Number Total %

In-service teacher Pre-service teacher
Professional positions 433 787 1,220 100
Gender
- Male 125 207 332 27.21
- Female 308 580 888 72.79
1 Standard Deviation
Qualifications
- Master’s degree or higher 113 0 113 9.26
- Bachelor’s degree/university education 315 747 1,062 87.04
- College degree or lower 5 40 45 3.68

School type
- Public school 368 783 1151 93.34
- Private school 65 4 69 5.66
Age 34.74 19.75
(SD = 0.362) (SD = 0.052)
Working tenure/school years 11.21 2.41
(SD = 0.331 ) (SD = 0.019)
Mean teaching hours for the school year 408.82
2017-2018 (SD = 17.64)
Mean of IT courses trained in the last 5 years 1.55 0.37

(SD = 0.096) (SD = 0.027)
Locations
- Big cities 192 350 542 44.40
- Mid-sized cities 135 437 572 46.90
- Small towns 106 0 106 8.70
Measurement
The research team developed a questionnaire covering aspects of technology use. Since the current
study is part of a sizeable state-level project, the questionnaire was reviewed multiple times by experts
in seminars and tested on five potential participants to ensure validity and reliability.
The questionnaire contained demographic questions include school type, current position, age,
years of teaching experience, gender, highest educational degree, and the number of training events
received. There were then 11 questions about technical skills. Participants were asked to read each item
and answer three related aspects: (1) using skills (1 = Don’t know; 2 = Yes, but haven’t used; 3 = Yes,
use sometimes; 4 = Frequently use); (2) Rate themselves for ease of use with a rating scale of 1 to 10;
and (3) Self-assessment of the benefits these skills bring to their work. These skills include activities
that use technology commonly in education such as personal smart devices; Microsoft Office software;
presenting; graphics; email applications; IM and chat; discussion forum and webchat; receiving ideas
and feedback; Facebook; search and research tools; forming summary tables, and online statistics.
Research procedure
A paper-pencil survey was distributed to 1,220 participants in six major cities, covering Vietnam’s
major social and economic areas, including Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen, Hue, and
Can Tho. The research team contacted the Department of Education in each province. These departments
then contacted schools in their management area, asking them to answer the paper survey and return the
completed papers to the research team.
Data analysis strategies

Data were analyzed using SPSS. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed. Logistic
and linear regression strategies explored the effects of demographic variables and levels of ICT use.
Independent variables were demographic and other socioeconomic status information. Dependent
variables were levels of ICT use and coverage extent of ICT usage.
3. RESULTS
The following figures show the standards achieved by each research group in using tools.
Note: IU01=personal smart devices; IU02=Microsoft Office software; IU3.1=presenting; IU3.2=graphics; IU4.1
=email applications; IU4.2=IM and chat; IU4.3=discussion forum and webchat; IU4.4=receiving ideas and feed-
back; IU4.5=Facebook; IU4.6=search and research tools; IU4.7=forming summary tables, online statistics.
Figure 3. Level of IT tool usage by in-service and pre-service teacher groups
As can be seen in Figure 3, both teacher groups have the lowest frequency of use in “forming
summary tables and online statistic,” “graphics,” “receiving ideas and feedback,” and “discussion
forum and webchat.” In contrast, almost every teacher in both teacher groups uses “personal smart
devices” and Facebook for education. While activities such as creating summarize tables, graphic
design provide diverse information channels, helping students absorb knowledge better and feel more
attractive, discussion, receiving, and feedback activities help increase the interaction between teachers
and learners, all of which are used by very few teachers in the educational process. Meanwhile, Facebook
and personal mobile devices are often informal and highly personal, were used more. Even so, although
pre-school teachers and in-service teachers are close to the required level of use of ICT tools, it may not
be enough for the term “proactive”.
Pre-service teachers
In-service teachers have significantly higher rates of using “Office software” and “Presenting” than
pre-service teachers because they must use these tools in their daily teaching jobs.
Table 3. Logistic regression models assessing influence levels of predictor variables

on the frequency of using IT tools
Predictors IU01 IU02 IU3.1 IU3.2 IU4.1 IU4.2 IU4.3 IU4.4 IU4.5 IU4.6 IU4.7
Overall model
51.4* 62.4* 54.2* 29.6* 22.1* 18.1* 98.7* 106.7* 15.8* 49.8* 48.1*
- Chi-squared
Professional position 1.44 1.45 1.21 .68 .84 .42 .99 .52 .66 1.34 .14
Gender .39 .45 -.37 .02 .28 .01 .40 .03 -.30 .45 -.03
Qualifications .09 -.20 .17 .02 .41 .18 .24 .34 .91 .30 .11
School type 1.38 -.14 .59 .97 -.63 -.98 1.97 1.32 .36 -17.3 -1.21
Locations -1.04 -.19 -.38 -.26 .09 .19 -.76 -.77 -.56 -.90 -.25
Working tenure .04 -.01 -.01 -.03 -.06 -.04 -.02 -.01 -.02 -.03 .00
IT courses participated .21 .30 .34 .04 .03 .03 .13 .07 .07 .22 .05

From Table 3 above, it can be seen that all logistic regression models are statistically significant,
in which professional position (pre-service group versus in-service group), (academic) qualifications,
and the number of “IT courses trained in the last 5 years” have a positive effect on the level of use of
ICT tools. Moreover, the further the geographical location of the schools was, the lower the level of
technology use was among teachers.
Circular 03 included the following tools: Microsoft Office software; presenting tools; graphics
tools; email applications; applications for messaging and chatting; discussion forums; search tools;
personal smart devices; online statistics tools; tools for receiving ideas and feedback; online courses;
Facebook; Zalo; and online learning materials. The regression results of all tools used per Circular 03 of
each group and the whole sample are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of differences in the mean of ICT tools used with Multiple Regression analyses
Predictor variables t p Coef. F Df P adj.R2
Overall model 9.65 7, 1212 .00 .05

Const. 19.66 .00
Professional position 3.22 .00 .76
Gender .76 .44 .12

Qualifications -1.39 .16 -.29
School type 1.60 .10 .52
Location -6.36 .00 -.57
Working tenure -1.11 .26 .13
IT courses trained 2.48 .01 .07
Note: Dependent variables: The total of ICT tools chosen under Circular 03/2014/BTTTT
The regression models reveal that working tenure, province, and number of IT courses taken in the
last five years statistically impacted the number of IT tools used. The standardized regression coefficients
show that location has the most substantial effect on teachers’ number of IT tools. Teachers from lower-
level urban areas (such as small towns) use fewer IT tools. Next, professional position positively impacts
the use of tools, which implies that the teacher group needs to use more IT tools than the student groups.
Table 5. Standardized coefficients of predictor variables when the total of ICT tools chosen under Circular 03/2014/BTTTT
is the dependent variable for each group: In-service teacher versus pre-service teacher
Predictors In-service teacher group Pre-service teacher group
F-test 3.13* 14.94**

Male .00 .03
Qualifications -.06 -.05
School type .04 .04
Location -.17 -.27
Working tenure -.06 -.00
IT courses attended .02 .20
Note: * p-value <.05; ** p-value <.01

From Table 5, it can be seen that, for both groups (pre-service and in-service), the school’s
location is the most important predictor of the total number of ICT tools used. The number of IT courses
attended has the most substantial influence on the total number of ICT tools for pre-service teachers.
Gender has the lowest effect on the total number of ICT tools in both groups.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This study was carried out to determine the current status of teachers’ use of information technology
in Vietnam, compare this situation with previously proposed policies, explore factors related to their
use of technology, and examine the differences between pre and in-service teachers in their use of
information technology. Firstly, the result showed that although ICT is crucial in the development of
education in Vietnam and regarding current policies: the essential requirement is that at least 80% of in-
service teachers must use software and technological tools in teaching, there was no IT tool usage was
reported at 100% for in-service teachers. Four tools were used by less than 80% of teachers, including:
(1) discussion forum and webchat; (2) receiving ideas and feedback; (3) graphics; (4) forming summary
tables, online statistics. Thus, rates of technology use are generally lower than policy requirements.
These tools are mainly new and complicated to use, especially with teachers from lower-level urban
areas (such as small towns) due to limitations in exposing technology in work and daily living activities.
Meanwhile, teachers from schools in urban areas, such as big cities, are more exposed to technology
and use more technology in their daily lives and work. These findings differed from previous research
results, such as research on school teachers in a Mid-Atlantic state in 2018. This research found that
the urban school teachers trailed rural and suburban teachers in usage and perception (Kormos, 2018).
In 2020, the 3-year time-series survey study in K-12 public schools (North Midwestern US state) also
indicated that teachers of smaller school districts had higher access to technology tools (Francom,
2020). In 2021, quantitative analysis of more than 400 teachers in rural, urban and suburban schools
showed that urban teachers were less likely to view technology as a collaboration tool than their rural
and suburban teachers (Kormos et al., 2021). Therefore, a research question about the cultural influences
on technology use in education can be raised, suggesting future studies with deeper statistics and more
control over other variables.
Secondly, this study also showed that technology use in education was related to teachers’
professional positions, school location, age, and gender. Regarding gender differences in IT tool usage,
interestingly, some studies have found no difference between males and females (e.g., Snell & Snell-
Siddle, 2013, 274; Wong & Hanafi, 2007, 158; Aslan & Zhu, 2017, 16). The differences found in the
current study may be due to a belief that men are better at technology and that women do not need to
know much about technology (e.g., Varma, 2002, 279). Teacher age is also a problem in the acceptance
and use of technology in teaching. According to Aypay et al. (2012), technology acceptance is related to
age (Aypay, Celik, Aypay, and Sever, 2012, 264-272). Also, according to Sánchez-Mena, Martí-Parreño
& Aldás-Manzano (2017), age moderates the effect of teachers’ perceived ease of use on the perceived
usefulness of educational video games. Younger teachers have better IT skills than older teachers
(Alazam et al., 2012, 74), and older teachers are less confident in using computers (Yaghi, 2001, 139).
In this study, higher age (higher seniority) is associated with a lower level of using some tools, such
as graphics, IM chat, and email applications. These research results confirm the results of other studies
across the world.
Thirdly, compared to the in-service teacher, technology usage among pre-service teachers is lower
for all tools. Results from the current study reconfirmed some common findings from studies in other
countries. In-service teachers need to use IT tools more frequently because of their work requirements,
while pre-service teachers are in the process of equipping themselves with these skills. This finding was
the same as a study in Ningxia, China, on 567 pre and in-service teachers, indicated that the in-service
teachers in the seven areas of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) scored higher
than pre-service teachers (Ma et al., 2020). However, this was also a limitation of this study.
The current study contains limitations that should be addressed for future studies. Firstly, the
questionnaire was not adapted from existing measures, which may lower its measurement of reliability and
validity. Secondly, only a self-report of technology usage was used, leading to some “social desirability”
among teachers. Participants may also answer in a particular way to make themselves look better, which
may incorrectly elevate the rate of IT tool usage. Therefore, the findings of this study highlight that there is
a need to carry out further studies to explore technology use and related factors in Vietnam.
Finally, the study’s results may lead to some suggestions in improving the level and quality of
technology use in education in Vietnam and other LMICs. Policymakers and education leaders are
encouraged to consider providing more IT training courses focusing on training for teachers who live in
rural areas. Teachers of all ages, especially older teachers, irrespective of gender and social positions,
should be encouraged to engage in continuous learning and contemporaneous updating and provide new
IT tools that can help innovate the country’s education.
REFERENCES
1. Alazam, A. O., Bakar, A. R., Hamzah, R., & Asmiran, S. (2012). Teachers’ ICT skills and ICT
integration in the classroom: the case of vocational and technical teachers in Malaysia. Creative
Education, 3, 70-76.
2. Almekhlafi, A. G., & Almeqdadi, F. A. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions of technology integration

in the United Arab Emirates school classrooms. J. Educ. Technol. Soc., 13(1), 165-175.
3. Aslan, A., & Zhu, C. (2017). Investigating variables predicting Turkish preservice teachers’
integration of ICT into teaching practices. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2),
552-570.
4. Aypay, A., Celik, H. C., Aypay, A., & Sever, M. (2012). Technology Acceptance in Education:
A Study of Pre-Service Teachers in Turkey. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-
TOJET, 11(4), 264-272.
5. Batane, T., & Ngwako, A. (2017). Technology use by pre-service teachers during teaching
practice: Are new teachers embracing technology right away in their first teaching
experience?. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1).
6. Dash, A., & Kuddus, K. (2020). Leveraging the benefits of ICT usage in teaching of english
language and literature. In Smart Intelligent Computing and Applications (pp. 225-232).
Springer, Singapore.
7. Dogan, S., Dogan, N. A., & Celik, I. (2021). Teachers’ skills to integrate technology in
education: Two path models explaining instructional and application software use. Education
and Information Technologies, 26(1), 1311-1332.
8. Francom, G. M. (2020). Barriers to technology integration: A time-series survey study. Journal
of Research on Technology in Education, 52(1), 1-16.
9. Ghavifekr, S. & Rosdy, W.A.W. (2015). Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of
ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in Education and Science (IJRES),
1(2), 175-191.
10. Ghavifekr, S., Razak, A. Z. A., Ghani, M. F. A., Ran, N. Y., Meixi, Y., & Tengyue, Z. (2014). ICT
integration in education: Incorporation for teaching & learning improvement. Malaysian Online
Journal of Educational Technology, 2(2), 24-45.
11. Hashemi, A. (2021). The barriers to the use of ICT in English language teaching: A systematic
literature review. Bilgi ve İletişim Teknolojileri Dergisi, 3(1), 77-88.
12. Henderson, D. (2020). Benefits of ICT in Education. IDOSR Journal of Arts and Management.
pp. 1, 5.
13. Hien, P. V. (2018). Public Investment in Education and Training in Vietnam. International
Education Studies, 11(7), 106-115.
14. Keswani, B., Banerjee, C., & Patni, P. (2008). Role of Technology in Education: A 21 st Century
Approach. J. Commer. Inf. Technol, 8, 53-59.
15. Kormos, E. M. (2018). The unseen digital divide: Urban, suburban, and rural teacher use and
perceptions of web-based classroom technologies. Computers in the Schools, 35(1), 19-31.
16. Kormos, E., & Wisdom, K. (2021, March). Teacher Education and the Digital divide: A
Quantitative Study of Teaching Strategies and Technology to Foster Learning. In Society for
Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 1246-1251).
Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
17. Kurt, S. (2013). Examining teachers’ use of computer-based technologies: A case study. Education
and information technologies, 18(4), 557-570.
18. Lin, F., Fofanah, S. S., & Liang, D. (2011). Assessing citizen adoption of e-Government
initiatives in Gambia: A validation of the technology acceptance model in information systems
success. Government Information Quarterly, 28(2), 271-279.
19. Ma, W., & Baek, J. (2020). The Technology-Pedagogy, and Content Knowledge differences
between pre-service and in-service teachers and the related effects of gender interaction in
China. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 11(11), 353-359.
20. Mahini, F., Forushan, Z. J. A., & Haghani, F. (2012). The importance of teacher’s role in
technology-based education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 1614-1618.
21. McConatha, D., Praul, M., & Lynch, M. J. (2008). Mobile learning in higher education: An
empirical assessment of a new educational tool. Turkish Online Journal of Educational
Technology-TOJET, 7(3), 15-21.
22. Ministry of Education and Training (2009), General plan for IT human resource development to
2015 and orientation to 2020, No 698/QĐ-TTg.
23. Ministry of Education and Training (2018), Guidance on implementing IT application model in
high school, No 5807/BGDĐT-CNTT.
24. Ministry of Education and Training (2018), Guidance on implementing of IT tasks in the school
year 2018-2019, No 4095/BGDĐT-CNTT.
25. Ministry of Education and Training (2018), Professional standards for general education
teachers, No 20/2018/TT-BGDĐT.
26. Ministry of Information and Communications (2014), Standard Skill Rules Using Information
Technology, Circular 03/2014/TT-BTTTT.
27. Nikolopoulou, K., & Gialamas, V. (2016). Barriers to ICT use in high schools: Greek teachers’
perceptions. Journal of Computers in Education, 3(1), 59-75.
28. Qaddumi, H., Bartram, B., & Qashmar, A. L. (2021). Evaluating the impact of ICT on teaching and
learning: A study of Palestinian students’ and teachers’ perceptions. Education and Information
Technologies, 26(2), 1865-1876.
29. Raja, R., & Nagasubramani, P. C. (2018). Impact of modern technology in education. Journal of
Applied and Advanced Research, 3(1), 33-35.
30. Riegel, C., & Tong, Y. (2017). Educational Technology and Teacher Education Programs: A
Geographic Information Systems Study. Teacher Education and Practice, 30(4), 662-684.
31. Samarakoon, S., Christiansen, A., & Munro, P. G. (2017). Equitable and quality education for all
of Africa? The challenges of using ICT in education. Perspectives on Global Development and
Technology, 16(6), 645-665.
32. Sánchez-Mena, A., Martí-Parreño, J., & Aldás-Manzano, J. (2017). The Effect of Age on
Teachers’ Intention to Use Educational Video Games: A TAM Approach. Electronic Journal of
e-Learning, 15(4), 355-366.
33. Sequeira, A. H. (2012). Introduction to concepts of teaching and learning. Available at SSRN 2150166.
34. Snell, S., & Snell-Siddle, C. (2013). Mobile learning: The effects of gender and age on perceptions
of the use of mobile tools. In The second international conference on informatics engineering &
information science, 274-281.
35. Strycker, J. (2020). K-12 art teacher technology use and preparation. Heliyon, 6(7), e04358.
36. Tran D. T. & Nguyen N. T., (2017). E-learning models supporting teaching and learning. Journal
of Science, Can Tho University, 103-111.
37. U.S Department of Education (2004), Toward a new golden age in American education, National
Education Technology Plan, 41-42.
38. Varma, R. (2002). Women in information technology: A case study of undergraduate students in
a minority-serving institution. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 22(4), 274-282.
39. Wong, S. L., & Hanafi, A. (2007). Gender differences in attitudes towards information technology
among Malaysian student teachers: A case study at Universiti Putra Malaysia. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 10(2), 158-169.
40. Yaghi, H. M. (2001). Subject matter as a factor in educational computing by teachers in
international settings. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 24(2), 139-154.
APPENDIX
Appendix 1. IT skills standards for users
Note:
IU01: have a basic understanding of computers, and computer networks, software, commercial
programming, and open-source software, knowledge about some public applications and applications
of sectors, areas such as understanding about online learning; knowledge about different Internet
services for users
IU02: have a basic knowledge to work effectively with computers
IU03: skills of using office tools for teaching, learning and managing, such as MS Word, MS Excel,
MS PowerPoint
IU04: skills of using applications for email; applications for messaging; applications for online
discussion forums; applications for exchanging information and connecting communication; personal
smart devices; digitized agenda tool; search and research tools; tools for creating tables and online
statistics; online database and learning materials
Appendix 2. Policy milestones
Appendix 3. Specific requirements related to policies for technology use by teachers
Document
Date Document title Specific requirements
code
5807/BG- 12/21/2018 Guidance on

methods of teaching, learning, testing, and evaluation. The
DĐT-CNTT implementing IT
deployment model offers two levels: basic and advanced
application model in
high schools - Basic level (required)
+ At least 80% of teachers are proficient in using IT

software and tools to support classroom teaching
+ At least 15% of lessons use IT applications

+ At least 70% of teachers and school staff have basic IT

skills, as stipulated in Circular No. 03/20 14ITT-BTTTT
dated March 11, 2014, of the Ministry of Information and
Communications
Advanced level
+ At least 50% of qualified teachers design e-learning lessons
+ At least 30% of lessons use IT applications
+ 100% of teachers and school staff have basic IT

skills, as stipulated in Circular No. 03/2014ITT-BTTTT
dated March 11, 2014, of the Ministry of Information and
Communications
4095/BG- 10/09/2018 Guidance on
DĐT-CNTT implementing IT At least 500 teachers will contribute one quality e-learning
tasks in the school course to the e-learning curriculum repository
year 2018-2019
20/2018/ 22/08/2018 Professional Criterion 15: Application of information technology,

TT-BGDDT standards for exploitation and use of technological equipment in
general education teaching and education
teachers (for career
a) Basic level: Using basic application software,
development)
technological equipment in teaching, education, and student
management as prescribed; completing training courses,
retraining, exploitation and application of information
technology and technological equipment in teaching and
education according to regulations
b) Fair level: Applying information technology and digital

learning materials in teaching and education activities;
update and effectively use the software; exploit and use
technological equipment in teaching and education activities
c) Good level: Guide and support colleagues to improve

information technology application competence;
exploitation and use of technological equipment in
teaching and educational activities
698/QĐ-TTG 01/06/2009 A general plan

for information
technology Development objectives till 2015
human resource
development to
65% of teachers can apply IT to support teaching
2015 and orientation
to 2020
ISSUES OF STUDENT PRIVACY
WHEN BRINGING TECHNOLOGY INTO THE CLASSROOM
Tran Ngoc Tuan

(Department of Law, Sai Gon University)
Abstract: The achievements of industrial revolution 4.0 have brought great applications in the educational
environment, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. All educational activities have rapidly transformed
from face-to-face teaching to an online teaching model with applications and software to support teaching
activities. Educational application stores and websites are valuable tools to support educational activities in all
circumstances effectively. In addition, teachers easily find the right combination of tools that engage and inspire
their students in the right ways; with so many options to choose from, it is possible to keep teaching materials
fresh. However, not all technological products brought into the classroom are created equal. Many websites are
not intended for student use and result in adverse reactions that may not meet the requirements of privacy laws
and the community’s expectations of how information should be communicated. Students’ personal information
will not be protected that seriously affecting the individual students, their lives, and typical development - an
issue that we inadvertently ignore the rights of this group of subjects.Through an overview of the legal regulations
and privacy theory, the author analyzes and evaluates the current situation of using information technology and
technical systems in teaching, especially activities to protect students’ information and personal data. Besides, the
article uses a combination of practical research on online teaching in Vietnam in the current period and analyzes
the model of privacy protection about students’ data effectively. On that basis, the author proposes solutions to
protect the rights of this target group.
Keywords: data, privacy, students, technology.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recognizing citizens’ privacy rights in general, The Constitution of The Socialist Republic of
Vietnam stipulates in Articles 14 and 21 as follows:
1. In the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, human rights and citizens’ rights in the political, civil,
economic, cultural and social fields shall be recognized, respected, protected and guaranteed in
accordance with the Constitution and law.
2. Human rights and citizens’ rights may not be limited unless prescribed by law solely in case of
necessity for reasons of national defence, national security, social order and safety, social morality and
community well-being.
Article 21:
“1. Everyone has the right to inviolability of private life, personal secrets and family secrets; and
has the right to protect his or her honour and reputation. The security of information about private life,
personal secrets or family secrets shall be guaranteed by law.
2. Everyone has the right to privacy of correspondence, telephone conversations, telegrams and
other forms of private communication.
No one may illegally break into, control or seize another’s correspondence, telephone conversations,
telegrams or other forms of private communication”.
To specify the provisions of the Constitution, Civil Code 2015 stipulates the right to privacy in such
articles as Article 32. Rights of an individual with respect to his/her image; Article 35. Right to donate
or receive human tissues and body organs and donate corpses; Article 38. Right to private life, personal
secrets and family secrets; Article 39. Personal rights in marriage and families and so forth.
Current Vietnamese law does not have specific provisions in protecting students’ privacy in the
digital environment, especially in industrial revolution 4.0 through applications, software, and websites
to support learning, teaching, and research.
Although Children Law 2016 stipulates the responsibility to protect children in the network
environment 1, such as Relevant agencies and organizations shall propagate, educate and protect
children while they participate in the network environment in all forms. Parents, teachers and caregivers
of children shall provide education about knowledge and guidance on skills to children in order that
they can know how to protect themselves in the network environment. Agencies, organizations and
individuals that manage or provide information and communications products or services and organize
activities on the network environment must apply measures for ensuring the safety and personal secrets
for children as regulated by the laws.
Concretizing this regulation is the guidance in Article 33 of Decree 56/2017/ND-CP dated May 9,
2017, Private information of children: “Private information of a child is information on name, age and
characteristics for personal identification; information on health status and privacy written in health
records; personal images; information on family members and caregiver of the child; personal property;
telephone number and mail address; address of and information on residence place and native place;
address of and information on school, class, learning result and friends of the child; and information on
services provided for the child”.
Besides, Cybersecurity Law also lists prohibited acts to protect the network environment2, such
as: Manufacturing or using tools, equipment, software programs or committing any act that is meant to
disrupt a telecommunications network, the Internet, computer network, information systems, information
processing systems and electronic control system; spreading malware in a telecommunications network,
the Internet, computer network, information systems, information processing and control system;
infiltrating a telecommunications network, the Internet, computer network, information systems,
information processing system or electronic device control system of another person. Depending on
the nature and seriousness of the breach, the violation of cybersecurity regulations shall be disciplined,
administratively handled, or examined for penal liability according to rules of the Law.
In addition, Article 16, Law on Cyber Information Security 2015 stipulates principles of protecting
personal information in cyberspace: 1. Individuals shall themselves protect their personal information
and comply with the law on provision of personal information when using services in cyberspace. 2.
Agencies, organizations and individuals that process personal information shall ensure cyber information
1 Article 54, Children Law 2016.

2 Article 8, Cybersecurity Law 2018.
security for the information they process. 3. Organizations and individuals that process personal
information shall develop and publicize their own measures to process and protect personal information.
Based on the above provisions, it can be seen that an individual’s privacy is an inviolable right and
is protected by law. However, along with the development of science and technology, the application of
achievements of the Industrial revolution 4.0 and Artificial Intelligence (AI) into educational activities
has raised many legal problems, especially protecting children’s privacy. Protecting the target group is
the future of the country and the vulnerable group, especially from the online environment, where many
problems arise even when adults sometimes cannot help them protect themselves. However, the current legal
regulations still do not have specific protection mechanisms for this group of subjects, even in education.
2. THE REALITY OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN THE DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM
The Covid-19 epidemic has severely affected economic and social activities, many fields have to
be suspended, and the date of returning to normal is unknown, especially in the education sector.
When the announcements of postponing students’ attendance at school, solutions to overcome
continuously discuss and announce. In particular, the use of the Internet, the application of information
technology to connect teachers and learners in all parts of the country has become a method that is highly
appreciated and widely applied. The phrase “online learning” is now not too strange and has replaced
“face-to-face learning” at educational institutions, becoming the “learning habit” of students.
We can not deny the benefits of using the online teaching method of teaching and learning. Its
usefulness does not stop at connecting learners everywhere, across borders, but also can record and
store it as a source of reference later. Even a study proves that “online training tools and methods also
encourage learners to have the opportunity to improve communication quality more than traditional
training methods.”1 That made the E-learning method a “salvage” solution for teaching activities during
the unstable period when the epidemic raged; of course, it can soon become a popular tool.
Some popular types of online learning can be mentioned today: (i) online learning via Zoom
application, Google Meeting and so forth; (ii) Distance Learning in which the teachers and learners
are not in the same place, not even simultaneously, learners actively learn through videos and materials
available to participate in learning. Applications become practical tools to support learners’ needs. In
early 2020, “Zoom application usage increased sharply as schools and companies adopted the platform
for remote work in response to the Covid-19 pandemic”2. Even online learning applications have become
the essential tool in educational activities today.
However, “massively” following the trend does not mean that users benefit ultimately. Online
learning also has its drawbacks, including legal ones. Rushing into these activities without preparation
to eliminate risks can lead to severe consequences. When implementing online teaching activities,
educational administrators and teachers have not been thoroughly trained as well as understood the
relevant legal issues in the online environment, leading to the awareness of the legal problems, especially
1 Hoàng Phương. Đào tạo qua mạng phát huy tính giao tiếp của người học. Hội thảo khoa học: Đạo tạo trực tuyến trong nhà
trường Việt Nam – thực trạng và giải pháp, tr.55. (Hoang Phuong. Online training to promote learners’ communication.
Scientific conference: Online training in Vietnamese schools – current situation and solutions, p. 55).
2 Cảnh báo những rủi ro khi sử dụng nền tảng trực tuyến Zoom, truy cập ngày: 02/6/2021, tại: https://nhandan.vn/thong-tin-so/
canh-bao-nhung-rui-ro-khi-su-dung-nen-tang-truc-tuyen-zoom-454275/,. (Warning of risks when using the Zoom online
platform. Retrieved June 2, 2021 from: https://nhandan.vn/thong-tin-so/canh-bao-nhung-rui-ro-khi-su-dung-nen-tang-truc-
Tuyen-zoom-454275/.)
the protection of children’s privacy, is not as adequate as it is today.1 Allegations of invasion of privacy
became a “hot spot”; even security researchers called Zoom “a privacy disaster”2 when personal data
was leaked through the application. These issues pose many challenges, especially to students with
various privacy violations. Therefore, training institutions need to choose an appropriate information
technology platform to ensure students and students have a safe and quality learning environment, even
in cyberspace.
Currently, the widespread application for online learning is Zoom, which has released Zoom’s
Privacy Statement for students in kindergarten through 12th grade and elementary and middle schools,
provided that the training facility must register with this company, whereby the student’s information
will be kept confidential.3 Nevertheless, the exclusion for this content is if there is consent and guidance
from the training institution. As such, it is clear that the application’s privacy policy itself still has some
incomplete problems. In principle, no one is entitled to use and decide on behalf of the subject with
personal information to provide another party. Indeed, the training institution has the right to come
to terms with the software supplier company to exploit the student’s information, violating privacy.
However, this is only the “tip of the iceberg” because the Zoom application is expected in the current
situation. Those are the applications that help solve short-term problems when the tools to support the
implementation of teaching and learning activities of educational institutions are almost nonexistent,
or only patchy solutions not available can be implemented synchronously and efficiently. This puts
educational institutions in a position to choose the above applications. However, educational institutions
must quickly adapt, transform, build or coordinate with service providers to create separate applications
for their institutions or ensure the management and supervision of educational institutions. Monitor
student data from the service provider to ensure students’ rights and interests, especially privacy. Other
online learning software and platforms still pose the above legal issues. Therefore, only looking at
“utilities” without considering “risks” is the recklessness of current educational institutions in choosing
teaching methods.
In addition to online teaching, educational institutions also apply information technology to face-to-
face teaching and learning and manage student and student records using a digital model. The provision
of periodical information on students’ conduct and monthly learning results are sent on time through
software, email, and so forth, helping parents quickly and accurately grasp information about their
children. Therefore, students’ parents have more confidence in the school’s education, and the school
also takes the initiative in managing their students.4 These methods improve the quality of teaching and
learning. Nevertheless, managing, monitoring, and destroying data, almost all educational institutions do
not have a public statement in the school’s operating regulations. The law related to academic activities
has not yet been adjusted. Therefore, this has created a legal gap, requiring rules from the law and
educational institutions themselves to make adjustments, statements, and actions to improve the quality
of applications information technology and security.
1 Cybersecurity in education and training, Retrieved June 2, 2021 from: https://moet.gov.vn/giaoducquocdan/giao-duc-quoc-

phong-an-ninh/Pages/default.aspx?ItemID=5315
2 See supra note 4.
3 Zoom (2020). Zoom for K-12/Primary and Secondary Schools Privacy Statement. Retrieved June 2, 2021 from: https://
zoom.us/docs/en-us/schools-privacy-statement.html.
4 Ứng dụng công nghệ thông tin trong quản lý và dạy học. Truy cập ngày 02/6/2021, tại: https://nhandan.vn/tin-tuc-giao-duc/
ung-dung-cong-nghe-thong-tin-trong-quan-ly-va-day-hoc-321636. (Application of information technology in management
and teaching. Retrieved June 2, 2021, from: https://nhandan.vn/tin-tuc-Giao-duc/ung-dung-cong-nghe-thong-tin-trong-quan-
ly-va-day -hoc-321636).
Indeed, they still exist “legal risks”, requiring legal regulations to overcome and efforts from
training institutions in improving the quality of information technology application.
3. LEGAL ISSUES
3.1. Student privacy and security tool awareness
Security tools are the practice of protecting data and information assets through technology,
processes, and training from unauthorized access, disclosure, disruption, modification, inspection,
attribution, and destroy data. Those are supportive tools parallel with protecting the privacy of data
subjects, but they are not entirely separate in ensuring student privacy. Privacy versus data security
focuses on using and managing personal data, such as establishing policies to ensure that data subjects’
personal information is collected, shared, and used appropriately. Security focuses more on protecting
data from malicious attacks and misuse of stolen data for profit.1
Description2
Student privacy Security

The use of student information appropriately and following Confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the data
the law. source collected.
The ability to decide where student data is transmitted and Provides confidence that decisions are respected
for what purposes. through data privacy tools.
The right of students and their representatives and Applicable in all security systems of data owners.
guardians to protect data from any third party.
Privacy protection may be insufficient, but security is well done. It is not easy to have good privacy practices without a
good data security tool.
While security is fundamental to protecting data, it is not enough to address the privacy issue of
students when bringing technology into the classroom without clearly defining enforcement mechanisms
in the classroom the provisions of the law on privacy in general and student privacy in the field of
education in particular. Therefore, to effectively enforce the provisions of the current law, which are
still incomplete in protecting student privacy, it is the responsibility of educational institutions to
improve security by organizing an information technology department in its institution. Indeed, training
institutions will ensure increased initiative in student data security when implementing online teaching
activities and support other activities when there are network security incidents; other problems arise
when students study and exchange in the online environment. Because that is an essential premise for
good practice of student privacy when the current regulations in Vietnamese law have not perfected
in regulating issues arising in social life, especially problems when applying new technologies to the
environment teaching activities.
3.2. Commercial purposes
Over the past decade, the rapid development of information technology has led to an explosion of
information about students, their behaviours and contexts, and learning analytics data (Big data) about
education. Data is crucial to educational institutions. However, website operators and providers of online
services and applications that support learning can also collect data. The common concern in this regard
1 Jing Q, et al. (2014). Security of the internet of things: perspectives and challenges. Wirel Netw, 20(8):2481–501.
2 See Ahmed Elngar, Ambika Pawar, and Prathamesh Churi (2021), Data Protection and Privacy in Healthcare Research and
Innovations, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, p. 51.
is that these providers will often track the student online and then target ads to that student or use the
data collected about the student in other ways to profit from data. Data mining techniques and the use of
learning analytics data-driven technologies have enabled vast amounts of student data in and out of the
classroom to be collected, stored, analyzed, and reused. Both the production and consumption of learning
analytics data have changed organizational practices, opening avenues for new types of data collection,
analysis, and reporting that were previously impossible.1
On the other hand, the providers of free online services and applications often operate for profit
and generate revenue to maintain their operations and upgrade products and services that force them
to exploit raw data sources they collect. Moreover, the question is whether the data mining of students
is correct according to the order and procedures prescribed by law when most of the data is collected
by websites, applications, or services online about student use are legally collected. However, the
issue of actual control over the information2 is still an open question. This means that the collection
of information by one party does not prevent the collection of information by others, and it is difficult
to prevent people from copying and distributing it. This problem poses the problem of controlling the
forwarding of personal data to third parties, and it is not easy to know when what content is forwarded
and used. That is to say, the use of student data has implications for economic value and determination
of their exclusion, the nature and economic objectives of the subject controlling the flow of student data
born. Therefore, at the heart of data privacy regulation is the management of data collection and use,
which should be done where such data is stored3.
In addition, when it is not yet time to adjust by the provisions of specialized laws, the governing
or related agencies such as the Ministry of Education and Training or the Ministry of Information and
Communications need to issue legal rules based on building principles that limit the use of data by
data controllers. This is because it is based on obtaining the data subject’s consent to use the data for a
specific purpose disclosed at the time of giving this consent4. With consent, use is only allowed for that
specific purpose and is not allowed for other purposes.
Currently, draft 2 Decrees regulating personal data protection 2021 collects public comments to finalize
the draft for submission to the Government for promulgation, including regulations on the rights of
relevant data subjects to the processing of personal data: “1. Agree or disagree for the Personal Data
Processor, the Third Party to process their data, unless otherwise provided for by law. 2. Receive
notice from the Personal Data Processor at the time of processing or as soon as practicable. 3. Request
the Personal Data Processor to correct, view, and provide a copy of its data. 4. Request the Personal
Data Processor to stop processing personal data, restrict access to personal data, stop disclosing or
permitting access to personal data, delete or close personal data collected, unless otherwise provided
for by law…”. However, the above regulation cannot regulate the issues of learning analytics data (big
1 Picciano, A. G. (2012). The evolution of big data and learning analytics in American higher education. Online Learning,
16(3), 3. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i3.267.
2 D.J. Solove. (2008). Understanding Privacy. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 2008, p.28; D. boyd, ‘Networked
Privacy’. (2012). Surveillance & Society 348, p. 349; J.W. DeCew. (1997). In Pursuit of Privacy: Law. Ethics, and the Rise
of Technology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, p.53.
3 Also for security reasons, service providers are better positioned to keep data secure than individual users, B. Schneier.
(2018). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper- connected World. W.W. Norton & Company, New
York, p.111.
4 Sometimes knowledge is enough, see OECD, Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of
Personal Data, 2013, p.7.
data) in the educational environment because the scope of this Decree is personal data, processing data
and personal data, personal data handling, personal data protection measures. In addition to having
these guiding documents for data processors and owners of data, the author believes that it is necessary
for educational institutions to actively develop the general student data management mechanism and
privacy management model for implementing measures to protect student data is considered a social
responsibility of educational institutions.
A comparison of US legislation on this matter shows that, in September 2014, California’s Student
Online Personal Information Protection Act (SOPIPA)1 was signed into law and became law. The
state’s first stringent law regulating the commercial collection and use of student data by online service
providers. SOPIPA can be viewed as a model for special privacy legislation for other states to consider.
Through SOPIPA regulation, it is clear that service providers cannot commercially use data collected
about students’ online use. Like online retail sites, remember customers and track purchases and even
what customers viewed continue to improve and perfect the shopping experience to be more efficient
and relevant to shoppers. The same may be true for online education services that track student usage
and collect data about learners’ prior learning. They can turn that data into a much more tailored and
personalized experience for students because personalized learning is a top priority for parents and
educators alike.
Thereby shows that it is necessary to build a legal framework for ensuring student privacy in
general and student data protection, particularly a legal basis for providers that personalizes the student’s
learning experience. Furthermore, collecting large amounts of personal data about students creates
another concern regarding the security of the system on which the data is stored, hacking (intentional
or unauthorized access). Data storage systems are considered popular when the information technology
system and security infrastructure in educational institutions have not been adequately invested and
focused when almost all educational activities have moved to online form due to the COVID-19 pandemic
E-learning model’s influence gradually replace traditional teaching models. This raises concerns among
parents that even if their child’s student data is used appropriately, the data can be stolen, leading to
serious privacy violations in some school’s express agreement2.
3.3. Student data management
In educational operations, the data includes educational records of students, which are used for
educational purposes. A researcher did not release it, nor was it used in a study. This distinction helps
clarify whether privacy concerns are related to education data records in general or specific education
research data3. In addition, today, when most of the administrative records of students are digitized and
stored on the school’s internal computer network or the popular Vietschool application4, it is the digital
data warehouse. Digital technology tends to have many records (in terms of accessibility, scalability,
searchability, so forth), which poses problems in protecting student privacy in educational environments
or even affects the student’s work and personal life later in life. That means when these data (collection
1 SB-1177 Privacy: students. Retrieved May 15, 2021, from: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.

xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB1177.
2 PC Kumar, M Chetty, TL Clegg, J Vitak (2019). Privacy and Security Considerations For Digital Technology Use in Elementary
Schools. CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, p.307.
3 Krueger, Keith R.; Moore, Bob. Privacy and school data, New technology “clouds” student data privacy. SAGE
Publications, p.21
4 VietSchool is an Education application that helps Vietnamese schools and parents quickly lookup, track and manage student
information in the most convenient way.
of student achievement data or learning process data) are not securely protected or regulations on storage
time, destruction of documents, so forth, whether in the school’s operating regulations are publicly
disclosed or in the provisions of current law.
Besides, the currently contentious issue is that the partners will use the data for advertising services,
and student data can become a commodity that is sold to other parties and cannot be controlled in the
activities of their business. According to Richard A Posner’s theory, people always possess information,
including the content of their communications and facts about themselves, which they will incur at a cost
to conceal. Those kinds of information can be seen as purely consumer goods1. According to Richard’s
economic theory, people have the right not to desire or value privacy or curiosity in themselves but to use
these goods as income generation or some other broad measure of income utility or benefit. Therefore, if
educators collect data for legitimate educational purposes, we can focus on additional privacy risks, such
as those associated with data sharing data are identified with researchers bound by the agreements and
assess their increased risks clearly and precisely. It also raises the bar rightly whenever researchers seek
to collaborate to collect data beyond those that educators tend to generate or seek as part of the nature of
their educational activities. This will have no harm to the privacy of their students and provide significant
benefits in improving research and teaching. That is, privacy concerns are not likely to be heightened
when studying the use of learning process data above and beyond the online use of administrative
data. Focusing on learning process data can improve privacy concerns because of the specificity of the
scope of use, assuming that this use is to identify standard learning processes, instructional guidance,
and accelerated student learning. Thus, effective data management based on sound security not only
helps promote the value of student learning process data to research, improve, supplement, and perfect
teaching methods, but it also helps to enforce student privacy rights effectively.
In addition, having a legal framework in place to protect student privacy in educational settings will
help increase data security practices and safe data mining awareness for both researchers and practitioner
teachers. Thereby helping to identify violations, prosecute violators, enforce internal regulations and the
law more effectively.
Because, currently, the provisions on personal privacy in the civil law of Vietnam have not been
completed, the Civil Code 2015 has only one general law on privacy, which is the provisions of Article
38: “1. The private life, personal secrets and family secrets of a person are inviolable and protected
by law. 2. The collection, preservation, use and publication of information about the private life of an
individual must have the consent of that person; the collection, preservation, use and publication of
information about the secrets of family must have the consent of all family’s members, unless otherwise
prescribed by law. 3. The safety of mails, telephones, telegrams, other forms of electronic information
of an individual shall be ensured and kept confidential. The opening, control and keeping of mails,
telephones, telegrams, other forms of electronic information of an individual may only be conducted
in cases provided by law. 4. Contracting parties of a contract may not disclose information about each
other’s private life, personal secrets or family secrets that they know during the establishment and
performance of the contract, unless otherwise agreed.”
Therefore, with the general provisions of Civil Code 2015, the privacy issues of students when
bringing technology into the classroom have not been comprehensively resolved, and there are not
enough legal tools to protect issues arising from regarding student privacy. Although Article 36 of
1 Richard A. Posner. (1978). Economic Theory of Privacy. 2 Regulation 19, p.20.

Decree 56/2017/ND-CP dated May 9, 2017 guiding the implementation of the law on children, stipulates
measures to protect private information for children in the Internet environment: 1. When publishing
private information of a child on a network, a provider of services in the Internet environment or a
person shall obtain the consent of the child’s parent(s) or caregiver and the child himself/herself if he/
she is full 7 years or older; and shall ensure information safety for the child. 2. Providers of services in
the Internet environment shall employ measures and tools to ensure safety for the private information
of children and deliver warning messages when children provide or change their private information. 3.
Parents, caregivers and children aged full 7 years or older, and agencies, organizations and persons with
child protection responsibility as prescribed by law have the right to request providers of services and
persons operating in the Internet environment to remove private information of children to ensure safety
and best interests of children.
In the author’s opinion, the content of this law is only a principle in protecting private information
for children in the Internet environment, and children under Vietnamese law are a child is a human being
below the age of 16. Thus, the scope of regulation of this Decree is people under 16 years old, subjects
from full 16 to under 18 years old, equivalent to high school students according to the Vietnamese
education system, not within the scope of this Decree. In addition, it is worth noting that children’s
privacy issues when bringing technology into the classroom are not only private information for children
in cyberspace but also learning analytics data (big data) about education, which currently has a gap in
the current regulations in Vietnam’s civil law.
Privacy advocates and stakeholders seek regulation of entities that receive information from
educational institutions and more specific constraints on substantive data practices regarding data
collection collect, use, store, manage and secure student information. Stakeholders want more control
over the data practices of educational institutions and agencies and third-party data recipients. This
includes narrowing down the type and amount of information collected about students, how long the
information can be stored, and how it is protected against unauthorized access. They require more formal
procedures and record-keeping of decision-making and data-related issues. They want educational
institutions and agencies to document the purpose of collection and the security measures taken for all
data collection and use so that parents and students can access the information collected by them held
by third parties. They set security requirements to prevent unauthorized access. Stakeholders also want
to prohibit educational institutions and agencies from disclosing data to specific entities, using it in
certain ways, repositioning it, or otherwise replacing it, requiring parental or student consent before any
such action. They are particularly concerned about organizations that provide applications, information
management, and instructional content to educational institutions that use student information for
commercial or marketing purposes. They want a direct accountability mechanism to encourage strict
compliance and remediate potential harm caused by inappropriate information practices.
Organizations can (and should) recognize the vital role of data collection and analysis (particularly
algorithmic decision-making) and use it in managing learning students. Doing so requires institutions to
acknowledge the information power imbalance between institutional user data and student data subjects.
4. SOLUTIONS
The privacy concerns raised by parents, policymakers, and privacy advocates are genuine.
Moreover, completing the provisions of the law on student privacy when bringing technology into the
classroom to ensure that organizations and individuals collect and keep in their education records from
being exposed disclosure to any third party without written consent or exceptions allowing educational
institutions to share information without parental or student consent should be explicitly specified.
As we all know, the application of technology and information to online teaching - especially
the frequent disclosure of student information to cloud-based service providers - raises the stakes
concerns about unauthorized and involuntary disclosure, misuse and mismanagement of information,
and reuse by third parties for non-educational purposes1. With the popularity of cloud computing, big
data analytics, and the reliance of educational institutions on external organizations to provide services
to support data-driven teaching, there are no specific regulations or clear legal statements to ensure
the proper flow of student data. Therefore, in addition to the statements to ensure students’ privacy by
service providers that support teaching activities, Vietnamese law needs to have specific provisions for
educational institutions, teachers, and students in implementing specific guidelines and measures to
ensure the protection of student privacy in today’s online teaching.
For educational institutions: In a networked world, information can be revealed inadvertently

due to human or technological error or intentional hacking. Furthermore, approved disclosure in the
absence of official designation and documentation no longer implies that disclosure has been reviewed
and sanctioned by educational institutions and agencies. Many student information is shared solely
subject to vague third-party terms of service and privacy policies. Providing access to student records
now implies sharing data that recipients are likely to keep on their servers. Educational institutions
are placed in a position not to monitor third-party activities in areas beyond their expertise actively.
Therefore, there should be a requirement for educational institutions to have a dedicated department
or senior administrator responsible for compliance and address other important student privacy issues
born. Although the implementation of these activities will be a cost burden in the budgets of educational
institutions and educational institutions can compensate by increasing tuition fees, this will push the
pressure further. for students and parents. Therefore, to implement synchronously in the national
education system, the Government needs to have initial support policies for educational institutions to
help educational institutions build an advanced educational environment safe but also helps students’
parents not be too pressured about the budget for their child’s education. On the other hand, when
choosing a technology and technical foundation as the basis for their management or teaching activities,
institutions need to have research and investment expertise to approach the appropriate type, set students’
rights to the forefront, and not race for achievement and hence the “consequences” must be borne by
the students.
For Parents: The privacy of student data is increasingly a headache for parents. Parents should be
involved in the development of student privacy standards and policies in educational settings2. Just as
schools provide information about online safety and proper use, they need to make a significant effort
to ensure that parents understand the extraordinary measures taken to protect privacy, as well as the
educational value of the data. Thereby, it is necessary to prescribe provisions on the rights of parents to
develop and enforce regulations on protecting students’ privacy.
1 Joel Reidenberg and et. (2013). Privacy and Cloud Computing in Public Schools. Center on Law and Information Policy,
Book 2, p.50.
2 U.S. DEP’T OF EDUC. Model Notification of Rights under the Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA). Retrieved
May 15, 2021, from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/pdf/ppranotice.pdf [hereinafter PPRA Model Notification
Letter].
For students: There should be specific provisions of the education law to require educational
institutions to conduct propaganda activities related to technology and information and relevant laws,
especially privacy periodically, to ensure all students understand and are aware of the importance of
protecting themselves in learning and research activities.
Building a privacy management mode (PMM):

A personal data management tool, PMM1 is a set of functions necessary to manage the security
process. The PMM forms a theoretical model for implementing self-controlled selection over the data
process. Secure Process Management provides the highest degree of self-control. That means, privacy
management requires:
- Controlling, with the ability to monitor the process and reflect the state of the data flow;
- Planning as the ability to consider what will happen and set goals (personal policy);
- Organization as structuring key process parameters and accessing personal data to perform
other functions.
Privacy management should be a process, as only one process can effectively control another. This
is because controls must be adjusted to account for changes in external circumstances and plans. This
means that a professional management tool must be built to manage its operation (that is, the information
flow that the data holder is operating), similar to the controlling mechanism control and counterbalance,
is independent in operation but still has to have a mechanism for management and supervision.
Therefore, educational institutions can consider, invest in, and promote research and development
of PPM models in their educational institutions to accelerate the process of comprehensively protecting
students’ legitimate rights and interests and competitive trends in education through criteria that ensure
the best values for
learners.
5. CONCLUSION
Today, an increasing commitment to career growth, wireless and broadband access, digital content,
and applications is available to a wide range of high-quality, affordable mobile devices affordable
use of technology for teaching and learning. School systems have invested significant funds in tools,
technology resources, and human resources to integrate, operate, and maintain educational technology.
However, it is essential to protect students’ privacy when the educational environment has not yet been
given due attention. Schools always collect and use a variety of data. Data should be kept in schools, and
there should be relatively few privacy concerns - unless, of course, there is a breach. Nevertheless, this
is where the emergence of new technologies like cloud computing and software-as-a-service can create
privacy issues. Many educational institutions choose to have their student information system provider
operate the application in the cloud rather than under the school’s direct control, which raises many
questions and concerns from the public concerns about student privacy.
1 This is the extension and revision of the model described in M. Betkier. (2016). Individual Privacy Management. Media
and Arts Law Review 315, 323 ff. Changes include e.g. evaluation criteria, the adaptation of planning to the external and
dynamic use of privacy policies, better links with theoretical backgrounds, new categories of data and data uses.
REFERENCE
1. The Constitution of The Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2013.

2. Civil Code 2015.
3. Children Law 2016.
4. Cybersecurity Law 2018.
5. B. Schneier. (2018). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-connected
World. W.W. Norton & Company, New York.
6. D.J. Solove. (2008). Understanding Privacy. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; D.
boyd. (2012). Networked Privacy. 10 Surveillance & Society 348.
7. Hoàng Phương. Đào tạo qua mạng phát huy tính giao tiếp của người học, Hội thảo khoa học: Đào
tạo trực tuyến trong nhà trường Việt Nam – thực trạng và giải pháp. (Hoang Phuong. Online train-
ing to promote learners’ communication, Scientific conference: Online training in Vietnamese
schools – current situation and solutions).
8. Joel Reidenberg and et. (2013). Privacy and Cloud Computing in Public Schools. Center on Law
and Information Policy, Book 2.
9. J.W. DeCew. (1997). In Pursuit of Privacy: Law, Ethics, and the Rise of Technology. Cornell
University Press, Ithac.
10. Krueger, Keith R.; Moore, Bob. Privacy and school data, New technology “clouds” student data
privacy, SAGE Publications.
11. M. Betkier. (2016). Individual Privacy Management. 21 Media and Arts Law Review 315.
12. OECD. (2013). Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Per-
sonal Data.
13. PC Kumar, M Chetty, TL Clegg, J Vitak. (2019). Privacy and Security Considerations For Digital
Technology Use in Elementary Schools. CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.
15. Picciano, A. G. (2012). The evolution of big data and learning analytics in American higher edu-
cation. Online Learning, 16(3), 3. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i3.267.
16. Richard A. Posner. (1978). Economic Theory of Privacy, 2 Regulation 19.
17. See Ahmed Elngar, Ambika Pawar, and Prathamesh Churi (2021), Data Protection and Privacy in
Healthcare
18. Research and Innovations, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, p. 51.
19. U.S. DEP’T OF EDUC., Model Notification of Rights under the Protection of Pupil Rights
Amendment (PPRA). Retrieved May 15, 2021, from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/
pdf/ppranotice.pdf [hereinafter PPRA Model Notification Letter].
20. Cảnh báo những rủi ro khi sử dụng nền tảng trực tuyến Zoom. Truy cập ngày 02/6/2021 tại: https://
nhandan.vn/thong-tin-so/canh-bao-nhung-rui-ro-khi-su-dung-nen-tang-truc-tuyen-zoom-454275/.
(Warning of risks when using the Zoom online platform. Retrieved June 2, 2021, from: https://nhan-
dan.vn/thong-tin-so/canh-bao-nhung-rui-ro-khi-su-dung-nen-tang-truc- Tuyen-zoom-454275).
22. Ứng dụng công nghệ thông tin trong quản lý và dạy học. Truy cập ngày 02/6/2021, tại: https://
nhandan.vn/tin-tuc-giao-duc/ung-dung-cong-nghe-thong-tin-trong-quan-ly-va-day-hoc-321636.
(Application of information technology in management and teaching. Retrieved June 2, 2021,
from: https://nhandan.vn/tin-tuc-Giao-duc/ung-dung-cong-nghe-thong-tin-trong-quan-ly-va-day
-hoc-321636).
23. Zoom. (2020). Zoom for K-12/Primary and Secondary Schools Privacy Statement. Retrieved
June 2, 2021 from: https://zoom.us/docs/en-us/schools-privacy-statement.html.
24. SB-1177. Privacy: students. Retrieved May 15, 2021, from: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/fac-
es/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB1177.
APPLICATION OF ANDRAGOGY
IN SELF - DIRECTED LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Dang Thi Thanh Thuy, Tang Thi Thuy, Trinh Van Minh
Abstract: This study aims to find out the nature of andragogy and self-directed learning (SDL) in higher
education by utilizing qualitative research method with desk study of literature review relating to Knowles’s theories
in andragogy and SDL. The research results showed that “andragogy” was first known in 1833, then developed
into a theory of adult education by Knowles. Andragogy may refer to students of all ages but its focus on adult
students when they expressed their self-direction and autonomy of their learning while teachers act as facilitators
or tutors. SDL was developed on the basis of andragogy theory. The results revealed that five adult students’
learning characteristics includes (1) self-awareness; (2) their own learning experience; (3) readiness to learn;
(4) learning orientation; (5) and learning motivation. Moreover, the adult learning principles in combination
with those characteristics are manifestations and basis of SDL. In essence, SDL requires individuals to take the
initiative and responsible for learning. The self-directed characteristics are relatively similar to the learning
characteristics that andragogy proposed. In particular, SDL can take place both inside and outside of formal
educational institutions. It turns, students from the role of educational objects into educational or self-educational
subjects. These characteristics of andragogy and SDL are highly applicable in teaching and learning at higher
education. Some suggestions to promote the role of andragogy and SDL at universities are also mentioned in this
article. The research results are expected to contribute to the
Key words: andragogy, self-directed learning, higher education.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term “andragogy” was first mentioned by Alexander Kapp in the 1833, and was popularized in
the United States in the 1960s by Malcom Knowles (Smith, 2010). Andragogy was developed to the
adult learning theory by Knowles, who was known in the United States as “the father of andragogy” when
he was best known for his presentations, researches on andragogy and the adult learning movement from
the 1960s to the 1980s (Knowles et al., 2014; Smith, 2010). Accordingly, adults have their self-concept
and orientation to learn (Knowles, 1970). As stated by this theory, students have their personal learning
motivations well as the self-esteem, confidence and expectation to prove themselves (Carney, 1986).
Self-directed learning (SDL) is developed based on andragogy theory to promote the development
of students’ independent learning skills and to encourage them to deepen their understanding by self-
study which actually expresses their curiosity and knowledge discovery (Phillips et al., 2015). Besides,
with SDL, individuals are active in their learning that will help the learning process be qualifier than
those who passively rely only on the teacher (Knowles, 1975). Self-directed learning (SDL) is known as
a teaching and learning method for adults. With SDL, students define their own learning goals, plans and
actively participate in the learning process, with or without the others’ supports (Knowles, 1975). This
is an inevitable trend to meet the rapid change in technology and the students’ learning needs. Because,
by SDL, it turns students from an educational object into a self-educational subject. In addition, it is
also a specific solution of the teaching innovation among higher education institutions (Tri et al., 2016).
Especially, for the development of technology and various types of learning, the notion of individual and
individualism has become a central issue which in its turn is central to self-directed learning (Grubbs &
Riley, 2018).
In Vietnam, SDL is still a new concept with a shortage of researches. Therefore, it is in need of
analyzing the SDL nature, its significance and challenges. This will help educators, students, researchers,
and education managers to understand and to apply SDL in universities. Thereby It could contribute to
promoting the training quality in Vietnamese higher education institutions. To find out the key points
and role of andragogy in SDL, this study analyzed the characteristics, principles Knowles’ andragogy
and its practical applications in SDL in higher education. Specifically, in the context of Vietnam higher
education institution seriously affected by Covid-19 in 2021, all institutions must apply online learning
for their training subjects. Furthermore, some relevant recommendations to promote the application
of andragogy in SDL among students would be provided to partly contribute to improve the quality of
teaching and learning at higher education institutions.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
The qualitative research method was utilized with external desk study, including online desk
research and Government published data. It was used to review the literature related to Knowles’
adult learning theory (andragogy) and SDL to understand its role in learning. Basing on the analysis
results, explanations and conclusions about SDL’s theoretical basis and the applicability of andragogy
in teaching and learning in practice were proposed in this study.
The review was undergone the main following stages as following:
Data screening. We applied two approaches for finding the relevant information of Knowles’
andragogy and SDL from internet. One is directly browsing the research gate sites and extracting
the information out of these sites. Secondly, we searched on google.com and scholar.google.com,
researchgate.net. In addition, we also used the Government published data (laws, resolutions, circulars)
in the study. In this step, legal documents for higher education in Vietnam, scientific articles and research
results on andragogy, SDL and their applications in higher education, were screened and selected for
analysis. The output of this stage included the list of reference.
Data analyzing, interpretation and reflection. After scanning stage, the secondary data was
reviewed and analyzed. Basing on the analysis results, the concept of andragogy; characteristics of
adult learners; features and principles of andragogy; roles and application of andragogy in SDL and
online learning were summarized, interpreted and reflected. At the same time, suggestions to promote
andragogy and SDL in higher education are also proposed in this step. The output covers both research
findings, discussion and recommendations.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Concept of andragogy
The term “andragogy” is known as to be equivalent to the term “pedagogy”. “Andragogy” in Greek
consists of “andr” which means “adult” and “agogos” bares the meaning of “guiding”. According to
Pappas (2013) “andragogy” means “to lead people” compared to “pedagogy”, which in Greek means
to lead children. However, the term “pedagogy” has been used since ancient Greece, while the term
“andragogy” was first used by Alexander Kapp, a German educator in 1833 (Pappas, 2013).
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 - 1997), an American educator who was best known for using
the term “andragogy” synonymously with adult education (Kearsley, 2010). Adults know their abilities
and experiences and they demand more participation in the learning process (Knowles, 1970). In the
book “Modern practice of adult education”, Knowles (1970) stated that andragogy is the “art and
technology” of adult learning. He also argued that andragogy replaces pedagogy and is an approach
that focuses on learners of all ages. The most important of Knowles’ findings is that adults know their
abilities and experiences well and they demand to be more involved in the learning process. According
to Knowles, andragogy refers to methods or techniques used to teach adults. It focuses on the adult
learning experience and is one of the most effective methods in adult education. It is much more self-
directed, in the sense that adults must frequently set their own learning schedules and be motivated
to commit to study or practice. Adult education is also frequently cooperative in the sense that adults
frequently collaborate and review each other’s work and understanding of a subject. Grades may not be
important or may be absent entirely in many adult education courses.
3.2. Characteristics of adult learners
Knowles (1980) proposed four hypotheses about adult learning characteristics including: (1) self-
concept; (2) adult learning experience; (3) readiness to learn; and (4) orientation to learn. In 1984,
Knowles added the fifth hypothesis of “motivation to learn”. The followings are the five theories and
their application in adult teaching (Knowles, 1984).
Figure 1. Characteristics of adult learners by Knowles (1984)
Self-concept
Self-concept is a set of beliefs about oneself that represents the answer to the question “Who am I?”. As
a person matures, his self-perception shifts from dependent to self-directed. When adult learners are self-
directed, according to Knowles, adults can self-direct and control their learning experience. In addition,
they are also responsible for their own learning. They will participate in their learning plan, assessment
and evaluation as they know what they want to acquire. Therefore, the curriculum and teaching methods
should be designed to fit with their learning features.
Adult learning experience

Adults have more or less accumulated their own experience and that experience becomes the
primary source of both their learning and their personal identity, as the richer and more diverse their
experience, the more diversity they can bring to their own learning. Therefore, to teach adults to learn
most effectively, teachers need to know how to integrate new concepts and knowledge with existing
knowledge. This is very important, because if the knowledge provided coincides with what the learners
already know, they will not accept it. Teachers need to integrate their teaching knowledge into their life
experiences, to be an active part of the learners’ learning process.
Readiness to learn
Adult learners’ readiness to learn can be triggered a significant change in their lives, a willingness
to deal with life tasks and challenges more successfully, a desire for self-improvement and self-
development. Adults must understand why they want to learn something; once they have answered this
question, they are ready to begin. Learning readiness is increasingly oriented toward the developmental
goals of their social role. Therefore, when learning, they will learn with a willing, voluntary and
responsible attitude. In addition, adults are aware of the importance of education and the value it brings
from learning. They use learning as a solution to deal with their problems and to meet their expectation
to be able to overcome difficulties in their work.
Orientation to learn
Adults learn because they have their learning needs for their life and/or their future work. Therefore,
their learning should be oriented towards certain goals. Moreover, learners would like to measure their
own goals and have a clear system for assessing their own progress. Hence, curriculums or syllabus need
to be associated with practical applications in work and life. For example, there should be a combination
of simulations or real-life situations that allows learners to undergo the real-world problems or to help
them overcome difficulties or obstacles in their context work.
Motivation to learn
For adults, the motivation to learn is within themselves (Knowles, 1984). Adults have their own
learning motivations, self-esteem, self-confidence, desire for better quality of life, curiosity, self-
development, and recognition are only a few factors that motivate adult learners to learn. They learn
to solve their own problems or needs. Therefore, memorization will not be the solution, but instead,
instructors provide simulation exercises, real situations or contextual role-playing that will bring benefits
and higher learning efficiency to students.
It is undeniable that andragogy can be extremely motivating, so providing them with meaningful
learning experiences can make a significant difference in achieving learning outcomes.
3.3. Characteristics of andragogy
According to (Knowles, 1975), andragogy is presented in the following features:

Figure 2. Characteristics of andragogy by Knowles (1975)
Firstly, learning is a process, to achieve optimal results in learning, learners must actively participate
in the learning process, not passively absorb information. They take responsibility for their own learning.
Secondly, adults often learn by doing, they want to be involved in the learning process. When
they learn, they often relate what they are learning with their prior experience. Therefore, to help
adults to learn more effectively, it is advisable to start from their own knowledge and understanding.
Teachers should include examples and practical problems in lessons or discussion which are relevant
to adult students’ learning needs.
Thirdly, the learning environment plays an important role to adult students. A comfortable
learning environment will be more helpful to students’ learning. Therefore, it is advisable to minimize
the causes that make them feel stressed or not open in the learning process. Learning will be more
effective if the learning atmosphere is favorable. The learning atmosphere is often affected if there
are tests or grading activities.
Fourthly, the role of the teacher is to provide advice, guidance or to create an environment for
students to promote active research, to explore and discover knowledge and skills effectively. The
students’ role is learning, selecting and applying the knowledge and skills which they learned in the
most relevant to them. Students actively learn while the teachers support and motivate students during
the learning process.
3.4. Principles of andragogy
Based on the above hypothesis of adult learning, Knowles (1970) proposed four basic principles
as follows:
Figure 3.3 Principles of andragogy in learning by Knowles (1970)
Those principles are:

1) Adults learn by transitioning from dependent to self-directed. They need to be involved in the
planning and assessment of their learning.
2) Adults learn from their prior experience. Their experience (including mistakes) are the sources
of their learning.
3) Adults are most interested in learning what relate and effect on their work or personal lives. They
are willing to learn when taking on new roles/jobs.
4) They want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately. Adult learning is problem-
oriented rather than content-focused (Kearsley, 2010).
3.5. Applications of Knowles’ andragogy in SDL in higher education
Andragogy has been widely used in many countries and applied to many disciplines from the
sciences to the arts, which can be applied in whole or in part (Carney, 1986). The approach of andragogy
has been adopted in various sectors including medicine, criminal justice, education and management
(Forrest III & Peterson, 2006). According to Zmeyov (1998), the andragogical principles of learning
are widely needed, and not only in adult education, they have been used in training as well. Bedi (2004)
claims that andragogy helps educators understand students’ behavior and identify causes of the students’
anxiety and encourages students to search for options to a problem and to become self-directed learners.
Knowles (1975), who is behind the theory of andragogy or adult learning theory defined SDL as follows:
“In its broadest meaning, SDL describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or
without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying
resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating
learning outcomes” (p.18).
According to Boyer et al. (2014), Knowles’ (1975) concept of a system is widely accepted with
eight elements: (1) it is a process; (2) by an individual; (3) may or may not require the assistance of
others; (4) learners identify their learning needs; (5) develop learning goals from those needs; (6) find the
necessary resources to achieve the objectives; (7) select and implement appropriate learning strategies to
meet learning goals and (8) decide how learning outcomes will be assessed. SDL requires individuals to
be proactive and responsible for their own learning. Carney (1986) argued that it is necessary to separate
students from dependence on their teachers as traditional pedagogical methods. Because most teachers
might not really understand how students learn. In addition, the policies in educational institutions might
not be consistent with the philosophy of andragogy. Meanwhile, Knowles (1975) describes self-directed
learners as proactive, and self-initiated, with higher levels of motivation and personal responsibility
for learning. According to Knowles, students become increasingly self-directed when being mature.
Especially, SDL can be considered as learning by oneself (auto-formation), as opposed to learning
through the others ‘actions (hetero-formation). As Knowles’s explanation, the development of learner’s
independent inquiry skills encourages deeper learning through the improvement of comprehension and
retention, with the habit of substantive research acquired through intellectual curiosity and exploration
(Phillips et al., 2015). In the context of higher education, SDL do not take place in isolation, but
in collaboration with others such as instructors, tutors and peers. Therefore, learning can be put on
a continuum, ranging from instructor or other focused at one end to self-directed at the other end
(Knowles, 1975; Knowles, 1990). Learning, even SDL, rarely occurs in isolation from the learner’s
world. It is intimate and affected by it (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). Furthermore, concurrent with
the technological advances has been an information explosion. There are “90 percent of the data in the
world was generated in the last two years” (Mart, 2018; cited by Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). In this
information-rich society, there is an increasing need for continuing education.
SDL requires individuals to be proactive and responsible for their own learning. students feel free to
set goals and determine what is worth learning. These are also characteristics of andragogy. In particular,
SDL can take place both inside and outside educational institutions. The teacher when participating in
the process of SDL plays the role of a facilitator, an advisor or a tutor, not a transmitter of knowledge like
traditional pedagogical method (Loeng, 2020). This is one of the crucial teaching and learning methods
for adults (Brockett et al., 1982). For more than five decades, Knowles (1975) asserted that SDL would
become one of the important life skills. Because this approach has been emphasized in higher education
curricula. In addition, Knowles (1975) also describes self-directed learners as proactive with high
motivation and personal responsibility for learning. He argued that learners become increasingly self-
directed as they mature. According to theories of SDL and andragogy, students would be ready for SDL
when they could be able to self-manage their learning. If they are not good at self-management that can
lead them to difficulties during learning. As stated by Garrison (1997), self-management is concerned
with controlling learning tasks, focusing on the social and students’ behavior aspects in response to
SDL programs. Besides, students also have external supports to ensure them not be isolated from the
other factors of learning. In addition, SDL also needs resources to support students during the learning
process. Therefore, students must ensure essential factors such as self-management, self-discipline and
perseverance to perform goal-oriented activities, providing the foundation for effective learning.
Learning control is one of the most important factors in SDL. As indicated by Garrison (1992), the
students’ increase of controlling learning can lead in the enhance of their learning responsibility, building
a strong foundation for students to pursue SDL. Readiness is also related to how the students monitor
their learning activities. Without supervision, students easily give up the learning process (Leach, 2000).
For adults, self-supervision is important for their better learning (Garrison, 1997). According to Loftin
et al. (2005), through supervision, students’ thinking can be modified in a way that is appropriate for a
learning goal or tasks. According to Garrison (1992), motivational factors bring a great influence on the
cognitive activities underlying learning, helping to balance learning control or context and perceptions
or responsibilities during learning. Additionally, learning dynamics ensure a student’s commitment to
self-directed learning. Therefore, if students are motivated, they will actively study. Galbraith (2004)
stated that, the motivational strategy is an intentional act or process used by the instructor/ facilitator
to enhance students’ learning dynamics. Motivation plays an important role in initiating and sustaining
learning efforts (Howe, 1987). Students must be highly motivated to be ready to go through the learning
process. Lack of motivation will hinder the learning process and make students not ready for learning.
Self-management and self- control create an appropriate environment that motivates students to achieve
the desired readiness for the SDL process.
Knowles (1984) provided some suggestions to apply andragogy principles in adult education as
well as higher education such as students need to be explained specifically what they learn. Therefore,
the instruction should focus on learning tasks rather than promoting memorization. Moreover, when
designing learning activities, educators should be placed in the context of tasks would be performed by
others and teaching should take into account of students’ different learning backgrounds. In addition,
he also stated that learning materials and activities should be prepared for students’ different levels and
experience. Furthermore, in his discussion, andragogy mentioned an important principle that adults
are self-directed therefore, instructions must be in the orientation of allowing students to discover
knowledge and skills on their own without depending on others. However, students need guidance and
help when they encounter problems.
The adult learning theory (andragogy) shows that adult students can self-direct their learning
(Knowles, 1970). According to Knowles, they may have their own prior experience for their learning,
readiness to learn to meet some needs of life and work tasks. Students learn with defined learning
purpose, orientation and problem-centered solving (Knowles, 1984). According to Carney (1986), adult
students have personal motivations that promote them to learn, such as self-esteem, confidence, and the
desire to prove themselves. These characteristics all essentially represent the essence of self-directed
learning, which Knowles (1975) defined as a process that individuals diagnose their learning needs,
formulate learning goals, identify resources for learning, choose and implement appropriate learning
strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.
In education 4.0 of an individual human learner in the present society being ‘on the doorstep’
of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, an ongoing process of systemic societal change characterized
by a ubiquitous and mobile internet (Schwab, 2017), Knowles’ theory of andragogy and SDL can be
much further applied in practice. Especially, in the context of social changes, technology development
and students’ learning needs, andragogy and SDL could be a very effectively solution for educators
and students when the higher education institutions apply online training, blended learning or hybrid
learning. Other researchers used andragogy to evaluate the effectiveness of lectures which could support
to improve learning methods more effectively through the students’ active participation into the learning
process. For example, teachers can use a system of dialogue questions, group discussions, and student-
led sessions to make learning more autonomous and engaging.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The theory of adult learning (andragogy) suggests that adult students can self-direct their learning.
They may have their own prior experience for their learning, readiness to learn to meet some important
needs in life and work. The adult students have their learning purpose and personal motivations of
learning such as self-esteem, confidence, and the desire to prove themselves. Andragogy may refer to
students of all ages but its focus on adult students when they expressed their self-direction and autonomy
of their learning while teachers act as facilitators or tutors. Andragogy has been widely used in many
countries and applied to many educational sectors. SDL was developed on the basis of andragogy theory.
In essence, SDL requires individuals to take the initiative and responsible for learning. The self-
directed characteristics are relatively similar to the learning characteristics that andragogy proposed. It
turns students from the role of educational objects into educational or self-educational subjects. These
characteristics of andragogy and SDL are highly applicable in teaching and learning at higher education.
To promote the application of andragogy in SDL in universities, some suggestions are proposed
as follows:
Firstly, andragogy and the concept of SDL needs to be seriously researched and considered by
higher education institutions. Because both andragogy and SDL refers to the active role and responsibility
of learners. SDL emphasizes the students’ role in determining learning needs, goals, learning plans,
assessment and evaluation in the learning process at their universities. This is completely consistent
with the aim of the Central Communist Party’s Resolution No. 29/NQ-TW in 2013 on fundamental
and comprehensive renovation of education and training, which has determined to “strongly shift the
educational process from mainly equipping knowledge to comprehensive development of learners’
capabilities and qualities” (Communist Party of Vietnam, 2013). This is also the goal of Vietnamese
higher education specified in Article 39 of the Law on Education (2019), is “to train learners capable of
self-study, creativity, and adaptability to the working environment” (The National Assembly of Vietnam,
2019). Moreover, it is specifically affirmed in Article 5 of the Law on Higher Education (2012) for
undergraduate students as “…capable of working independently, creatively and solving problems of their
own trained industry” (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2012). At the same time, it is also possible to
ensure the quality assessment standards for university training programs according to Circular 04/2016,
whereby, it is stated that the teaching and learning activities must promote the training of skills to
enhance lifelong learning ability of learners (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2016).
Thus, SDL needs to be considered to include in legal documents and strategies or plans, curriculum
as a solution with focus on taking learners and the learning process as the center of the education. Because
andragogy and SDL all refer the individuals’ proactive role in learning. This shows both the innovation
of educational assessment purposes, considering assessment as learning (the students actively occupy
knowledge through learning) as well as the representation of the “student-center oriented” and “problem-
based learning” according to students’ learning needs and goals.
Secondly, training curriculum, syllabus and teaching methods in universities should be designed
basing on the students’ experience and learning needs. According to andragogy theory, adult students
have their certain experience from their own learning (and working) process. Therefore, they may not
want to learn what do not bring benefit to their work or needs. Therefore, the training curriculums should
focus on issues/problems related to the learners’ work or personal life. In addition, learning should focus
on solutions to solve students’ on-going problems and difficulties.
Thirdly, the role of the teacher and students should be clearly defined, in which, the teacher provides
advice, guidance and create a learning environment to promote students’ participation and autonomy in
learning to achieve knowledge, skills and learning results in the most effective manner. Meanwhile,
students actively involved in their learning process; set up their learning objectives, plan and prepare
resources for learning. Students actively learn while the teacher supports and motivates in the learning
process.
For students: learning must be considered as a process. To achieve optimal learning results,
students must actively participate in the learning process, not passively absorb information, and take
responsibility about their own learning.
For teachers: adult students often learn by doing, they want to be involved. As they learn, they often
relate what they are learning with known experiences. Therefore, to help adults learn more effectively,
it is advisable to start from their own knowledge and understanding and include examples and problems
in learning content that must be appropriate and relevant to students.
Fourthly, learning context should be well cared. At higher education institutions, the learning
environment plays an important role to promote the students’ learning. A comfortable learning
environment could help students more interest in their learning. Therefore, it is advisable to minimize
the causes that make them feel stressed or not open in the learning process. Learning would be more
effective if the learning context is favorable. Additionally, educators should create opportunities for
students to actively participate in the learning process. Students should involve in training contents
and their learning process. For example, when participating in a course, students could express their own
perspectives. They may want to be “more participated” in their learning rather than simply receiving
information from the teachers.
REFERENCES
1. Bedi, A. (2004). An andragogical approach to teaching styles. Education for Primary Care,
15(1), 93-97.
2. Brockett, R. G., Hiemstra, R., & Penland, P. R. (1982). Self-directed learning. In C. Klevins (Ed.),
Materials & methods in adult and continuing education (pp. 171-178). Klevens Publications Inc.
3. Carney, T. (1986). Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning.
Canadian Journal of Communication, 12(1), 77-80. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22230/
cjc.1986v12n1a376
4. Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW dated November 04, 2013 of the 8th Conference of the 11th Central
Executive Committee on radical changes in education and training to meet the requirements of
the industrialization and modernization in a socialist-oriented market economy in the course of
the international intergration, (2013).
5. Forrest III, S. P., & Peterson, T. O. (2006). It’s called andragogy. Academy of Management Learning
& Education, 5(1), 113-122. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2006.20388390
6. Galbraith, M. W. (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction. Krieger
Publishing Company.
7. Garrison, D. R. (1992). Critical Thinking and Self-Directed Learning in Adult Education: An
Analysis of Responsibility and Control Issues. Adult Education Quarterly, 42(3), 136-148.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369204200302
8. Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-Directed Learning: Toward a Comprehensive Model. Adult Education

Quarterly, 48(1), 18-33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369704800103
9. Grubbs, J. B., & Riley, A. C. (2018). Generational differences in narcissism and narcissistic
traits. In Handbook of Trait Narcissism (pp. 183-191). Springer.
10. Howe, M. J. A. (1987). Motivation, cognition, and individual achievements. In E. d. Corte, H.
Lodewijks, R. Parmentier, & P. Span (Eds.), Learning and instruction (Vol. 1, pp. 133-146). Pergamon.
11. Kearsley, G. (2010). Andragogy (M. Knowles). The theory into practice database.
12. Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus Pedagogy.
Association Press.
13. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Association Press.
14. Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy.
Association Press
15. Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in action. Jossey-Bass.
16. Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4 ed.). Gulf Publishing.
17. Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2014). The adult learner: The definitive
classic in adult education and human resource development. Routledge.
18. Leach, L. J. (2000). Self-directed learning: Theory and practice [Doctor of Philosophy,
University of Technology]. Sydney, Australia. http://hdl.handle.net/10453/20330
19. Loeng, S. (2020). Self-Directed Learning: A Core Concept in Adult Education. Education
Research International, 2020, 3816132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3816132
20. Loftin, R. L., Gibb, A. C., & Skiba, R. (2005). Using self-monitoring strategies to address behavior
and academic issues. Impact, 18(2), 12-13. https://ici.umn.edu/products/impact/182/over6.html
21. Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2020). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide.
John Wiley & Sons.
22. Pappas, C. (2013). The Adult Learning Theory - Andragogy - of Malcolm Knowles. https://
elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles (accessed on
10 April 2021)
23. Phillips, B. N., Turnbull, B. J., & He, F. X. (2015). Assessing readiness for self-directed learning
within a non-traditional nursing cohort. Nurse education today, 35(3), e1-7. https://doi.org/http://
doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2014.12.003
24. Schwab, K. (2017). The fourth industrial revolution. Currency.
25. Smith, C. (2010). The great dilemma of improving teacher quality in adult learning and literacy.
Adult Basic Education Literacy, 4(2), 67.
26. Law on Higher Education No. 08/2012/QH13 was adopted by the 13th National Assembly of the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam on June 18, 2012 and takes effect from January 1, 2013, (2012).
27. Law on Education No. 43/2019/QH14 was adopted by the 14th National Assembly of the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam on June 14, 2019 and takes effect from July 1, 2019, (2019).
28. Tri, T. M., Hong, B. V., & Xuan, V. T. (2016). Using Self- directed learning topromote
activenessfor students in the context of international integration. Journal of science of HNUE,
61, 28-36. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.18173/2354-1075.2016-0
29. Circular No. 04/2016/TT-BGDDT dated March 14, 2016 of the Ministry of Education and
Training on quality assessment standards for higher education programs, (2016).
30. Zmeyov, S. I. (1998). Andragogy: Origins, Developments and Trends. International Review of
Education, 44(1), 103-108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3445079
TRAINING MANAGEMENT AT UNIVERSITIES
IN THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION CONTEXT
Nguyen Vu Bich Hien, Nguyen Thi Kim Son,

Dinh Thi Kim Thuong, Pham Tuan Anh
(Hanoi Metropolitan University)
Abstract: The article shows concern about digital transformation in education and education management,
in which the field of data mining for training management at universities is the proposed key issue. Through in-
depth analysis of the urgency of the need for digital transformation in education and education management,
the reality of some training management models in the current digital transformation context, and an overview
analysis of the research on the application of machine learning techniques in data processing in education science,
we propose some solutions to organize digital transformation and data mining in training management of a university
(in the context of Vietnam) in the current stage.
Keywords: digital transformation, education management, machine learning techniques, data mining.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays humanity has entered a new era of technology-based creativity. The Industrial Revolution
4.0 is shaped inseparably with data and data analysis, which poses challenges to organizations (including
universities) in handling data to improve efficiency and capacity of activities and to reduce the risks.
For the training activity and training management, data is considered an asset, a core part of strategic
activities which brings about great value in university management and increasing competitiveness.
The characteristics of data in the digital age are of very large volume, complex structure, fast change,
so techniques have to be further developed to respond to new data analysis needs, transforming data
into information and continuing to transform information into operations and strategies for helping
university’s leaders make important decisions in training management, helping students build optimal
learning strategies, which makes an important contribution to improving the quality and effectiveness
of training.
Managing and operating training activities is one of the most important activities of a university. In
the past training, activities were mainly managed manually. Information is stored on paper (hard copy),
which causes many difficulties and disadvantages for management and administration, especially in the
current technology era, at the same time, the prolonged epidemic situation affects the direct interaction
between managers and data and between teachers and learners (such as the Covid-19 epidemic).
Along with the development of information technology, education management activities,
and training management have had many changes. With the use of training management software,
information about teachers, learners, and learning outcomes together with factors affecting the learning
process have been stored in soft copy on the computer, from which simple analysis operations can be
easily implemented.
The development of information technology infrastructure in recent years allows us to carry out
many different forms of teaching. Besides traditional teaching methods, online teaching via the Internet
or through learning management systems (LMS) has been widely applied. This makes it easier and more
accessible to collect digital data sources and accelerates the digital transformation in education.
In the era of technology based on big data, the need for universities to innovate governance models
and improve governance efficiency has become an urgent problem for managers. In training management,
universities need to digitize (digitally transform) management information, create interconnected large
database systems, deploy online public services, and apply new technologies 4.0 (AI, Blockchain, data
analysis, etc.) to manage training, forecast student learning outcomes, support management decision
making quickly and accurately.
Exploiting this useful information to serve the education management process and improve
educational methods and effectiveness is an urgent matter that needs attention. The question is, how to
build a large data source about education and training activities in schools, with many inherent attributes
and complexity; at the same time, how to use, analyze and exploit this data source effectively to serve
the education management and improve the education efficiency?
To answer this question, a new field has emerged - data mining in education (Romeo, C, and Ventura,
S. (2010) [15]). This field uses techniques in mathematical statistics, machine learning techniques, and
data mining models to extract latent knowledge in educational data. Having been originated in the early
years of the 21st century, up to now, the field of Data mining in education is increasingly developing and
obtaining many remarkable achievements [15].
This article will delve into the analysis of the urgency of the need for digital transformation in
education and education management (Section 2.1), the reality of some training management models
in the current digital transformation context (section 2.2), and an overview analysis of studies on the
application of machine learning techniques in data processing in education science (section 2.3), thereby
proposing some solutions to organize digital transformation and data mining in training management
of a university (in the context of Vietnam) in current stage (section 2.4). Some general conclusions are
given in section 3 at the end of the article.
2. CONTENTS
2.1. Overview of digital transformation in education and education management
Education is an activity that aims to equip all people with knowledge and skills about worldview,
science, technology, and career skills from basic to advanced levels. Education and training in the current
context are open, mass, and learner-oriented education and training. Educational activities are carried
out in any space and time by many different forms of transmission, in order to implement the goal of
taking learners as the “center”. The implement of the requirement to organize educational activities
in any space and time and by flexible means of transmission is a philosophical premise to develop
the application of technology as well as digital transformation for education activities and educational
management organization.
Digital transformation in education is the process of changing the way of education and education
management, in which the application of information technology meeting the increasing learning needs
of pupils, students, lecturers, and school management to create a connected learning environment is the
core issue of concern. It is an ecosystem that combines technology, services, and security to narrow
the digital distances and create collaborative, interactive, and personalized learning experiences. Today
digital transformation is applied in two main forms:
The first form is the application of technology in teaching. Digital technology trends make the
teaching and learning space expand. Smart devices installed in classrooms such as video recorders,
smart desks, smart electronic boards, online learning devices, etc., are widely used. Many educational
institutions also create favorable conditions for students to experience and access high technology, even
participate in virtual reality tours. Digital transformation applications in teaching methods are used
today such as E-learning; Learning through projects; Learning using virtual reality applications; Classes
on Programming, STEM, STEAM, etc.
The second form is the application of technology in management. At present education

management software has been used by many educational institutions such as university management
software, asset management software, human resource management software, student management
software, document management software, library management software, accounting software, training
portal, online enrollment portal, etc. These technology applications make it easy for learners to look up
information; teachers, administrators can manage student transcripts, timetables, or other information
in the management and operation of school activities. On the other hand, using technology to operate
and manage education is also vigorously deployed. The Education sector is actively promoting the
re-development of technology, online working processes, and the application of BigData, IoT, etc....,
also enhancing the connection between departments on the basis of management and processing
administrative tasks through e-Government, etc.
Digital transformation is the foundation for building a smart education model (SMART Education).
This model is understood as “the comprehensive integration of technology, the ability to access and
connect anything via the Internet anytime and anywhere” (Uskov, V., Howlet, R. Jain, L., 2017[18]). It
is necessary to perform synchronously and comprehensively in all aspects based on the IT application
platform, including smart classrooms (Smart Classroom-SmCl), smart environment (Smart Environment-
SmE), smart teachers (Smart). Teacher-SmT), smart campus (Smart Campus-SmC), and smart school
(Smart School-SmS). In studies the assessment of smart educational activities (schools) is based on
the following criteria: readiness to accept and adapt to technology, definite indicators of technology
application, level of “smart” of tasks, activities in the classroom, school, and equipment [6].
In the “SMARTER Education” model, the elements are set up according to a whole system, have
mutual effects, promote the quality and effectiveness of the educational process. It includes following
elements: S (self-directed); M (motivated); A (adaptive); R (resources): resources, extensive learning
materials; T (technology); E (engagement); R (relevance). This model can have a strong impact on the
educational process in the following ways:
- Changes in learners’ expectations and the ability of schools to respond (adaptability, employability,
and self-employment after graduation; ability to maintain and develop professional expertise; lifelong
learning opportunity, etc);
- The diversification of “education products”, the process of ensuring and improving the quality of
education thanks to large databases, artificial intelligence, value chains in education;
- Changes in the relationship, role, and position of teachers and learners in the teaching process,
in the educational ecosystem;
- The change of teaching environment, learning campus with multi-functional learning materials.
- The change of management and administration models in education and teaching on a new
digital platform.
In essence, with the help of new technology, smart education needs to create a completely different
method from mass education, towards differentiation, individualization, and highly personalized. The
system connecting people - information – objects (machines) forms a chain of links in training, research,
and technology transfer, promoting the process of transforming educational institutions into an innovation
ecosystem. and creativity. Thus, instead of providing knowledge, teaching content, “training human
resources, fostering talents” according to rigid programs, schools should train skills (using information,
creating knowledge and decision making), fostering talents, developing visions for learners, with the
model of “one learner, multiple programs, multiple campuses”.
In that context, it is possible to regard education as a technological process, technological products

that can be packaged, transferred, and as a process of applying and absorbing the achievements of other
technology fields.
2.2. Some training management models in the context of digital transformation in Vietnam
In Vietnam, there have been a number of studies on university models as well as training management
models and evaluation of training activities at universities. Author Nguyen Thi Ngoc Anh (2019) [1]
has systematized the theoretical basis, assessed the actual situation of training management to exercise
autonomy and social responsibility of some local universities. In her research Nguyen Thi Ngoc Anh
approached the CIPO training management model. The approach according to CIPO is an approach when
studying and considering the quality of the whole education system, including factors: Context, Input
Process, and Output. The author has applied this approach to propose training management solutions
to exercise autonomy and social responsibility in accordance with the conditions of local universities.
In the study “Training management in Vietnamese universities according to the results-based

management approach (RBM)” (2013), author Tran Van Tung [7] systematized the theoretical issues
of training management at universities with a results-based management approach and propose results-
based processes and measures to improve training quality. According to the author, results-based
Management (RBM) is a method of classifying management types with different characteristics of
different combinations of management elements such as management objectives, management network
organization, management philosophy, and management effectiveness. In general, the RBM model
consists of five main stages (Figure 1.1):
Figure 1.1. Five main stages in the RBM model
Author Nguyen Huu Duc (2019) has researched the characteristics and requirements of Industry
Revolution 4.0, identified the basic characteristics of the 4.0 university model - smart industrial
university, developed a set of standards and criteria of the 4.0 university model according to the approach
to education quality assurance and university ranking, built a statistical database of universities from
international and domestic sources, identified a set of matching indicators and software as a tool to
assess the level of access for the 4.0 university model. The author has also classified the university
generations according to the degree of value-added (Figure 1.2) [4].
Figure 1.2. The evolution of university models in proportion to the degree of value-added
Accordingly, 1.0 University performs the function of imparting knowledge, fostering talents,
and training experts. 2.0 University performs both training and research functions, contributes to the
creation of new knowledge through research, and can provide consulting services to the community.
Along with training and research activities, 3.0 University performs the function of technology transfer.
Their intellectual property is effectively managed. Technology is commercialized. Technology startup
culture is established. 3.0 University can quickly respond to the requirements of businesses in training
experts or researching and providing new technology solutions that businesses are interested in. 3.0
University is an innovative startup university (Entrepreneurial University). 4.0 University acts as a

knowledge provider of the future, becoming a leader in the development of high-tech industries and
implementing the capitalization of its knowledge and technology assets. Based on the development
of university models, the author has proposed SMARTI model. The SMARTI model describes both
training activities and an innovative university ecosystem. The training contents include objectives and
output standards, content and curriculum, teaching and learning methods, and assessment methods. It is
specifically shown in Figure 1.3:
Output standards S Lifelong study, Digital, Start-up, SsME
Open, interdisciplinary, flexible and

Training program M
experiential
Virtual – smart university, digital

A
Teaching – Learning infrastructure
R
Private - personalized training
Exam (Knowledge, attitude, skills, habits

Accessment T
and entrepreneurial ability)
5I (ISI, Innovation, Industry,

Innovative Ecosystem I
Internationalization)
Figure 1.3. SMARTI university model adapting to Industry 4.0
In addition, the author has proposed a digital transformation model of a smart university (V-SMARTH)
oriented towards innovation. According to this model, VSmarTH university has 6 characteristics:
(i) S – Digital resources, (ii) M – Open access learning materials, (iii) A – Virtual teaching and learning
environment, (iv) R – meeting individual learning needs, (v) T – Interactive teaching and learning methods
and (vi) H – digital infrastructure. The content of these elements is depicted in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4. Smart university model V-SMARTH

According to author Phan Anh Hung (2013), the contents of management training activities in
universities include management of enrollment, management of training objectives, management
of content & training programs, management innovation of teaching methods, management of a
contingent of lecturers, officers, and employees, management of the organization and implementation
of training plans, management of facilities and equipment for training, management of evaluation of
training results [5].
New issues in education science are also concerned in research. Specifically, at the seminar “New
issues in education science: Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches” held in the University
of Education - Vietnam National University, Hanoi in which many scientists are interested, there were
48 articles published in the conference proceedings. In this topic of philosophy, models, and methods of
education in the direction of 4.0 (13 articles), the participating authors are interested in the development
and innovation of education in general and higher education in particular. Specific approaches can be
mentioned as the university model in the context of Industry 4.0; development trend of higher education
in the world; renovating the management of higher education; university governance, and the challenges
of higher education
2.3. Overview of studies on the application of machine learning techniques in data processing of
education science
Data mining is the process of discovering valuable information or making predictions from data.
This is an overarching problem, but that databases are now in the form of Bigdata with very large data
sources will be very difficult for learners as well as teachers in the field of education if there is no
possibility of proficient data mining skills, so it will be very difficult to find the right data.
In education, the problem of information extraction (Information Extraction) is the problem of
manipulating algorithms most used by teachers and learners. From a specific database, this operation
can help teachers and learners extract information and search fields that match the field and knowledge
that teachers and learners need to be provided.
The educational trend of the 21st century is open education and mass education, so in addition to
the theoretical knowledge imparted academically, it is necessary to have the participation of images,
contributing the support for theoretical knowledge needing conveying, which is also relevant to the
issue of open education and mass education in the current context. Machine learning can process images
based on the following methods and applications such as analyzing information from images, besides
from an image to be processed, Machine Learning technology can handle the following problems:
Firstly, the operation of tagging images (Image Tagging). This is a very familiar operation that
appears on popular social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, Tiktok. This is a function based on the
broadcasting algorithm detecting and self-recognizing the individual’s faces in line with the individual’s
images and faces stored in databases. This algorithm is manipulated based on the provided database and
automatically finds similar photos of an individual that have been used before. Using this image tagging
function is very possible in the field of education based on additional jobs for teachers such as attendance,
class list management, as well as convenient for learners when being accepted as well as grasp the
information of the class.
Secondly, the operation of character recognition (Optical Character Recognition), which is also a
very familiar operation. Now there are many applications on smartphones that help users to store the
following documents with jpg or pdf file format. The character recognition algorithm from machine
learning is an upgrade of technology, this is a very important field in education, especially in the context
of education that is promoting digitization, digital transformation, having a Machine Learning algorithm
with the ability to recognize characters, documents in the form of characters are presented, recognized
by this algorithm and converted to digitized form for use and storage. This is an algorithm that greatly
contributes to both learners and teachers in the problem of storing information and communicating
knowledge between teachers and learners in both face-to-face and online interactions.
Machine learning techniques for data mining are applied in many fields including education
science. Especially in the context of education with many changes under the impact of Industry 4.0,
technology has become a part of the means of production of the educational process. On the other hand,
individual learning needs are also focused. Therefore, pedagogical research is being redirected to an
in-depth study of learner behavior to establish individual learning programs; at the same time mining
big data of learners to diagnose and reorient the learning process of learners in particular, and manage/
operate the educational process in general. It is also the content that machine learning can be applied in
education science research.
There are many algorithms frequently applied in machine learning techniques to solve problems
in education science: (1) anomaly detection algorithm, this is the algorithmic method of detecting
irregularities, for example, cheating in the learning process, or in a greater extent, detecting anomalies
in the research and development (R&D) of a science and technology activity in a university. To be
able to detect anomalies, it is necessary to mine data with anomalous properties and compare it with
standard values, thereby synthesizing and making an assessment of the operation, this is an essential
algorithm for teachers and learners; (2) the algorithm to detect rules (Association rules), in the problem
of data mining of teachers and learners often takes place many times, thereby building new a database
of trends in science and technology to search, from which the algorithm will synthesize search rules,
as well as frequently searched fields for teachers or learners, topics from there, AI technology will
make predictions about search trends, as well as suggest necessary fields of science and knowledge in
accordance with the search trends of teachers and learners; (3) grouping algorithm, grouping is also
an important algorithm, it is an operation often used by teachers in dividing students in the class into
groups based on common characteristics as well as the appropriate field of study, with the background of
AI technology & the database of learners, the grouping will be easier for the teacher to manipulate and
suitable for the characteristics of the learners; (4) prediction algorithm, this is an algorithm of predictive
creature. In the field of science and technology, it can be confirmed that predictive research is a difficult
type of research, or for Teaching activities needing doing experiments to be able to verify the responses of
those parameters in practical conditions. The use of AI and this algorithm contributes to predicting research
results, ensuring cost and safety for teachers and learners.
In the early years of the 21st century, the prediction was considered an application of machine
learning in education. Kotsiantis (2012) [11] performed a study using student-specific data and score
data mined as a dataset for a regression machine learning method used to predict the performance of
students’ future learning. Similarly, some projects have been conducted with the aim of developing a
model to predict the risk of students dropping out of school (IBM’s Smart Classroom project); predict
student performance (Shahiri et al., 2015) [16]; determine the risk of failing the exam or failing class
[Elbadrawy et al, 2016) [10], etc.
Many schools have now begun to create personalized learning experiences through the use of
technology in the classroom. Thanks to the advancement of the amount of data collected, machine
learning techniques have been applied to improve the quality of education covering areas related to
learning and content analysis (Lan et al., 2014) [12], knowledge retrieval (Yudelson et al., 2013) [17],
reinforcement of learning materials (Rakesh et al., 2014) [14] and early warning systems (Beck and
Davidson 2016) [9]. The use of these techniques for educational purposes is a promising area for
the development of methods to explore data from educational institutions that compute and discover
meaningful patterns (Nunn et al., 2016) [13].
In Vietnam, some scientists have initially conducted research on the application of machine
learning in education science such as (Listen, 2013) [2] using the superior features of the Mymedialite
system to build a method of predicting student capacity; (Uyen & Tam, 2019) [8] using two data mining
algorithms Naïve Bayes and Logistic Regression also gave some positive results in predicting learning
outcomes and predicting forced stoppage; The authors (Sang, Dien, Nghe, & Hai, 2020) have proposed a
method to predict student learning outcomes by deep learning techniques to exploit databases in student
management systems at Can Tho University [3]. After collecting data the authors conduct analysis,
select suitable attributes, preprocess the data, design and train the MLP network. With the design and
training of multi-layer neural networks, the results obtained in predicting student learning outcomes are
the initial results in applying machine learning and deep learning techniques to support the process of
training activity management in the university.
2.4. Solutions of organizing digital transformation and data mining in training management of a
university (Vietnam context) in the current stage
2.4.1. Implementing digital transformation in the university
With the goal of building a smart university administration system, increasing the application of
information technology in lectures, school administration, student management, and building modern
and synchronous facilities, the research and application of digital transformation and data mining in
education into the reality of teaching, training and scientific research of universities should soon be
implemented. Depending on actual conditions, each university needs to have a common direction
in building a roadmap to apply digital transformation and big data mining to training, research, and
teaching activities. Some basic guidelines are as follows:
Firstly, form the school’s big data system from two sources: (1) digitizing all of the university’s
data (endogenous data) and (2) linking, exchanging, and cooperating domestically and internationally
to exploit, process, and mine data to build the School’s big data (exogenous data). Developing digital
resources and digital learning environment, adding to the school’s digital data warehouse, online
question bank shared in schools, e-learning lecture warehouse connected to the digitized Vietnamese
Knowledge System.
Secondly, mine big data (including big data of the School and big data of national and international)
for use in school activities.
Thirdly, research and develop detailed projects to ensure the collection, management, and
operation of big data, organize data mining in training, and scientific research in schools. Promote the
implementation of online public services in university administration, prioritize the implementation of
online public services for university admissions; make non-cash tuition payments; all kinds of records,
books, and electronic documents; continue to effectively use the electronic administrative management
system to exchange electronic documents and digital signatures between relevant units and organizations
and individuals.
Fourthly, promote online teaching skills, digital transformation skills, and skills of participating
in online teaching and learning activities for lecturers and students; forming a learning ecosystem in a
digitalized environment.
To research and build a roadmap for applying big data in educational activities in universities, it is
necessary to implement the following solutions:
Firstly, raise awareness about the application of information technology, digitization, and
application of big data, data mining in training management, research, and teaching activities.
Secondly, take some steps in the data normalization process to form big data from the school’s
endogenous source.
Thirdly, research and select big data models, access big data and use data mining in accordance
with the characteristics, functions, and tasks of the university.
Fourthly, strengthen data governance and use tools for big data analysis and mining to bring useful
information to contribute to innovation in teaching and scientific research methods.
Fifthly, increase investment in information technology infrastructure to serve the digital
transformation as well as the application of big data, data mining in management and teaching.
Sixthly, improve the quality of human resources to be able to build big data and master the data
mining capabilities of the University, which it is urgent to strengthen human resources in the fields of
information technology, data mining, machine learning techniques, and related issues.
2.4.2. Digital Transformation Program of Hanoi by 2025 and Digital Transformation Solutions at Hanoi
Metropolitan University
Having implemented Decision No. 749/QD-TTg dated June 3, 2020 of the Prime Minister
promulgating the National Digital Transformation Program by 2025, with orientation to 2030; instructions
of the Ministry of Information and Communications; under the direction of the Hanoi People’s
Committee on the implementation of Decision No. 749/QD-TTg dated June 3, 2020, the Department
of Information and Communications of Hanoi drafted and submitted to the Hanoi People’s Committee
the Hanoi City Digital Transformation Program by 2025, orientated to 2030. Accordingly, by 2030,
Hanoi will strongly develop digital government, digital economy, digital society; fundamentally and
comprehensively renovate management and administration activities of the city government, production
and business activities of enterprises, people’s ways of living and working, developing a safe, humane
(and widespread) digital environment.
Hanoi’s Digital Transformation Program has the dual goal of developing digital government,
digital economy, and digital society, and forming digital technology businesses with global capabilities.
With the goal that by 2025, Hanoi is in the group of 5 leading localities nationwide in terms of digital
transformation, information technology, competitiveness index, innovation, safety, and network security.
Hanoi ranks in the leading group in Southeast Asia in Data Science and Artificial Intelligence (AI).
As the only university belonging to the capital today, Hanoi Metropolitan University (HNMU)
actively participates in the digital transformation program of Hanoi City, especially digital transformation
for the education industry in the capital. To accomplish this, Hanoi Metropolitan University has registered
to develop and implement some projects within the framework of Program No. 07-Ctr/TU of the Hanoi
Party Committee, term XVII on “Promoting the development of science, technology and innovation in
the area for the period of 2021-2025”, namely: Digital Transformation Project in Hanoi Metropolitan
University; Project on Developing high-quality human resource training program of Hanoi Metropolitan
University according to ranking standards of Asian Universities (AUN); The program develops the model
of “learning and creativity ecosystem” at all school levels in Hanoi city. Hanoi Metropolitan University
also proposed ordering scientific and technological tasks related to digital transformation in education,
applying data mining technology in education management, building a smart school governance model,
using e-government in handling administrative procedures, etc.
In the first stage of the digital transformation roadmap, Hanoi Metropolitan University has
completed the digitization of documents, data, and HNMU materials for the period 2015-2020 with
nearly 50,000 items of documents; built university management software to be shared throughout
HNMU; used e-learning materials; implemented online education and training (online teaching, online
exam); applied machine learning technology in data mining to predict enrollment, predict training quality,
career development trends, ... as a basis for policy-making and education management in HNMU.
In the period 2015 - 2020, HNMU has initially launched digital transformation activities at a
basic level, associated with the goal of developing and digitizing documents, data, and digital learning
materials of HNMU, along with that linking digital transformation with HNMU’s activities which
includes training as well as science and technology activities.
At the same time HNMU also increased investment in facilities to meet the requirements of
“digital transformation”. HNMU is equipped with digitizing facilities from simple machine systems
such as high-performance computer systems, a system of machines for document digitization to means
for digital transformation at a higher level such as digital transformation laboratories, virtual practice,
digital libraries to serve the study of learning materials for lecturers, researchers, staff as well as students
of HNMU. This contributes to the realization of HNMU’s digital transformation goal and at the same
time meets the requirements of building a “Smart city” in the direction of digital transformation of
Hanoi capital.
In the training activities of HNMU, the initial digital transformation is started by increasing
investment in IT infrastructure and synchronous facilities for teaching, learning and research activities
as well as for others of training process management. Next, HNMU improves mechanisms and policies
to create a legal corridor for digital transformation such as regulations on recognition of online learning
and exam results, copyright and intellectual property regulations in digital materials and about the
obligations and responsibilities of online lecturers and learners… HNMU also develops programs and
plans to train IT resources to have one step ahead and at the same time upgrade general IT skills for
lecturers and students to ensure requirements of working in the digital environment.
In terms of science and technology activities, HNMU orients applied topics, encourages information
technology application topics to improve the quality of activities in HNMU. Currently, HNMU is
implementing tasks of city-level science and technology in the direction of applying virtual reality
technology in training for Vietnam study, Tourism service & Tour management, History Education
which is suitable for digital transformation orientation of the HNMU as well as of Hanoi city; especially
the digitization of heritage by virtual reality technology has both contributed to preserving cultural
and historical values and also demonstrated the level and ability to apply technology of the lecturers,
researchers and scientists of HNMU.
Additionally, it is necessary to affirm that the digital transformation of HNMU always shows
the consistency with the goal of digital transformation of Hanoi City. HNMU has implemented initial
solutions for application development in the direction of assigning tasks of Hanoi City. With a wealth of
human resources in the fields of science and technology as well as information technology, HNMU is
ready to participate in implementing the digital transformation goals of Hanoi capital according to the
Digital Transformation Program in the period 2021-2025, orientating to 2030.
3. CONCLUSION
In recent years, science and technology achievements along with the development of Industry
4.0 have become a direct productive force, contributing to creating a new form of development that is
typically the matter of digitization and information technology connecting things. Besides, the outbreak
of the Covid-19 pandemic on a global scale has halted all socio-economic activities. The students cannot
go to HNMU. Those objective factors call for the question of digital transformation in education and
training and innovation in education management. Machine learning technology can be considered an
effective solution for data mining in the context of digital transformation in higher education today.
Researching solutions to organize digital transformation and data mining in training management of
a university is an urgent need, especially to quantify the criteria towards digitization and inclusion in
the digital transformation which not only meet the urgent needs in training management of university
managers in the current context, contributing to practical benefits for in-depth research and solving
forecasting problems in science, management, education science, but also is an indispensable basic step
in the digital transformation process of education and training. This is the initial approach for the birth
and strong growth of a new research trend – the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in education.
REFERENCES
References in Vietnamese
1. Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Anh (2019), Quản lý đào tạo thực hiện quyền tự chủ và trách nhiệm xã hội
của các trường đại học địa phương trong bối cảnh đổi mới giáo dục, Luận án tiến sĩ khoa học
giáo dục, Viện Khoa học Giáo dục Việt Nam.
2. Nghe, N. T. (2013). Hệ thống dự đoán kết quả học tập của sinh viên sử dụng thư viện hệ thống
gợi ý mã nguồn mở Mymedialite, Kỷ yếu Hội thảo quốc gia về CNTT năm 2013 – Trường Đại
học Cần Thơ.
3. Sang, L.H., Điện, T.T., Nghe, N.T., & Hải, N.T. (2020), Dự báo kết quả học tập bằng kỹ thuật
học sâu với mạng nơ-ron đa tầng, Can Tho University Journal of Science, 56(3)(June), tr.20-28,
https://doi.org/10.22144/ctu.jvn.2020.049, ngày cập nhật 29/06/2020.
4. Nguyễn Hữu Đức (2019), Nghiên cứu mô hình trường đại học đáp ứng với cuộc cách mạng công
nghiệp 4.0, Đề tài cấp quốc gia KHGD/16-20.ĐT.007, Trường Đại học Công nghệ - ĐHQGHN.
5. Phan Anh Hùng (2013), Giải pháp quản lý hoạt động đào tạo đại học ở Trường Đại học Bạc Liêu,
Luận văn thạc sĩ quản lý giáo dục, Học viện chính trị, Bộ Quốc phòng.
6. Nguyễn Quý Thanh, Tôn Quang Cường (2019), Những xu thế mới của công nghệ trong giáo
dục, Trường Đại học Giáo dục, ĐHQGHN.
7. Trần Văn Tùng (2013), Quản lý đào tạo trong các trường đại học Việt Nam theo tiếp cận quản
lý theo kết quả (RBM), Luận án tiến sĩ Giáo dục học, Trường Đại học Giáo dục, Đại học Quốc
gia Hà Nội.
8. Uyên, N. T., & Tâm, N. M. (2019), “Dự đoán kết quả học tập của sinh viên bằng kỹ thuật khai
phá dữ liệu”, Tạp chí Khoa học - Trường Đại học Vinh, Số 48, tr. 68–73.
References in English
9. Beck, HP and Davidson, WD. 2016. Establishing an Early Warning System: Predicting Low
Grades in College Students from Survey of Academic Orientations … Research in Higher
Education, 42(December 2001). 51(1), 1-16. - 0409 - 29th Daaam international symposium on
intelligent manufacturing and automation.
10. Elbadrawy, A, Polyzou, A, Ren, Z, Sweeney, M, Karypis, G and Rangwala, H. 2016. -okay-
Predicting Student Performance Using Personalized Analytics. Computer, 49(4): 61–69.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2016.119
11. Kotsiantis, SB. 2012. Use of machine learning techniques for educational proposes: A decision
support system for forecasting students’ grades. Artificial Intelligence Review, 37(4): 331–344.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-011-9234-x
12. Lan, AS, Studer, C and Baraniuk, RG. 2014. Time-varying Learning and Content Analytics
via Sparse Factor Analysis. In: KDD’14 ACM. New York, USA. DOI:https://doi.
org/10.1145/2623330.2623631
13. Nunn, S, Avella, JT, Kanai, T and Kebritchi, M. 2016. Learning Analytics Methods, Benefits,
and Challenges in Higher Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Online Learning, 20(2):
13–29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i2.790
14. Rakesh, A, Christoforaki, M, Gollapudi, S, Kannan, A, Kenthapad, K and Swaminathan, A.
2014. Mining Videos from the Web for Electronic Textbooks. Microsoft Research.
15. Romeo, C and Ventura, S. 2010. Education Data Mining: A review of the State of the Art, IEE
Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews), Vol. 49,
No. 6, pp 601-618, DOI: 10.1109/TSMCC.2010.2053532.
16. Shahiri, AM, Husain, W and Rashid, NA. 2015. A Review on Predicting Student’s Performance
Using Data Mining Techniques. Procedia Computer Science, 72: 414–422. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.12.157
17. Yudelson, MV, Koedinger, KR and Gordon, GJ. 2013. Individualized Bayesian Knowledge
Tracing Models.
18. Vladimir L. Uskov, Eddited by Robert J. Howlett, Edited by Lakhmi C. Jain (2017), Smart
Education and e-Learning, Springer International Publishing AG, ISBN10 3319594508
FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHERS’ ASSESSMENT COMPETENCE:
A LITERATURE REVIEW
Ngo Ba Loi, Vu Trong Luong
Abstract: In the present context of renovative education, it is commonly known that assessment is considered
as an important part in ability of direction and effect on other education activities including instruction and
learning generally. The problems of training, retraining, and development of teacher assessment competence
(TAC) are becoming an urgent and important aspect to both the world in general and Vietnam in particular. This
paper is a literature review of factors that affect teachers’ assessment competence. The purpose behind this article
is to highlight the need for the construction of a TAC framework and evaluation of TAC.
Keywords: teacher assessment competence, factor, assessment literacy/ competence.
1. INTRODUCTION
Assessment literacy (AL) is a prerequisite for today’s competent educators (Popham, 2009), the
heart of the success of educational assessment and central to the overall quality of education (Xu &
Brown, 2017). Effective school learning requires good teaching and it requires value judgments that
build professionals to educate their students (Porter & Brophy, 1988). Classroom assessement is
conducted and attributed to TAC. Meanwhile, teachers may spend up to 50% of their professional
time on assessment-related activities (R. J. Stiggins, 1995), yet many teachers are often involved in
assessment decision-making without sufficient training in assessment (DeLuca & Bellara, 2013; Schafer
& Lissitz, 1987). Therefore, understanding teachers’ current levels of AL mastery is a good departure
point for promoting both AL research and teacher development in assessment (Xu & Brown, 2017).
However, despite the importance of this professional competence across many educational
systems, little is known about the factors that influence TAC, particularly as teachers begin their learning
in assessment. The field is only beginning to understand the various factors that influence teachers’
approaches to assessment and the conditions that support enhanced assessment practice (DeLuca &
Klinger, 2010; Looney, Cumming, van Der Kleij, & Harris, 2018). Those challenging problems have
made requests that the defining of influence factors and enhancing of TAC are a pivotal issues, especially
in renew educational contexts.
The present study subjects a literature review on factors affacting TAC, relating to a large number
of books, articles and conference papers. The main focus of this paper consists of definition and a brief
review of factors influencing TAC presented in corresponding sections.
2. CONTENTS
2.1. Concepts of teacher assessment competence
In many educational researchers’ views, in broad sense, TAC includes both knowledge, skills in
relation with assessment activities of teachers (Popham, 2009; R. J. Stiggins, 1995) as well as interpretation
and using of information and evidences aggregated to modify their teaching and students’ learning,
and to make reports to concerned parts (R. Stiggins & Duke, 2008; Webb, 2002). It could find similar
standpoints in the following research: Assessment competence is usually defined as basic knowledge of
educational assessment and related skills (R. J. Stiggins, 1991). Jan Chappuis and his fellow-workers
believed that assessment competence is essential knowledge, skills to congregate exactly information
of student achievement, and to use effectively assessment process for improving their perfomance (Jan
Chappuis & et al., 2014). Fulcher has defined assessment competence as indispensable knowledge,
skills and attitudes to design, develop, maintain and evaluate wide-ranging standardized tests, classroom
tests. Simultaneously, it is penetrating testing processes and princiles, concepts which direct and support
assessment activities such as rules and behaviors in relation to assessment, as well as evaluation ability
of the role and influence of assessment to society, institutes and personels (Fulcher, 2012). From another
approach, Hoang Thi Tuyet considered assessment competence from three radical angles: i) From the
perspective of reality using, it is an integrational and popular ability of teacher,both in teaching and
learning; ii) From the perspective of structure and intrinsic nature of the evaluation process, assessment
competence is a totall of skills, professional knowledge and some corresponding qualities; iii) From the
perspective of assessment content, it is an integration of different competences such as assessments of
programme, books, documents, teaching-learning tools, educational projects, teachers, performances/
achievements, teaching-learning disign and methods, teaching-learning conditions (Hoang Thi Tuyet,
2005) (Hoang Thi Tuyet, 2005). Arcording to Duong Thu Mai, assessment competence is an apply
process of educational assessment knowledge, skills and attitudes in implementing assessment process
(Duong Thu Mai, 2012).
In a narrower sense, Fullan and Watson stated that assessment literacy refers to the capacity of
teachers - alone and together - (a) to examine and accurately understand students’ work and performance
data, and correspondingly, (b) to develop classroom and school plans to alter conditions necessary to
achieve better results (Fullan & Watson, 2000).
It can be infered from the literature reviews that there are different ideas and approaches to the
concepts of assessment competence. These differences are mainly in various ways of categorises such as
quality, process, ability and activities to implement assessment. However, those factors of TAC almost
relate to teacher’s characteristics of knowledge, skill and attitude in assessment. As a consideration of
purpose and extend, there are two main approaches including narrow and wide meaning. In broad sense,
those are ability of successful and effective implimenting of educational activities beyond classes, such
as assessment of curriculums, teachers and colleagues, material facitlities, and activies of institues. In
narrow sense, AL relates to competence of carrying out successfully assessment activities in classes,
which dirrectly relavant to learners and teachers.
2.2. Impacts on teacher assessment competence
Following above approach, assessment competence is of concern to the ability to carry out
successfully teachers’ assessment activities. Therefore, this teacher’s competence will be affected by
a number of elements relevanted to performances of assessment and grading activities of classroom
teachers. The studies of Klinger, Volante and Deluca showed that, results of elementary teacher’s
classromm assessment activities in Canada were most affected by factors relating to time and the
subjectivity of assessors (Klinger, Volante, & Deluca, 2012). In an investigation of how the working
assessment theories and practices of preservice teachers change in the enactment of those theories
and practices in a mentored learning environment, Graham affirmed that assessment programme have
influences on assessment competence of teacher candidates (Graham, 2005). Lukin and his counterparts
showed that the assessment training programs built in their research programmes have contributed
to increase in teacher assessment literacy. In addition, time is a critical factor in the development of
assessment literacy. This includes both time to gain knowledge and skills, as well as time to implement
meaningful, sustainable changes in classroom assessment practices. (Lukin, Bandalos, Eckhout, &
Mickelson, 2004). In line with Klinger, Volante and Deluca’s argumentation, Millan and Workman
provided two groups of factors affecting teachers’ assessment and grading decisions including inner
and exterior factors, respectively. While, inner factors of teacher includes their oppinions and principles
of teaching and learning, exterior factors relate to pressures affecting to large-scale assessments,
policies and assessment regulations of govervment and institudes and parents’ requiments. In grading
and assessment processes, there are contradictions and stress facing to teachers. Internal affairs require
each teacher must be proficient and flexible in using a viriety of assessment types to creat oppotunities
and fufill individual differeces of students. Meanwhile, external factors demand educators to follow
regulations, standards of assessment and explain student performances to related counterparts including
administrators, parents and society. These requirements can put pressure on classroom educators who
need to solve conflicts in the following viewpoints and principles, as well as maitaining personalizing in
assessment. However, to have exact assessment decisions, teachers need to combine both those factors
to classify precisely learners (McMillan & Workman, 1999).
Wilson and Sloane investigated an comparative study between two groups of teachers who
work with the same professional program but have different ways of taking part and coordinating in
assessment. One group used to exchange their experiences, groupworks, dicussing, and interaction with
each other however, the other group did not. The results has shown that there were clearly differences.
The first group had higher scores than the other one. It has been concluded from this research that factors
such as “teacher involvement”, “cooperation environtment” are decisive key for classroom assessment
(Wilson & Sloane, 2000).
Merlter had conducted another comparative research between pre-service and in-servive teachers.
The results showed that there are not any relationships among experiences or teaching seniority with
assessment level of teacher (Mertler, 2004). This is also a consensus with King’s PhD research confiming
that years of service had a no impact on a educator’s assessment performances (King, 2010).
In an research of Asnakew Tagele and Lake Bedilu on highschool teacher assessment competence
in Ethiopia, they assessed the effect of some teacher personal characteristics to their assessment
competence. It has been concluded from research that those factors of teaching experiences and
evaluation and assessment training before service do have impacts on teacher assessment competence.
Meanwhile, those relate to gender and assigned subjects do not (Tagele & Bedilu, 2015).
Xu and Brown investigated factors such as teacher’s demography and institute context which could
influence language teacher assessment literacy in China. The findings are proved that there are no single
demographic characteristics such as gender, age, profesional title, qualification, seniority, assessment
training, which had a significant impact on instructors’ AL performance both in personal and professional
aspects. However, it worth noting that level of institutes and region have the huge potential impacts of
on teacher AL (Xu & Brown, 2017). Those results appropriate with Zhang and Burry-Stock’s research
confirmed that measurement training enhances teachers’ self-perceived assessment skills. The results of
this study provide evidences for the value of university coursework in tests and measurement (Zhang &
Burry-Stock, 2003).
There are many researches showed that teachers’ competence in educational assessment is affected
by social-cultural factors (DeLuca, Coombs, & LaPointe-McEwan, 2019; Looney et al., 2018; Willis,
Adie, & Klenowski, 2013). Of those, Willis, Adie, & Klenowski considered assessment as social-
cultural activities and used this approach to explain assessment competency in order to highight it as
a social activity. Following this approach, those researchers considered assessment literacy as a social
activity depending on continuous changing context. It is related to activities that teachers state clearly,
and combine classroom knowledge and cultural with other ones and learners. Looney and his coworkers
confirmed that teachers characteristics such as professionals, belief in assessment, tendency in assessment
implementation, awareness of educator’s role, all these have an important meaning to assessment
activities as well as their assessment competence (Looney et al., 2018). In 2019, while Deluca and his
co-workers, were exploring the realtionships between assessment approaches (in purposes and fairness
in assessment) and student teachers’ awareness of learning at the end of training course in Canada,
results showed that AL is influenced by contextual factors, training oppotunities, personal interests, and
educational culture. It has been concluded from this study that teacher’s awareness of assessment has a
clear correlation with their assessement approaches which are one of TAC elements (DeLuca et al., 2019).
In an investigation of influence comparision of educational-cultural contexts on AL of student
teacher between Germany and Canada, Deluca and his counterparts demonstrated that cultural context
do impact on TAC in both countries, and there were considerable variances in their AL structure. These
are attributed to the cultural differences including the way that they are trained in assessment, general
opinions about assessment, appreciation of assessment inside and among educational systems. Both
groups showed the highest priority to Assessment of learning. Student teachers in Canada paid more
attention to Assessment for learning and Assessment as learning. This means that they had a balance in
assessment objectives. Meanwhile, Germany pre-service teachers tend to just take care of Assessment
for learning. All stages of assessment such as design, administration, score, and inform of results a high
priority. Canadian teachers take more care to ensure equitable and differences in assessment activities
than German fellow teachers do. (DeLuca, Schneider, Coombs, Pozas, & Rasooli, 2020).
It relied on her study, Do Thi Huong confirmed that there were two basic factor groups, such as
teacher personal documents and educational environment, affecting primary TAC. Of those, factors such
as position, mission, areas, kind of school, training and retraining level in assessment, had significantly
influenced on TAC. Awereness of educational assessment, teacher personality, educational environment
had interrelationships and their own correlation with primary TAC. Among them, awereness of
educational assessment and knowledge of students have the strongest affection (Do Thi Huong, 2020).
3. DISCUSSION
Those above reviews show that there are still no reserved investigations of factors affecting on
TAC. Almost related-finding results are just one part or supporting contents for main studies.
Relying on the common idea of TAC concepts, which relate to teacher’s characteristics of knowledge,
skill and attitude in assessment, it can be infered from above-mentioned reviews that there are a broad
range of various factors influencing in different levels on teacher’s AL. Those factors can be categorised
in two groups including inner and exterior factors of teacher, respectively. All those main internal
elements are listed including the subjectivity of assessors, princilples of teaching and learning, teacher
involvement and cooperation environtment, teaching experiences, evaluation and assessment training,
professionals, belief in assessment, tendency in assessment implementation, awareness of educator’s
role, personal interests, teacher’s awareness of assessment, teacher personal documents (e.g. position,
mission, areas, training and retraining level in assessment), awereness of educational assessment and
teacher personality. Meanwhile, those main external elements are outlined including time and pressures
affecting to large-scale assessments, policies and assessment regulations of government and institutes
and parents’ requirements; and institute context (e.g. level of institutes and region, kind of school);
contextual factors, training oppotunities, and educational culture; the cultural differences including the
way that they are trained in assessment, general opinions about assessment, appreciation of assessment
and educational environment.
However, there are some results showed different or even opposite findings. For example, in addition
to reports of general level, AL has often been investigated in relation to basic teacher demographics,
which produced mixed results. Prior studies generally reported positive effects of assessment training
on teachers’ AL (Alkharusi, Kazem, & Al-Musawai, 2011; DeLuca & Bellara, 2013; Graham, 2005;
Lukin et al., 2004; Mertler, 2009). This is inconsistent with general finding in some other researches
(Brown, 2008; Xu & Brown, 2017) which found that training experience in assessment had no effect
on participants’ AL. In addition, no clear consensus was reached on the relationship between teaching
experience and AL levels, as a positive relationship was found in some studies (Hoover, 2009; Mertler,
2004) but not in others (King, 2010; Xu & Brown, 2017; Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2003), meanwhile
schooling experience was found to impact teachers’ assessment decisions (Campbell & Evans, 2000).
Other teachers’demographic characteristics such as gender, age, professional title, qualification was
found to be related to a higher level of AL (Do Thi Huong, 2020; Hoover, 2009; King, 2010), however,
it did not a consensus with other rearchers (Xu & Brown, 2017)
4. CONCLUSION
This paper summarised the definitions and ideas of AL, highlighted and discussed factors impacting
on TAC. It can be infered from above reviews that there are different ways of approaches and opinions
in respect to AL concepts and factors that effect on TAC. There are also diverse kinds of relationships
between TAC and some strong relevant elements such as social-cultural context, education-related
context (concepts, ideas of AL, role and appreciation of AL in education system, educational policies and
regulations with regard to AL) and some personal characteristics. However, there are still some factors
which remain different, even opposite results, such as educational experiences or teaching seniority,
assigned subjects, assessment training and teacher demography.
It is also infered from the reviews that those different levels of influence factors on TAC and some
inconsistent aspects of former researches demonstrated that there are not any AL structure appropriating
for all different groups of teacher in various contexts. To measure and assess thoroughly and exactly
levels of TAC, it needs to build a competence structure in accordance with practical contexts of institutes
and education base and studying objects.
The results of this summary research has opened forthcoming research approaches in relation to
defining and choosing exeptional factors which could evolve and affect the structure of TAC in the
research model.
REFERENCES
1. Alkharusi, H., Kazem, A. M., & Al-Musawai, A. (2011). Knowledge, skills, and attitudes of
preservice and inservice teachers in educational measurement. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher
Education, 39(2), 113-123.
2. Brown, G. (2008). Assessment literacy training and teachers’ conceptions of assessment.
Challenging thinking about teaching and learning, 285-302.
3. Campbell, C., & Evans, J. A. (2000). Investigation of preservice teachers’ classroom assessment
practices during student teaching. The Journal of Educational Research, 93(6), 350-355.
4. DeLuca, C., & Bellara, A. (2013). The current state of assessment education: Aligning policy,
standards, and teacher education curriculum. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(4), 356-372.
5. DeLuca, C., Coombs, A., & LaPointe-McEwan, D. (2019). Assessment mindset: Exploring
the relationship between teacher mindset and approaches to classroom assessment. Studies in
Educational Evaluation, 61, 159-169.
6. DeLuca, C., & Klinger, D. A. (2010). Assessment literacy development: Identifying gaps in
teacher candidates’ learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 17(4),
419-438.
7. DeLuca, C., Schneider, C., Coombs, A., Pozas, M., & Rasooli, A. (2020). A cross-cultural
comparison of German and Canadian student teachers’ assessment competence. Assessment in
Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 27(1), 26-45.
8. Đỗ Thị Hương. (2020). Cấu trúc năng lực đánh giá giáo dục của giáo viên tiểu học. (Luận án
tiến sỹ), Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội,
9. Dương Thu Mai. (2012). Nghiên cứu đề xuất khung năng lực chung về đánh giá giáo dục. Hội
thảo READ. Hà Nội.
10. Fulcher, G. (2012). Assessment literacy for the language classroom. Language Assessment
Quarterly, 9(2), 113-132.
11. Fullan, M., & Watson, N. (2000). School-based management: Reconceptualizing to improve
learning outcomes. School effectiveness and school improvement, 11(4), 453-473.
12. Graham, P. (2005). Classroom-based assessment: Changing knowledge and practice through
preservice teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(6), 607-621.
13. Hoàng Thị Tuyết. (2005). Đào tạo năng lực đánh giá giáo dục: Một cách nhìn thực tiễn. Hội thảo
Vai trò của hoạt động kiểm tra đánh giá trong đổi mới giáo dục ở Việt Nam.
14. Hoover, N. R. (2009). A descriptive study of teachers’ instructional use of student assessment
data: Virginia Commonwealth University.
15. Jan Chappuis, & et al. (2014). Classroom Assessment for Student Learning. England: Pearson
Education Limited.
16. King, J. D. (2010). Criterion-referenced assessment literacy of educators.
17. Klinger, D. A., Volante, L., & Deluca, C. (2012). Building teacher capacity within the evolving
assessment culture in Canadian education. Policy Futures in Education, 10(4), 447-460.
18. Looney, A., Cumming, J., van Der Kleij, F., & Harris, K. (2018). Reconceptualising the role of
teachers as assessors: teacher assessment identity. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy
& Practice, 25(5), 442-467.
19. Lukin, L. E., Bandalos, D. L., Eckhout, T. J., & Mickelson, K. (2004). Facilitating the development
of assessment literacy. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 23(2), 26-32.
20. McMillan, J. H., & Workman, D. (1999). Teachers’ classroom assessment and grading practices:
A review of leterature. Richmond, VA: Metropolitan Educaitonal Research Consortium, Virginia
Commonwealth University.
21. Mertler, C. A. (2004). Secondary teachers’ assessment literacy: Does classroom experience
make a difference? American secondary education, 49-64.
22. Mertler, C. A. (2009). Teachers’ assessment knowledge and their perceptions of the impact of
classroom assessment professional development. Improving schools, 12(2), 101-113.
23. Popham, W. J. (2009). Assessment literacy for teachers: Faddish or fundamental? Theory into
practice, 48(1), 4-11.
24. Porter, A. C., & Brophy, J. (1988). Synthesis of Research on Good Teaching: Insights from the
Work of the Institute for Research on Teaching. Educational leadership, 45(8), 74-85.
25. Schafer, W. D., & Lissitz, R. W. (1987). Measurement training for school personnel
recommendations and reality. Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 57-63.
26. Stiggins, R., & Duke, D. (2008). Effective instructional leadership requires assessment
leadership. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(4), 285-291.
27. Stiggins, R. J. (1991). Assessment literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(7), 534-539.
28. Stiggins, R. J. (1995). Assessment literacy for the 21st century. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(3), 238.
29. Tagele, A., & Bedilu, L. (2015). Teachers Competence in the Educational Assessment of
Students: The Case of Secondary School Teachers in the Amhara National Regional State. The
Ethiopian Journal of Education, 35(2), 163-191.
30. Webb, N. (2002). Assessment literacy in a standards-based urban education setting. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
31. Willis, J., Adie, L., & Klenowski, V. (2013). Conceptualising teachers’ assessment literacies
in an era of curriculum and assessment reform. The Australian Educational Researcher, 40(2),
241-256.
32. Wilson, M., & Sloane, K. (2000). From principles to practice: An embedded assessment system.
Applied measurement in education, 13(2), 181-208.
33. Xu, Y., & Brown, G. T. (2017). University English teacher assessment literacy: A survey-test
report from China. Papers in Language Testing and Assessment, 6(1), 133-158.
34. Zhang, Z., & Burry-Stock, J. A. (2003). Classroom assessment practices and teachers’ self-
perceived assessment skills. Applied measurement in education, 16(4), 323-342.
ROLES OF INTERNATIONAL JOINT TRAINING IN VIETNAMESE
HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM - CURRENT CHALLENGES
IN TRAINING QUALITY CONTROL
Thuan Van Pham, Mai Thi Khuyen
VNU University of Education
Pham Huyen Thi Thu
(Hanoi University of Architecture )
Abstract: The trend of globalization and international integration is demanding that Vietnamese higher
education quickly innovate its management mechanism to ensure and progressively improve the quality of training.
Guaranteeing the quality of international joint training at universities has a great role in providing excellent
human resources capable of profound global integration for the labor market. With that in mind, ensuring the
quality of transnational training is one of the priorities for common development of universities across the country.
Under the systematic approach and theoretical research methods, the article presents some concepts concerning
the quality assurance of international joint training at Vietnamese universities; the role of international joint
training at universities in Vietnam and the problems that come with it in the current context. This is the theoretical
basis serving as a premise to study measures to ensure the quality of international joint training at universities in
Vietnam in the new context.
Keywords: roles, training, international relation, quality assurance, higher education.
1. INTRODUCTION
International joint training at universities today has brought many practical benefits to the country,
to educational institutions and to each learner. At the national level, international university training
has contributed to mobilizing resources to contribute to education and training in the country, meeting
the increasing learning needs of students, students, reduce the amount of foreign currency “bleeding”
abroad and save the state budget for education and training.
However, the challenges for universities in international joint training are very strong because
they have to face to pressures on quality, quality assurance, and quality assurance management, etc.
Quality assurance in higher education is a relatively new issue that has been ongoing for more
than ten years in Vietnam. There have also been many works pointing out the concepts related to
accreditation and quality assurance, the constitutive elements of quality and quality assurance in higher
education, the meaning of higher education accreditation, the higher education quality assurance system
establishment process; at the same time, exist numerous research making recommendations for effective
higher education quality assurance activities such as studies by Nguyen Quang Giao (2010, 2011) [6,
7], Nguyen Duc Chinh (2002) [4], Lam Quang Thiep (2003) [10], in prior years, and most recently, the
work of Mahsood Shah and Nguyen Huu Cuong (2019) [11] as well as a number of published works in
recent scientific topics, thesis and articles. It can be seen that, over the years, Vietnam has made efforts to
develop a quality assurance system as part of its attempt to reform higher education (Huong Thi Pham,
2019) [12].
As one of the issues requiring quality assurance at universities, guaranteeing the standard of
international joint training at universities has a great role in providing excellent human resources
capable of profound global integration for the labor market, at the same time, contributing to the
transfer of training technology of universities from advanced countries into application at Vietnamese
universities. However, in Vietnam, there have not been many studies on this issue. The most typical is
the work in the doctoral dissertation in educational management of author Trinh Thi Dieu Hang (2016)
[8] when it comes to how to manage the quality of cross-border university training using the total
quality management approach at Vietnam National University, Hanoi. Therefore, the issue of ensuring
the quality of international joint training needs further research and implementation.
By theoretical research methods such as analysis, synthesis, comparison of texts and
documents,within the framework of the article will mainly focus on three issues: (i) The concept of
quality assurance of international joint training at Vietnamese universities; (ii) The role of international
joint training at universities in Vietnam. (iii) Issues of quality assurance of international joint training at
universities in the current context.
2. RESEARCH CONTENTS
2. 1. International joint training forms and types
In Vietnam, deploying international joint training in universities follows either full-time or
part-time training models, or part-time at foreign partner institutions. Training institutions associate
internationally through various means, but mainly in the following three main methods:
- University training with international links granted by foreign partners;
- Internationally linked university training permitted by foreign partners and universities;
- University training with international links awarded by universities.
Internationally linked university training programs granted by foreign partners are internationalized
high-quality training programs designed by higher educational institutions on the basis of close
cooperation with prestigious foreign training institutions, supplementing or replacing a number of
appropriate teaching modules, in accordance with Vietnam’s requirements. Students will study the
entire program in a foreign language (except for some subjects in the general knowledge block that
are taught in Vietnamese). Higher education institutions in Vietnam actively implement the program
and build a team of lecturers (with the participation of Vietnamese lecturers as well as foreign partner
universities) complying with university training regulations, all the while applying the method of testing
and assessment using advanced technology from countries with developed education systems.
The international joint university training program permitted by a higher education institution
in Vietnam and a foreign partner is designed according to the foreign partner’s training program
development process and Vietnamese higher education institutions’ regulations on creating training
programs. The program is subjected to cooperation agreements signed between the two parties and
approved by competent authorities. The training program ensures that the proportion of modules must
be undertaken by foreign lecturers (usually more than 50%); students are encouraged to defend the final
thesis in a foreign language.
University training with international links awarded by higher education institutions in Vietnam
opens majors according to the State’s list of training disciplines promulgated by the Ministry of
Education and Training or opens experimental training programs (if not on the list of the State). The
training program is designed according to the regulations of the higher education institution in Vietnam
and refers to the training program of the foreign partner, adjusted and supplemented to meet Vietnam’s
requirements and actual conditions. The training program ensures a certain percentage (usually at least
20% of the professional courses are undertaken by foreign teachers).
Regarding the legal basis, the following types and forms of international training can be listed:
2.1.1. Types of international joint training
Details regarding international joint training are specified in Article 45 about amending and
supplementing the Law on Higher Education (No: 34/2018/QH14) dated November 19, 2018 [9], which are:
(1) Joint training with foreign countries means training cooperation between a higher education
institution established in Vietnam and a foreign higher education institution in order to implement a
training program for the granting of a diploma or certificate, but does not form a new legal entity. The
training association with foreign countries must ensure compliance with the provisions of the Education
Law and other relevant laws;
(2) A joint training program with a foreign country is a foreign program or a program developed
cooperatively by the two parties. The organization of training sessions is carried out entirely in Vietnam
or partly in Vietnam and partly abroad;
(3) A foreign higher education institution that provides joint training with a Vietnamese higher
education institution must be a reputable and quality training institution with written permission from
the competent authority of that country, allowing training and granting diplomas in the associated field or
have a valid education quality accreditation certificate issued by a lawful education quality accreditation
organization. The affiliated parties must ensure that the facilities, equipment, and teaching staff meet the
requirements of the training program and take responsibility for the quality of the program;
(4) The Minister of Education and Training approves the project of joint training with foreign
countries for the teacher training-related and health-related fields after consulting with the relevant
ministries; projects concerning educational cooperation with higher education institutions are not
subjected to the terms mentioned in Clause 5 of this Article;
(5) A higher education institution that meets the conditions specified in this Article as well as Clause
2, Article 32 of this Law shall be entitled to autonomously associate in university-level training; when
meeting the quality accreditation standards of the university-level training program, they are entitled
to autonomously associate training at the master’s level in the relevant discipline, when meeting the
quality accreditation standards for training programs at university or master’s degrees, they are entitled
to autonomously associate and train at the doctoral level in an appropriate discipline;
(6) In case the joint training program is suspended from enrollment or has its operation terminated
due to failure to satisfy the conditions specified in Clause 3 of this Article, higher education institutions
must ensure the legitimate interests of lecturers, employees and learners; refund tuition fees to students;
pay salaries to lecturers, employees and other benefits according to the signed labor contract or collective
labor agreement; pay tax debts and other debts (if any);
(7) Higher education institutions must publicize relevant information about joint training programs
with foreign countries, the legitimacy of foreign diplomas granted in the degree-granting country and in
Vietnam on the website of the higher education institution and the mass media; assisting learners during
the process of recognition of degrees; carry out the accreditation of the affiliate program in Vietnam right
after the students graduate and do the accreditation periodically;
(8) A higher education institution that conducts joint training by itself when it fails to satisfy the
prescribed conditions or is unable to ensure the education quality in the project of joint training with a
foreign country shall be suspended from international cooperation in education for 5 years, from the
date of conclusion of the violation by the competent authority.
2.1.2. Forms of linkage training
Since the introduction of the open door policy, and especially in recent years, the forms of
international cooperation in higher education in Vietnam are increasingly expanding, including numerous
different forms of transnational collaboration in higher education that serve other purposes:
(1) International linkages in higher education to provide educational services: In the form of
“on-site study abroad”, 2+2, 3+1 joint programs, short-term training courses with foreign lecturers of
Vietnamese universities with international partners are giving learners more opportunities to gain new
knowledge, skills and an “international” degree at an affordable cost. Another form of this kind of
cooperation is 100% foreign programs and foreign degrees, taught in Vietnam, with the expectation
of “internal cost, foreign quality”. These forms, although bring some benefits to learners, diversify
learning opportunities, and help them access modern knowledge, filling the gap in the training quality
of universities in the country, but mainly are for the profit of the education service providers and their
partners. Therefore, these forms do not contribute to the improvement of the school’s performance
according to international standards, they also do not help develop the internal capacity of the schools,
nor meet the long-term needs for the development of the country.
(2) State-level cooperation to build completely new schools: This form has not yet become popular,
although there is a typical case of a Vietnam-Germany University. According to an agreement between
the two states, Vietnamese-German University (VGU) has been formed in a very short time with the
expectation of becoming one of the four Vietnamese universities that meet the “international standard”
in the future. With an operating regulation that allows a degree of autonomy and a favorable governance
mechanism, along with a significant source of initial investment capital, the Vietnamese-German
University has been given many favorable conditions to operate. Up to now, the Vietnamese-German
University has finished its first academic year with a few dozen students. There is still a long way to go
for this particular university to create internationally recognized achievements in research and training,
as well as make a tangible impact on the domestic academic system, but it is clear that the formation
of Vietnamese-German University has opened up a direction of cooperation and allows us to think of
Vietnamese-American, Vietnamese-French, or Vietnamese-Japanese universities, etc. in the future.
Notably, the Ministry of Education and Training has recently issued Circular No. 38/2020/TT-
BGDDT [2] on regulations on training cooperation with foreign universities, master’s, and doctoral
degrees online form and live form combined online. This is considered a more favorable legal basis for
the diversification of training forms and international relationships.
Therefore, for the sake of ensuring training quality, the forms of joint training and management
and coordination mechanisms are specified in Decree No. 86/ND-CP dated June 6, 2018 [3], of the
Government on regulations on foreign cooperation and investment in the field of education. In addition,
depending on the training purposes of the schools, there are separate regulations for international
joint training.
2.2. The concept of quality assurance of international joint training at Vietnamese universities
Ensuring the quality of training in general, and international joint training in particular, are all
based on quality assessment criteria. Training quality is always the most important issue of universities,
striving to improve quality is always considered the most important task of any higher education
institution. Despite such importance, quality is still a difficult concept to define or measure, and there
are many different views on quality in higher education.
The International Network of Quality Assuarance in Higher Education (INQAHE) has defined the
quality of higher education. Accordingly, the quality follows the prescribed standards, there should be a
set of standards for higher education in all fields and the quality accreditation of a university is based on
that set of standards. Quality achieves the set goals.
In their work “Quality management in education”, Nguyen Duc Chinh et al. (2015) believed that:
“Quality assurance in education should emphasize the following characteristics: (1) Quality assurance
through a set of standards established by experts; (2) Quality assurance is referred to as the set of
requirements, or expectations that the school must strive to achieve; (3) Quality assurance standards
are assessed by criteria and indicators; (4) Quality assurance standards may allow the development of
options depending on the school” [5].
In the independent state-level scientific research project “Research and development of a set of
criteria for evaluating training quality for Vietnamese universities”, author Nguyen Duc Chinh and his
colleagues have summarized many important concept of education quality in general and university
quality in particular, and emphasizes, “The quality of higher education is assessed by the degree of
coincidence with the set goals and associated with the quality of training products such as: is the output
of the training process”.
The OEM organizational factors model has given 5 evaluation factors as input, training process,
output, training results and effectiveness. Based on these 5 evaluation factors, scholars have come up
with 5 concepts of higher education quality as follows [4]:
- Input quality: the input level satisfies the set targets and objectives.
- Quality of the training process: the level of satisfaction of the teaching and learning process and
other training processes.
- Output quality: the level of achievement of the output (graduate students, scientific research
results and other services) compared to the set of criteria or against predetermined goals.
- Product quality: the degree of satisfaction of the graduate’s work requirements through the
assessment of the students themselves, their parents, the employer and the society.
- Quality of added value: the degree of graduates’ ability (knowledge, skills, attitudes) to contribute
to society and especially to the training system.
Ensuring the quality of international training with the mission of providing high-quality human
resources, able to compete in the trend of integration and globalization. Therefore, to ensure the quality
of international joint training within this article, we will consider dividing the training process into
stages, specific to each job, as a basis for building a system of assurance. Quality assurance: Input; progress;
output, which is:
(1) Input quality: Enrollment, teaching staff, management staff, facilities, training program content
and enrollment and admission.
(2) Quality of training process: Training objectives, training content, teaching activities of lecturers,
learning activities of students, examination and evaluation of students’ learning results, assurance
conditions training activities.
(3) Output quality: Graduate; diplomas and certificates; employment and career adaptability
of graduates.
2.3. The role of international joint training at universities in Vietnam in the current context
2.3.1. Current context and requirements for reforming higher education in Vietnam
Along with the process of reforming the country in general, the renovation of national education,
including higher education, has always been of great interest to the Party and State. The document of
the 13th Party Congress affirmed that “Developing human resources, education and training to meet
the requirements of high-quality human resources of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and international
integration”. Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW on “Fundamentally and comprehensively renovating education
and training to meet the requirements of industrialization and modernization in the context of a socialist-
oriented market economy and integration international” [1], in which nine comprehensive educational
innovation solutions are listed. From these nine oriented solutions, the requirements for Vietnamese
higher education in the current international integration conditions are:
(i). To build an educational philosophy for the education of the country in the current period,
and at the same time, each university and each educational institution should have its own educational
philosophy in accordance with its principles, purposes and towards the society into the general
development flow of international education.
(ii). The current educational reform needs to be “associated with building a learning society;
ensuring conditions for quality improvement; the education system is standardized, modernized,
democratized, socialized and integrated into the world; maintaining the socialist orientation and imbued
with national identity.
Striving to 2030, Vietnam’s education will reach an advanced level in the region [1]. At all levels
and sectors, first of all, the Ministry of Education and Training needs to have a drastic change in thinking
regarding higher education institutes, such as changing the way of enrollment, selecting “input” to be
more open, allowing higher education institutes to set their own admission standards and be accountable
to learners by their own training “reputation”, allowing the formation of many other higher education
models. each other, strictly control the “output” of each training institution to ensure the overall quality, etc.
(iii). Strongly renovate program content and teaching methods towards international integration.
Program content and textbooks should be organized, developed and deployed in an open manner
(allowing regular updates on domestic and foreign knowledge, using domestic or foreign textbooks and
materials flexibly). to teach learners), the teaching content must be closely linked and suitable with the
practical requirements of the profession that the learners are pursuing. In terms of methods, it is allowed
to use a variety of teaching methods according to the principle of “taking the learner as the center”,
reducing the maximum teaching hours in class so that learners have time to study and research on their
own. At the same time training facilities need to regularly conduct rigorous and objective testing and
evaluation to ensure the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
(iv). Renovating the role of state management agencies in higher education facilities in terms of
international integration. Accordingly, in terms of legislation, it is necessary to continue to supplement
and complete the legal provisions for higher education activities in the context of international integration.
State management agencies, directly the Ministry of Education and Training, need to change the way
of thinking about management of higher education activities in the context of international integration.
Instead of direct comprehensive management of higher education institutions, state management agencies
should only play the role of “judge” agencies, directing activities according to law, and at the same time
creating conditions for higher education institutions to be more independent and autonomous in their
activities. It is necessary to avoid thinking of management in the way of imposing, or “subsidizing” for
higher education activities in the current international integration conditions.
(v). Strengthen research activities and international publication, towards internationalization
of scientific assessment standards and professional activities at higher education institutions. In the
immediate future, the State and higher education facilities need to have mechanisms and policies
to encourage scientists to research and actively publish research results in international scientific
publications. In the long term, it is necessary to set out a roadmap (for each different higher education
institution, it is necessary to have different routes) towards the internationalization of standards for
assessing scientific and professional activities, subjects in all institutions of higher education, at the
same time, it should be considered as an important solution to bring Vietnamese higher education deeper
into the international environment.
2.3.2. The role of international joint training at universities in Vietnam in the current context
From the above analysis, it is shown that international joint training at universities in Vietnam
plays an extremely important role in creating financial resources, human resources and governance
mechanisms.
- For financial resources: international joint training will create scientific and technological
knowledge that will bring financial resources to the school and improve the competitiveness of the country.
It is the international linkage that will enhance the training and research capacity of the universities, and
this capacity will bring a great source of finance through training, research and technology transfer
activities. In addition, international training links also play an active role in building orientation and
innovation in education, scientific research and application deployment to serve the cause of innovation
and industrialization, and transform the country. This process gives Vietnamese universities a lot of
valuable experience in renewing thinking, educational management methods, choosing directions and
improving training systems and processes, and approaching closer to advanced education in the world
suitable for profitable investment.
- For high-quality human resources: international joint training plays an important role in
orienting the development of universities towards modernity, accessing advanced higher education in
the region, and in the world. Through this, Vietnamese universities can draw valuable experiences in
renewing thinking, educational management methods, choosing directions, improving training systems
and processes, combining scientific research with teaching, and at the same time know how to take
advantage of opportunities and advantages to gradually close the gap between education in Vietnam and
the world. In addition, this activity creates conditions for universities to develop sustainably, to provide
high-quality human resources after being trained and to attract high-quality human resources from other
countries for training purposes.
- For the governance mechanism: International joint training in universities is both an opportunity
but also a challenge. In order to create a financial and high-quality human resource, the role of governance
is extremely important, this is the most difficult problem for Vietnamese universities. This shows the
determination and efforts of the political system (Government/ministries/sectors/schools,...).
2.4. Issues of quality assurance of international joint training at universities in the current context
2.4.1. Ensuring the quality of international linkage training with the issue of strategic planning
If approached from a management perspective, strategic planning is a management function/tool
that is the first stage of the management cycle (planning - organizing - directing - checking, evaluating).
A strategic plan is a powerful tool for setting priorities and making sound decisions about the future.
Strategic plans are usually developed for a period of 5 to 10 years (not talking about a more macroscopic
strategy with a vision of a few decades). However, it also depends on the purpose of each school to
develop goals for each separate strategic plan. Good planning will help the school clearly orient the
future, set priorities and focus resources for implementation.
A strategic plan to ensure training quality needs to be developed by schools with a full range of
contents from redefining the vision and mission to developing a strategic plan and policy on training
quality in general. International joint training in particular is suitable for: subject, space, and time. It
is a strategic plan suitable to the actual situation in the trend of innovation and integration. On that
basis, the training strategy will have to change/renovate the operating mechanism from management to
supervision to always meet the needs of the country, in line with international standards.
Developing training strategies is classified according to the length of time: short-term, medium-term
and long-term. This includes both primary and secondary priorities. Based on the situation of schools, there
are specific priorities. Usually focus on two main objects that are the staff of lecturers and learners.
Developing policies for teaching staff: Policies to attract experts, teaching staff with high academic
degrees, and teaching staff with good expertise: Specifically, salary book; working conditions policy;
policies on remuneration and retraining; scientific research policy,...
Developing policies for learners: Policy on tuition fees, scholarships/attraction; reward policy;
discipline; output policy/employment opportunities.
When developing a training strategy, it is necessary to mobilize many participants; students,

lecturers, administrators, the community, etc. Besides, there should be close cooperation in training
with businesses and social organizations to ensure the suitability with the needs. The desire of practice
requires, adapting to the ever-changing labor market.
Ensuring training quality is building a management system to ensure order and science; Smooth,
synchronous operation ensures no errors in all stages, for all products. Finally, evaluate and improve
the management system to suit the school to ensure training quality. The operation process requires the
participation of all members of the school, the drastic direction of the school’s leaders with appropriate
quality policies to motivate and encourage the participating team to be motivated to strive.
2.4.2. Quality assurance of international joint training at universities with systematic structure
Based on the basis of the approach mentioned in Section 2.1, it is possible to propose a structure
for the quality assurance system of international joint training at universities system cover: quality
assurance of inputs; system quality assurance process elements; The system ensures the quality of the
output elements. Whereby:
a) The system of quality assurance of input factors is internationally linked
Quality assurance of training programs and content:
- To concretize the objectives of the program, the content of international joint training;
- Disseminate to forces implementing international joint training programs and contents;
- Ensure the quality of the program, the content is suitable for the educational objects (teachers/
organizations and learners);
- Due to its specific characteristics, it is necessary to mobilize domestic and foreign organizations
to support training content suitable to learners;
Quality assurance of forces (human resources) participating in training (collectively referred to as
instructors):
- Regularly conduct training and refresher courses on training content and methods in order to
improve the capacity of teachers to organize and implement training.
- The school creates supportive conditions: teachers - learners - educational content suitable for
students, contextual, and integration trends.
Ensuring the quality of learners (students):
- Surveying learners’ needs, creating conditions for teachers to match the needs of the target
audience and respect learners in the training process in order to achieve educational goals;
- Assess the quality of learners in order to create a match between learners and training content and
help learners experience and apply them to real life.
Ensure financial quality, facilities and facilities (conditions for training organization):
- Assess the current situation of resources: financial resources (financial); material resources
(vehicles, facilities, supporting equipment, ...) to plan to use or supplement/replace.
- Organize the use of financial funds and facilities for the right purposes, creating conditions for
training to be carried out effectively.
- Check the use of resources: physical and financial resources are for the right purposes and are
effective for training.
b) System of quality assurance of the international joint training process
Ensuring the quality of the training process (for teachers – forces involved in education):
- Managers need to disseminate to the training participants about the goals and the need for
international joint training to have implementation orientation.
- Directing instructors (forces participating in international joint training) to innovate practical and
effective training methods and forms.
- Directing the organization of a coordination mechanism, creating close relationships with

businesses, customers, etc., in order to train at the right address, in accordance with social needs.
Ensure the quality of the training process of learners (students):
- Determine the training contents based on the legal bases
- Organize international joint training from the needs/wants of students and the needs of society.
- Innovating the way to organize the examination and evaluation of training results to be more practical.
Ensure the quality of testing and assessment of student learning outcomes:
- Organize the development of testing and evaluation criteria for students’ training.
- Mobilize forces to participate in the assessment including managers, lecturers, students, businesses,...
c) Output quality assurance system of international joint training
- Graduates: Create opportunities/priority for students when considering graduation, taking into
account the spirit and attitude of students participating in activities in schools.
- Ensuring the quality of training output: ensuring the quality of training results (compared with
the criteria and standards of the training program included in the school’s plan/strategy); Direct the
adjustment of training content (if not appropriate).
- Ensure the quality of the feedback of graduates as a basis for adjusting content and methods (if
not appropriate); the level of satisfaction and satisfaction of students with what they have learned to
apply later to serve themselves and build their homeland and country.
d) Contextual impact quality assurance system on international joint training
- The impact of policies, management and administration mechanisms, etc. as the legal basis/base
for management to ensure consistency, suitability and efficiency.
- The impact of the development of science and technology will be the effects with many information
channels that can be positive or negative from the perspective of teachers and learners.
- The impact of economic, cultural, social factors, international trends, etc. are the influences on the
process of ensuring the quality of international joint training. Therefore, appropriate adjustments are required.
- The impact of factors belonging to schools include: Management capacity of school administrators;
Competency of the teacher; Infrastructure conditions; The educational environment in schools…
3. CONCLUSIONS
Ensuring the quality of international joint training at universities plays a great role in providing
high-quality human resources capable of deep international integration. In terms of national interests,
training associated with foreign countries has contributed to providing the society with high-quality
human resources, thereby contributing to accelerating Vietnam’s international integration process.
Quality assurance issues are given top priority in training institutions, in which emphasis is placed
on the development of a strategic plan to ensure training quality and the structure of a training quality
assurance system. Therefore, the next problem needs to continue to study quality management solutions
in accordance with the characteristics of the form of international joint training according to the modern
trend to ensure the training quality meets the requirements, and development of the country in the
current context.
REFERENCES
Vietnamese References
1. Ban Chấp hành Trung ương Đảng (2013), Nghị quyết số 29-NQ/TW ngày 04/11/2013 của Hội
nghị Trung ương 8 khóa XI về đổi mới căn bản, toàn diện giáo dục và đào tạo.
2. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2020), Thông tư số 38/2020/TT-BGDĐT, ngày 6/10/2020 về việc quy
định về liên kết đào tạo với nước ngoài trình độ đại học, thạc sĩ, tiến sĩ theo hình thức trực tuyến
và hình thức trực tiếp kết hợp trực tuyến.
3. Chính phủ nước CHXHCN Việt Nam (2018), Nghị định số 86/2018 NĐ- CP ngày 06 tháng 6
năm 2018 Quy định về hợp tác, đầu tư của nước ngoài trong lĩnh lực giáo dục.
4. Nguyễn Đức Chính (2002), Kiểm định chất lượng giáo dục đại học, NXB Đại học Quốc gia Hà
Nội, Hà Nội.
5. Nguyễn Đức Chính, Trần Xuân Bách và Trần Thị Thanh Phương (2015), Quản lý chất lượng
trong giáo dục, NXB Giáo dục Việt Nam, Hà Nội.
6. Nguyễn Quang Giao (2010), “Đảm bảo chất lượng trong giáo dục đại học”, Tạp chí Khoa học
& Công nghệ, Đại học Đà Nẵng. 4(39), tr. 64-68.
7. Nguyễn Quang Giao (2011), Xây dựng hệ thống đảm bảo chất lượng quá trình dạy học các môn
chuyên ngành ở Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Luận án tiến sĩ Quản lý giáo dục, Trường Đại học
Giáo dục, ĐHQGHN.
8. Trịnh Thị Diệu Hằng (2016), Quản lí chất lượng đào tạo đại học liên kết quốc tế tại Đại học
Quốc gia Hà Nội theo tiếp cận quản lí chất lượng tổng thể, Luận án tiến sĩ Quản lý giáo dục,
Trường Đại học Giáo dục, ĐHQGHN.
9. Quốc hội nước CHXHCNVN (2018), Văn bản hợp nhất Luật Giáo dục Đại học.
10. Lâm Quang Thiệp (2003), Về hệ thống đảm bảo chất lượng giáo dục đại học Việt Nam, Giáo
dục đại học, NXB Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội, Hà Nội.
English References
11. Nguyen, Cuong Huu và Shah, Mahsood (2019), Quality assurance in Vietnamese higher educa-
tion: Policy and practice in the 21st century, Springer Nature.
12. Pham, Huong Thi (2019), “Limited legitimacy among academics of centrally driven approaches
to internal quality assurance in Vietnam”, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Manage-
ment. 41(2), tr. 172-185.
DEVELOPING MATHEMATICAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TEACHING ALGEBRA
Luong Phuong Anh
Buon Don High school
Le Tuan Anh
(Ha Noi National University of Education)
Nguyen Thanh Hung
(The University of Da Nang - University of Science and Education)
Abstract: Mathematical communication competence is one of the five core components of mathematical
competence that high school math needs to form and develop for Vietnamese students. In traditional teaching,
teachers have also more or less paid attention to developing their students’competence. However, due to the
content-based approach, they still have not yet had a complete and right view on the teaching methods to developing
mathematical communication competence. General constructivism, especially the social constructivism of
Vygotsky with studies on the knowledge formation process of children, stresses the role of social interaction as the
foundation of the mathematical communication category within the math classes. In this article, some pedagogical
measures to develop mathematical communication for students in teaching algebra in high schools are presented.
The theoretical basis of these measures is the constructivist teaching process. In this process, teachers take the
responsibility for designing lessons to increase both the quantity and quality of mathematical communication
situations in the classroom because it is the foundation to form mathematical knowledge for students.
Keywords: mathematical communication, constructivism, constructivist teaching, teacher, student.
1. INTRODUCTION
Studies on mathematical communication competence have been carried out by many researchers in
some aspects as follows: reasoning; its role in the 4.0 technology era; its relation to other mathematical
competencies; some teaching models to develop mathematical communication skills.
Regarding the concept of mathematical communication and mathematical communication
competence, mathematical communication is the process that shows the mathematical ideas and
understanding verbally, visually in writing, numbers, symbols, pictures, graphs, diagrams, and
words (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005; Merriam-Webster, 2017). Alternatively, mathematical
communication is a necessary skill in mathematics, mathematical communication competence is the
ability to understand mathematical problems through the written, verbal, and graphical communication
of others and the ability to express one’s mathematical ideas in many different ways (for example,
Ansari, 2003; Sumaro, 2009; Pisa, 2009). Mathematical communication competence is divided
into components besides the expressions of those components (NCTM, 2000, 2003; Greenes and
Schulman, 1996; Ansari, 2003; Kennedy &Tip, 1994, Sumaro, 2003). For instance, NTCM (2003)
divides mathematical communication competence into the following components: (1) communicate
their mathematical thinking coherently and clear to peers, teachers and others; (2) use the language
of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely; (3) organize and consolidate mathematical
thinking through communication; (4) analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and the strategies
of others. Thus, mathematical communication requires various cognitive skills and exchanges of ideas,
including listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and speaking and writing (expression).
Individually for mathematics, expression can include the representation of mathematical ideas in non-
verbal ways.
In parallel with the extensive analysis of the content, what the authors mentioned above also affirm
that mathematical communication is a vital process for learning mathematics because through it students
reflect, clarify, expand ideas and understanding about mathematical relationships and mathematical
reasonings; Moreover mathematics itself is an exact, powerful and clear communication tool Sumaro
(2003), NTCM (1989), NTCM (2000), Wichelt (2009), Polya (1973), Lim & Chew (2007), Roland G.
Pourdavood & Patrick Wachira (2016), Laney Samson (2019). According to Ezrailson et al. (2006),
students keep only 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, and 50% of what they hear and see.
However, when teachers focus on interaction and communication in the classroom, students will keep
90% of what they say and do when they participate in discussions. In this study, communication is
clearly an important factor in improving the learning quality of students.
Following those research results, some teaching models to develop mathematical communication
skills are given: Problem-based teaching in geometry for junior high school students; contextual teaching
for primary school students; research-based teaching to improve 4C skills for students (Titin Masfingatin
et al., 2019; Ina Riyati & Suparman, 2019; Kembara et al., 2018). Besides, Lexi Wichelt (2009) guides
teachers to create an environment for students to practice mathematical communication skills or as
Abd-Qohar (2011) affirms that the learning model to develop mathematical communication skills for
students is also a learning model in which learning is where discovery, interaction, collaboration, and
construction activities take place to acquire new knowledge.
2. CONTENTS
2.1. Mathematical communication capacity
According to the Mathematical Education Program (2018) issued by the Ministry of Education
and Training of Vietnam, mathematical communication capacity includes four criteria: (1) listening
comprehension, reading comprehension and recording the necessary mathematical information presented
in writing or spoken or written by others; (2) present and express (spoken or written) mathematical
contents, ideas, mathematical methods in interaction with others; (3) effectively use mathematical
language (digits, symbols, charts, graphs, logical connections, ...) in combination with common language
or physical movements when presenting, explaining and evaluate mathematical ideas in interaction
(discussion, debate) with others; (4) reveal confidence when presenting, expressing, asking questions,
discussing and debating content and ideas related to mathematics. Accordingly, teaching mathematics
to develop mathematical communication competence means teaching students to express mathematical
thinking effectively verbally, using representations and in writing. Some activities teachers to develop
students’ mathematical communication skills: (1) Listen attentively and see students’ ideas; (2) Ask
students to respond to and assess their ideas orally and in writing; (3) Assess the depth of understanding
or ideas expressed in student’ discussion; (4) Decide when and how to present mathematical notation in
the language of mathematics in students; (5) Monitor student participation in discussions, deciding when
and how to motivate each student to participate (Paridjo & Budi Waluya, 2017).
2.2. Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism and Constructivist Teaching Methods

The study of Lev Vygotsky (1934) – The theory of social development which focuses on the
fundamental role of social interaction in cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978), emphasizes that
community plays a key role in knowledge formation, social learning precedes development, learning is
oriented in the zone of proximal development and most of the important things children learn are through
social interaction. He defends his views through two categories: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). MKO refers to a person with a higher understanding or
competence than the learner for a new task, process, or concept. ZPD is a higher development compared
to the current zone of development where the children can only solve problems with the support of MKO.
He encourages teachers to use collaborative exercises to help children develop weak competencies with
help from their peers who are more competent and the teachers must recognize the ZPD zone of students
to choose appropriate teaching methods.
Constructivist teaching is a teaching style in which teachers design situations and students
participate in building, creating, and transforming their knowledge and skills to be suitable to new
situations and gain new cognition and skills. Knowledge is actively constructed by the perceiver.
Clements and Battista (1990) argued that learning is a social process in which children gradually get
involved in the intellectual activities of people around them. In particular, in addition to participating in
discovering and finding, students also participate in the social process, including explanation, exchange,
negotiation, and evaluation.
Some models of constructivist teaching: Bruner’s discovery teaching, collaborative teaching,
reciprocal teaching, teaching by the case method, discovery, and problem-solving teaching. The steps
to design and conduct a constructivist teaching phase can be implemented as follows: select teaching
content; design constructive case; design questions and activities; organize and guide students to
participate in constructing; consolidate new knowledge and skills.
2.3. Measures to develop mathematical communication competence for high school students
when teaching algebra in the direction of constructivist teaching
According to the Mathematical genneral curriculum (2018), the algebra in high school is inherited
from the algebra and arithmetic background in elementary and junior high school and is allocated
as follows:
Content Class
Algebra 10 11 12
Clause x
Set x
Functions and Diagrams x x x
Equation, system of equations x x
Inequality, system of inequalities x x
Trigonometry x x
Power, exponent, and ogarithm x
Sequence, arithmetic progression, geometric progression x
Combinatoric algebra x
The biggest feature of mathematical language in high school algebra program is high abstraction.
Some definitions and concepts are developed from the definitions and concepts that students have
learned, but are brought to a “level” that requires a higher level of thinking when receiving the concept
and applying it. For example, the concepts of equations and inequalities are presented in the form of
propositions containing variables, and the concepts of logical propositions are given to prepare for the
presentation of formal logical reasoning in mathematics. In addition, the algebraic language in high
schools with symbols and numbers is relatively close to students, so the confidence level of students in
communicating when learning this content is somewhat higher than in other subjects of mathematics,
so the teaching process of algebra will have more potential and favorable opportunities to develop
mathematical communication competence for students.
2.3.1. Organize for students to form knowledge of the mathematical language and improve skills to
use mathematical language effectively
a. Purpose of the measure: Help students understand and grasp the vocabulary semantics
of mathematical language used in algebra; grasp and use proficiently the syntaxes of mathematical
language, mathematical symbols in the process of presenting their mathematical ideas and solutions.
b. Scientific basis of the measure: Mathematical language undertakes two functions as the means
of mathematical communication and the tool of mathematical thinking. In the process of learning
mathematics, students often use two functions of mathematical language to perform mathematical
communication and form mathematical knowledge. As Vygotsky (1962) concludes: Language influences
the cognitive development of children. To perform mathematical communication, students must know
the mathematical language, and if students want to have good mathematical communication skills, they
must have the skills to use mathematical language effectively. Also according to Kim & Pilcher (2016),
one of the factors that affect listening comprehension skills is a person’s vocabulary.
c. Content and the methods to take measures:
To develop mathematical communication skills, teachers are first required to equip students with
mathematical language in parallel with the process of teaching mathematical knowledge in schools.
These two categories have an extremely close relationship and cannot be separated. The knowledge of
mathematical language shows mathematical knowledge and vice versa, mathematical knowledge is the
entrust place to send the semantics and syntax of the mathematical language. On the other hand, the
formation process of the mathematical language knowledge of students must also strictly follow the
nature of the cognitive process according to the view of constructivism with the characteristic of the
cognitive stage of high school students. This is the stage of formal manipulation and logical thinking.
Therefore, the methods to equip mathematical language for students according to the process of 3
activities with the characteristics of constructivist teaching are proposed as follows:
- Activity 1. Approach vocabulary and mathematical rules: The activity of forming a new
mathematical language needs to be constructed on the knowledge of the mathematical language that
students have already known. According to the content of mathematical language knowledge that needs
to be formed, the teachers decide to select the context for students to approach and form knowledge in
one of two following ways: From practical situations, internal mathematical situations, using analogy,
generalization, and concretization to form new concepts and terms; generalize the prior known concepts.
- Activity 2. Practice mathematical vocabulary, rules: This is an important step in transforming
from the state of approaching new knowledge to the state of applying it to solve mathematical tasks
and create active reflexes in using this new knowledge in specific suitable situations. It is necessary
to be noted that in the mathematical language, mathematical terms (words, phrases) can be seen as
mathematical concepts while the main rules are relational concepts. Mathematical language knowledge
should be taught to some extent as teaching concepts. Some math tasks teachers can assign to students are
specifically suggested as follows: implementing some language activities to both reinforce and develop
mathematical terms for students (restate the definition in their own words, change the restate expression,
express the definition in different language types); analyze, highlight important ideas that are included
in the definition); Identify terms, mathematical symbols, rules; expression exercises (exercises to fill
in the blanks with appropriate words, phrases, and symbols to make correct statements); Language
conversion exercises (natural language to mathematical language and vice versa, propositional language
to aggregation language and vice versa, propositional language, aggregation language to graph language,
etc.); Exercises to apply the characteristics of concepts and terms to problem-solving activities and
practical applications.
- Activity 3. Consolidation (reconstruct knowledge of the mathematical language): This task is
designed with a spreadsheet in which students need to recount the words, phrases, symbols, mathematical
rules they have learned, explained, or illustrated. Students can perform this activity immediately after
approaching knowledge about mathematical language or after completing a lesson in class.
Spreadsheet:
Title of the lesson……………………………………………………………(1)
No. New terms (words, phrases) (2) Symbols, notations (3) Rules (4) Interpretation (5)
(1): Students give the general name for the main math content in that lesson by themselves. (2); (3); (4): Students
list again the mathematical language they have just learned in the lesson. (5) Students interpret concepts, symbols,
and rules according to their own understanding and give illustrations by themselves (if any).
Example 2.1. Teaching to form the terms “Set, element, subset”.

- Activity 1. Startup - Students are activated with the knowledge learned about sets, subsets, and
elements. Students are divided into groups of 3 students to perform the task.
Question 1: Set is a concept that had already been introduced in middle school. Let’s give an example
of a set in math or in everyday life.
Or: State a sentence that includes the word “set” (This sentence is for students who do not remember
the concept of sets).
Question 2: Let’s specify the element of each set in each of the examples given?
Question 3: Among the group’s work results, are there any subsets of another set?
Question 4: When is a set A a subset of a set B?
Knowledge formation:
+ Set is a fundamental concept of mathematics.

+ In mathematics, capital letters A; B; C, etc. are often used to denote sets. Lowercase letters a; b; c;
etc. are used as the symbol for the element.
+ The element contained in set A is denoted by a ∈ A .
+ Set A is a subset of set B if every element of set A contained in set B. It is denoted by A ⊂ B .
- Activity 2. Practice vocabularies and notations

Objectives: Receive the semantics of the term “set, a subset of a set”; be proficient in the rules of the form
used to illustrate sets; Use propositional language to express relationships between objects of the sets.
Exercise 1. a) Let’s state the concept of a subset of a set. b) Is the above statement a proposition?
c) If the above statement is a proposition, use mathematical notations to write the statement as an
equivalent proposition.
Knowledge formation:
A ⊂ B ⇔ ( ∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B )
Exercise 2. For the following sets, list the elements of each set
a) The set of natural numbers that are less than 10.
b) The set of vertices of triangle ABC.
c) The set of results when rolling a coin once.
Exercise 3. Fill in the blank “…” to get the correct proposition.
a) “Set C is…of set D if set D contains every element of set C”.
b) “Every natural number is a … of the set of natural numbers”.
c) The set of vertices of a quadrilateral includes …element(s).
Exercise 4. A is the set of rectangles; B is the set of rhombuses. What do you comment about the
relationship between set A and set B?
- Activity 3. Consolidate - Complete the spreadsheet
The regular implementation of this process by teachers in the teaching process is to create
opportunities for students to form mathematical language knowledge, practice using mathematical
language exactly and effectively. However, rigor should be avoided especially in activity 1 because
there are some symbols of the term appearing mainly in the internals of mathematics. It is very difficult
to give situations and problems in real life.
2.3.2. Develop skills to receive and reflect information (reading comprehension, listening comprehension)
a. Objectives of the measure: Students develop skills of refining and receiving information when
approaching a certain math content, both when reading or listening. Students proactively and actively
receive, reflect and transform information accurately and completely by mathematical language.
b. Scientific basis of the measure: The formation of new knowledge must go through two stages of
assimilation and accommodation according to constructivism. Without approaching and understanding
at least some of the “meaning” of the information provided, students cannot form new knowledge. The
communication process cannot continue and be effective if students do not know what they have been
reading or listening to. Reading comprehension and listening comprehension are the first elements of
mathematical communication competence.
c. Content and methods to conduct the measure: Students perform reading comprehension and
listening comprehension activities when reading materials such as textbooks, school exercise books,
reference materials when approaching a math task and listening carefully to the teachers, other students
or MKO talk about certain math content. These are activities that students must perform in any school
environment, whether in a traditional or modern teaching environment. However, for modern teaching,
this activity has the following differences: Firstly, MKO is not only limited to teachers in the class
but also other students in the class as well as indirect MKOs through video recordings. Secondly, due
to new requirements in terms of competence development, especially mathematical communication
competence, modern teaching pays much attention to the content understood by students when reading
and listening. This means that students have to reconstruct spoken or written language products about
what they have received.
To foster students’ reading comprehension and listening comprehension skills, teachers can guide
students to practice according to the following activities:
- Activity 1. Write words, terms, mathematical content, graphs analysis, drawings (within their
ability) immediately when students read or listen (keywords): For text reading, the method of underlining
the words, phrases, symbols, and mathematical terms can be used.
- Activity 2. Connect those discrete mathematical symbols and terms into initial mathematical
messages.
- Activity 3. Set up the texts, language products/Solve tasks: Find the connection between messages
that have been newly discovered to solve the requirements given or find new messages. In this step,
students will check, supplement, learn extensively about the given data, find the connections between
them, and write down that correlation into new complete data.
According to the purpose before reading or listening to be divided into two types: Reading or
listening to approach, receive pure information; read or listen to information to solve specific tasks. For
the first type, students perform reading and listening actions when approaching a concept, a theorem
and a solution to a problem. Then, with their own purposes, students identify the core information
approach and transform it into their own personal texts and language products. For the second type, to
solve specific tasks, students will not receive information in a general way, but find out the information
to explain or find solutions for a problem given.
Example 2.2. Teaching functions with absolute values

2 x − 4 if x ≥ 0
Function: y= 2 x − 4= 
−2 x − 4 if x < 0
With the graph of the function as the figure beside.

Remark. From the above example, we can find out the way to
draw the graph of the function y= y = f ( x ) as follow:
- Draw the graph of the function y = f(x).
- Keep the graph of the function y=f(x) on the right of the Oy
axis and remove the part of the graph on the left of the Oy axis.
- Take symmetrically the part of the graph on the right of Oy
to Oy.
Conclusion: The combination of the two parts of the graph

above is the graph of the function y = f x . ( )
Let’s read the math text above and do the exercises.
Exercise 1. Let’s present the way to draw the graph of the function y 2 x − 4 presented in the
=
above mathematical text.
Exercise 2. Let’s comment on the characteristics of the graph in the figure.
Exercise 3. Can you do the same drawing again? Is there a faster way to draw? Compare the result
of your assertion with the “Remark” given above.
Instructions for teaching the above exercises according to the process of 3 activities proposed:
Teacher’s activities Student’s activities

Exercise 1 Let’s write the basic math information
Activity 1 you read in the first paragraph. The function= y 2 x − 4 is the combination
of 2 functions:
The information you can read on the
figure. y= 2 x − 4 if x ≥ 0 ; y =−2 x − 4 if x < 0 (1)
The graph of the function= y 2 x − 4 is a V
(Pay attention to the special points)
shape. The two rays on the figure correspond
to the graphs of the two functions above.
Activity 2 Information that you can develop further. Because of (1), the graph of the function
y 2 x − 4 includes the graph of the function
=
y 2 x − 4 on the right of Oy and the graph of
=
the function y =
−2 x − 4 on the left of Oy.
Can you draw the graphs of these functions? Linear function, I can draw its graph as
straight lines
Activity 3 It is really great because you might
find out the way they used to draw the y 2 x − 4 on the right
Draw the straight line =
of Oy and the straight line y = −2 x − 4 on the
y 2 x −4
graph of the function=
left of Oy. The combination of the two half-lines
above is the graph of the function.
Exercise 2 Comment on the characteristics of The graph includes two branches that are
the graph symmetric over Oy (2)
Exercise 3 .... ...

Activity 1
Activity 2 - If you know one of the two branches, can Absolutely, I just need to take the symmetry
you draw the other? over Oy.
So for the above case, do we need to Absolutely not, I just draw a graph of the
draw a graph of the function y =
−2 x − 4 ? y 2 x − 4 then take the part of the
function =
graph on the right of Oy that is symmetric
over Oy and get the part on the left of the
graph Oy. That means I have a V-shaped
shape like in the picture.
Can you present again the way
you draw the graph of the function To draw graph of the function=
y 2 x − 4 , we
y 2 x − 4?
= y 2 x − 4 on the
draw graph of the function =
right of Oy, then take symmetry over Oy. The
combination of the two graphs above is the
y 2 x − 4.
graph of the function=
Activity 3 That way is faster. Let’s compare what Comments in the text are the general case of
you have just drawn with the comment
mentioned in the text. the graph of the function y = f ( x )
Three aspects of reading and listening comprehension skills: Collect information; analyze and
interpret the text; Response and evaluate. To successfully solve a problem, students must first be able to
read and understand well, so that they can understand correctly the content of the problem and connect
the ideas expressed in it to fully grasp and find out the way to solve the problem successfully. It can be
said that teaching reading comprehension skills, listening comprehension skills, and teaching problem-
solving skills go hand in hand in math education.
2.3.3. Developing speaking skills through mathematical discourse activities
a. Objectives of the measure: Help students participate in a conversation about a mathematic
topic. Help students clearly and coherently present mathematical solutions and ideas; be able to argue,
criticize the mathematical solutions or ideas of other people, or defend and explain their own solutions
or mathematical ideas.
b. Scientific basis of the measure: According to Stein (2007), mathematical discourse is that students
conjecture, talk about math, agree or disagree on a certain problem. The difference in manner between
talking about mathematics generally and mathematical discourse stems from a constructivist view of
learning in which knowledge is created through interaction with the environment. It is also consistent
with the view that mathematics is not about memorizing and applying a range of processes but about
developing an understanding and explaining the processes used to come to the solutions.
c. Contents and implementation methods of the measure: Students must be allowed to discuss regularly.
A lesson should begin with many talks and discussions in which students do the following activities:
Activity 1. Teachers provide mathematical problems within the ZPD zone for students to study and
finding their individual ideas and solutions.
Activity 2. Present ideas and solutions to the activity group or the class.
Activity 3. Interpret, justify the answer.
When asking students to explain and justify their answers, the focus should be on explaining exactly
what steps and the strategies they performed to get to the results. It means that the question focuses on
the process, not the end product.
Example 2.3. When teaching functions and values of functions, teachers guide students to gain
mathematical knowledge “determining parameter values of a function when knowing domain of the function”.
The problem is given: Let’s determine m so that the equation x 4 − 4mx 2 + m 2 − 1 =0 has a unique solution.
ZPD zone of students in general when learning about this content:
Students know how to solve biquadratic equations, understand how the unique solution is required.
+ Students do not know that if the biquadratic equation has a unique solution, then that solution is 0.
The task of students is to find solutions to solve the problem, clearly explain their strategies to find
out the answer, give new mathematical statements, and work together with other students in the class to
perform the mathematical discourse. Teachers give suggestions, follow, and observe to guide students
to connect the knowledge formed in the previous lesson with new requirements, and finally give their
own “statements”. These statements may be true or false, complete or incomplete, but all of them are
significant because they represent student participation and the exchange of mathematical ideas.
The mathematical discourse activities of students when performing the above problems are
illustrated by activities 1, 2, 3 as follow: (Teacher: T; Student: S)
Activity T/S Math speaking/writing content
1 T (1) This is a biquadratic equation and you can completely solve it by using its features.
2 S1
- If x0 is the solution of the equation (1), then −x0 is also a solution of the equation
(1). Therefore, if the equation has a unique solution, then x0 = − x0 ⇒ x0 =
0.
- Replace x0 = 0 to (1), we have m2 =
1⇒ m =±1 .
- With m =1: (1) ⇔ x 4 − 4 x 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 0 hay x =±2 ⇒ m =1 Removed.
- With m= -1: (1) ⇔ x + 4 x =0 ⇔ x =0 ⇒ m =−1 (Accepted).
4 2
3 S2
Ask the teacher: “why x0 = − x0 ?”.
T (2) Don’t ask me, ask your friend.
T Does anyone has another way?
S3 Can we use the method of solving biquadratic equations?
T (3) You can ask other students in the class.
S4 I think it is possible to use quadratic equations after we change the variable
x2 = t .
S5 Condition t ≥ 0 .
T It is great if one of you present the method.
S5 Can you (S3) present and explain the method on the board?
S3
Set x= t (t ≥ 0)(1) ⇔ t − 4mt + m − 1 = 0.
2 2 2
For each value t > 0 , we have two values x that satisfy this equation. Therefore,
only t = 0 satisfy. Then: (2) ⇔ m 2 =
1⇒ m =±1.
S6 It is similar to the method of S1.
T Class, what is special about this equation that makes two different solutions
lead to the same way of finding m?.
S6 If a biquadratic equation has a unique solution, then that solution must be 0.
T Is the assertion of S6 true? How do you think, S1?
S1 I also agree with his point.
T (4) So we set the result given by S 6 as the feature “…”.
Clarify the purpose of the teacher’s instructions: (1) When a math task is started, teachers can start
with oriental questions, suggestions, or a simple statement of encouragement, confidence that students
will solve the given task. It is also a step to build an open and bold environment for students to speak
and solve math problems.
(2) (3) This is a statement that shows the orientation of the conversation of students: “ Let’s discuss
freely with each other, ask the authors themselves - who are given the right to present and have the duty
to explain”.
(4) The teacher recognizes the results discovered by the students even simple ones by giving names
to those results. This is also a way to motivate students in the process of mathematical discourse. In this
process, students want to express their opinions, speak up about their findings and are concerned that
they will miss their opportunity to be recognized if they do not speak promptly.
2.3.4. Developing written mathematical communication skills for students through organizing a
variety of written presentation activities
a. Objectives of the measure: Create a learning environment that gives students opportunities to
practice their writing skills; develop and strengthen writing skills for students; create a model to guide
the activity of presenting mathematical content so that students can regularly practice writing math
activities under the guide and evaluation of teachers.
b. Scientific basis of the measure: In the process of learning mathematics, it is very important to
ask students to explain clearly and in detail the process, features, theorems, and rules that they use in the
process of solving a mathematical task. According to the NCTM standard (2000), expressing opinions,
ideas, and concepts through writing makes students more interested in mathematics.
c. Contents and methods to take the measure: To create more opportunities for students to practice
writing skills, worksheets are proposed to orient the writing activities for students. On the one hand, check
the level of acquisition of mathematical knowledge for students, on the other hand, collect information,
comment, and guide difficulties and mistakes of students when presenting, thereby gradually practicing,
and training their writing skills.
One worksheet includes 1) Title of the lesson: It can be a specific mathematical content (concept,
theorem, consequence, etc.) or a problem, a mathematical situation; 2) Learning objectives: with
a description of the skills students need to develop; 3) Notes of the concepts, theorems, etc. with
illustration including vocabularies of key terms that students have identified in their own words; 4)
Open-ended questions require students to present the steps to complete the solution, and explain how
and why they apply such theories and processes; 5) Extensive reflection (expand): Identify topics that
are difficult and confusing with students, expanding ideas. Students have the opportunity to review their
work and also evaluate themselves. The reflection provided more information about their progress and
encouraged them to take responsibility for their own learning.
A worksheet can be seen as a teaching tool that is actively selected by the teacher when performing
a certain teaching content. When completing a math task on a worksheet, students are trained to be
disciplined and serious in presenting. Students not only find out the answers but also have to find the
reasons as well as thinking about expanding the problem. This is completely different from doing a
random math task on a notebook. It can also be considered as a random test of writing skills (mathematical
communication skills).
Worksheets are applied in theorem teaching content
Example 2.4. Teaching and applying the theorem about the sign of quadratic trinomials
Context of teaching content: Students perform this activity after having mathematical knowledge
about the sign theorem of quadratic trinomials
ZPD of average students: Students who have just approached the theorem about the sign of
quadratic trinomials grasped the content, performed some types of exercises with quadratic trinomials
with specific coefficients. However, in the form of quadratic trinomial with coefficients as parameters,
there are still many surprises for students.
Complete the following worksheet.
1) Problem Comments
Given that a + b + c < 0 and equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 with no real solution. Determine the
sign of the coefficient c.
2) Objectives: - Know how to apply knowledge about the sign of
quadratic trinomials.
- Practice problem-solving skills, find problem-solving
strategies, use relevant mathematical knowledge and
skills to solve problems, thereby developing problem-
solving competencies, and at the same time develop
mathematical communication competence.
3) Present the solution ………………………………………………………………
Suggestions: ………………………………………………………………
- Condition to make the equation ………………………………………………………………
has no solution. ………………………………………………………………
- The data of the problem applies ………………………………………………………...........
the sign theorem of quadratic ...........................................……....................................
trinomials.
4) Interpretation ………………………………………………………………
- Why did you think of that method ………………………………………………………………
when approaching the problem? ……….…………………………………………….………
……………….................................................................
- Let’s give an important
......................................................................................
knowledge that you used when
......................................................................................
solving problems?
5) Extended thoughts of students ……………………………………………..………………
about concepts, problems, difficulties ……………………………..………………………………
encountered in learning, etc.) ……………..… ……………………………..….................
......................................................................................
The teachers are always the “conductors” of the student’s lessons in classes. Therefore, the teachers
should prepare a clear script for the lessons, choose appropriate methods and apply activities with clear
skill goals. Teachers must foster and develop the skills that students are weak in.
2.4. Survey the current situation and initially evaluate the effectiveness of the measure
According to the survey results on the current situation of teaching and developing mathematical
communication competence when teaching algebra at some high schools that we have surveyed and
published (Phuong. L & Hung. Ng, 2020): there are from 40% to 50 % of students are completely
passive in participating in mass communication through speaking, arguing, and even having this rate up
to 70%; the organization of training skills in understanding and using mathematical language, especially
in understanding and using mathematical symbols and symbols, is still limited; about 55% of teachers
have not yet determined how to organize pedagogical activities to develop mathematical communication
skills for students. There are many reasons leading to limited mathematical communication skills
when learning algebraic content of students, including the reason that comes from teachers: some
teachers are not fully aware, even some teachers are wrongly aware of the importance of mathematical
communication in teaching mathematics; they do not have a scientific method to teach this content for
the purpose of developing mathematical communication skills for students; teachers rarely use active
teaching methods, so the environment to carry out mathematical communication of students is limited
(some teachers have organized learning activities for students but they have not yet grasped the criteria
as well as manifestations of mathematical communication competence. So they still have not considered
students’ learning activities in the form of mathematical communication activities and they do not know
how to organize and also do not have a method to adjust each student’s activities to help students
develop mathematical communication competence).
The measures that we propose are based on research from the requirements of educational theory
and from the results of the actual situation investigation. The test and evaluation of the effectiveness of
the new measure stops at the qualitative evaluation step through the author directly teaching 10th grade
algebra at the workplace. However, the above-mentioned measures need to be further evaluated in terms
of the manifestations of the computational energy by tools with higher reliability.
3. CONCLUSION
In the face of communication in a math class, Vygotsky’s theory has an advantage over Piaget’s
theory in clarifying the role of social interaction and interaction methods to form mathematical
knowledge. Measures to develop mathematical communication competence that are proposed by this
paper with new ideas and examples just end at the high school algebra subject. We leave the measure
of building confidence and initiative when implementing mathematical communication for students as
a dual benefit of performing the four measures mentioned and also due to the limitation of the length of
this paper.
REFERENCES
1. Abd, Q. (2011). Mathematical Communication: What And How To Develop It In Mathematics

Learning?. ISBN : 978-979-16353-7-0.
2. Ansari, B.I. (2003). Menumbuhkembangkan Kemampuan Pemahaman dan Komunikasi
Matematik Siswa SMP melalui Strategi Think-Talk-Write (TTW). Dissertation at Indonesia
University of Education. Unpublished.
3. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2018). Thông tư số 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT, ngày 26/12/2018 về Chương
trình Giáo dục phổ thông. Chương trình tổng thể. Hà Nội (Ministry of Education and Training
(2018). Circular No. 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT, dated December 26, 2018 on the General Education
Curriculum. Overall Curriculum. Hanoi).
4. Clements, D. & Battista, M. (1990). Constructivist Learning and Teaching. Arithmetic Teacher,
38(1). 34.35.
5. Erailson, C. & Others (2006). Teaching Through Interactive Engagement: Communication
is Experience.
6. Greenes, & Schulman. (1996). Communication Processes in Mathematical Exploration and
Investigation. USA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc.
7. Ina Riyati, Supaman (2019). Design Student Worksheets Based on Problem- Learning to Enhance
Mathematical Communication. Asian Journal of Assessment in Teaching and Learning. Vol 9,
Issue 2, 2019 (9-17) ISSN2232-1926/ISSN 2600-870X.
8. Kembara, M. D., & Other. (2019). Based Lectures to Improve Student’ 4C (Communication,
Collaboration, Critical Thinking, and Creativity) Skills. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Social Sciences, Education and Humanities (pp.22-26).
9. Kim, Y.-S. G., & Pilcher, H. (2016). What is Listening Comprehension and What does It take to
Improve Listening Comprehension? In R. Schiff & M. Joshi (Eds.), Handbook of Interventions
in Learning Disabilities (pp. 159-174). New York: Springer.
10. Laney, S. (2019). The Essentials of Mathematical Communication.
11. Lim &Chew (2007). Mathematical Communication in Malaysian Bilingual Classrooms. School
of Educational Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia. Paper to be presented at the
3rd APEC-Tsukuba International Conference: Innovation of Classroom Teaching and Learning
through Study- Lesson focusing on Mathematical Communication, December 9-14, 2007 at
Tokyo and Kanazawa, Japan.
12. NTCM (1989). Principle and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics.
of Teachers of Mathematics.
of Teachers of Mathematics. 2003.
15. Ontario Ministry of Education. (2005). Mathematics: The Ontario curriculum, grades 1-8 (Rev.
Ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Retrieved from: http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/
eng/curriculum/elementary/math18curr.pdf.rds.pdf.
16. Paridjo & Budi Waluya, St. (2017). Analysis Mathematical Communication Skills Student in
the Matter Algebra based NCTM. Journal of Mathematics (IOSR-JM). Vol. 13 No. (Jan.-Feb.
2017), pp 60-66.
17. Phuong, L. & Hưng, Ng. (2020). Phát triển năng lực giao tiếp toán học cho học sinh trong dạy học
đại số tại một số trường THPT vùng Tây Nguyên. Tạp chí Giáo dục và xã hội. ISSN: 1859-3817.
(Developing Mathematical Communication Capacity for Students in Teaching Algebra at some
High Schools in the Central Highlands. Journal of Education and Society. ISSN: 1859-3817).
18. Polya, G. (1973). How To Solve It; A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (New Jersey:
Princeton University Press) p. 154.
19. Roland G. Pourdavood & Patrick Wachira (2016). Importance of Mathematical Communication
and Discourse in Secondary Classrooms. Global Journal of Science Frontier Research. Volume 15.
20. Stein, C. C. (2007). Let’s talk. Promoting Mathematical Discourse in the Classroom Mathematics
Teacher, 101(4), 285-289.
21. Sumarno. Utari, Abdul Qohar. (2013). Improving Mathematical Communication Ability and
Self Regulation Learning Of Yunior High Students by Using Reciprocal Teaching. (IndoMS.
J.M.E Vol. 4 No. 1 January 2013).
22. Titin Masfingatin; Swasti Maharani; Intan Sari Rufiana (2019). Mathematics Communication
of Middle School Students in Solving Geometry Problems Based on Spatial Intelligence.
Proceedings of the SEMANTIK Conference of Mathematics Education (SEMANTIK 2019).
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 467.
23. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambrigde MA: MIT Press.
24. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in the Society: the Development of the higher Mental Process.
Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.
25. Webster, M.(2017). Merriam-Webster’s Learner’s dictionary https://www.learnersdictionary.com/.
26. Wichelt, L. & Kearney, NE. (2009). Communication:AVital Skill of Mathematics. DigitalCommons@
University of Nebraska – Lincoln.
USING THE CULTURAL HERITAGES OF THE MEKONG DELTA REGION
IN TEACHING VIETNAMESE HISTORY
AT THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF CAN THO CITY
Nguyen Duc Toan

(Department of History Pedagogy, Faculty of Pedagogy, Can Tho University)
Abstract: This article describes a research project on the use of cultural heritages in the Mekong Delta
in teaching history to high school students in Can Tho City. In which, we focus on in-depth research, identify
a number of cultural heritages in the Mekong Delta that need to be exploited and used in history teaching and
propose pedagogical measures to use cultural heritage in teaching. internal course of Vietnamese History lessons
from origin to 1918 in accordance with the program. At the same time, conduct pedagogical experiments to test the
feasibility of the research problem. From the research results, it can be confirmed that the use of cultural heritage
in history teaching is an effective measure to innovate teaching methods, diversify forms of organization of history
teaching, create interest for students to contribute to improving the quality of history teaching and learning in high
schools today.
Keyword: teaching methods; Vietnam history; cultural heritage; Mekong River Delta; Can Tho city.
1. QUESTION
Nowadays, heritage teaching is a requirement for high schools. Projects that bring heritage into
schools have had a positive impact, but there are still many challenges for educational and cultural
managers. To realize the above policy on teaching and learning about cultural heritage in schools as
well as to renovate the content, programs, methods and forms of teaching in high schools and preserve
and promote the values. Ministry of Education and Training, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism
issued Document 73 / HD - BGDĐT - BVHTTDL dated January 16, 2013 guiding the use of heritage
in teaching at high schools, continuing education centers. Using cultural heritage in teaching at high
schools aims to help students have understanding of the values of the heritages, thereby educating
students on the sense of preserving and protecting cultural heritage.
According to history, after more than 300 years of establishment and development, the land of nine
dragons and the whole country has sacrificed many blood against the invasion, maintaining the realm
of his father. In particular, the old Mekong Delta has contributed a lot of resources and vitality to the
nation’s vital struggle. And also during this period in Tay Do land in particular, the Mekong Delta in
general formed and developed many types of special cultures and folklore such as Don Ca Tai Tu, Cai
Luong Theater, love poetry, water puppetry, ancient architectural works, along with many special folk
festivals ... Through many ups and downs of history, those cultural values are always preserved, passed
down, supplemented, and created through time in a positive direction, harmonizing with the “flow” of
the cultural community of the ethnic groups of Vietnam. The cultural heritages in the Mekong Delta are
not only valuable in knowledge education, human character formation, many tangible and intangible
cultural heritages of the region have been promoting their roles, potentials and strengths in promote the
image of the homeland, develop tourism economy, attract tourists to the river delta region, have a great
effect in educating the young generation’s thoughts and feelings.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING
2.1. Studies on cultural heritage education
Towards a new era for Cultural Heritage Education: Discussing the role of ICT, Michela Ott,
Francesca Pozzi (Computers in Human Behavior 27 (2011). This article investigates how ICT tools
can contribute to the enhancement of Cultural Heritage Education, considering cultural heritage as the
fundamental foundation of our identity. In fact, ICT on the one hand provides easier access and multi-
angle view of cultural heritage artifacts, on the other hand, can also enrich and improve Cultural Heritage
Education through the application of different methods new learning.
The article “Heritage education for primary school children through drama: The case of Aydin,
Turkey” by Simsek, G (Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012). This article argues the use
of drama as a teaching method for heritage education for primary school children to raise awareness of
protecting the value of cultural heritage. “Using drama has become a common approach, especially at
heritage sites and museums, to educate the public and schools” (p. 3819).
Author Tulay Ocal has an article “Necessity of Cultural Historical Heritage Education in Social
Studies Teaching” (Creative Education, 2016, 7), emphasizing the necessity of heritage education in
teaching social sciences. society, because this is an effective measure to help preserve heritage values
to pass on to future generations. The results of the study are important suggestions for us to apply in the
process of choosing forms and methods of using cultural heritage in teaching history at high schools.
Improving history learning through cultural heritage, local history and technology, by Graça
Magro, Joaquim Ramos de Carvalho and Maria José Marcelino, emphasizes the use of technology
as mobile devices with georeferenced software and genetic resources local heritage and history in a
collaborative, experimental approach to learning historical concepts of the traditional curriculum. This is
a very new approach, helping the author to orient the use of technology in teaching history, contributing
to diversifying forms of teaching and improving the quality of the subject today.
All have confirmed the urgency to bring cultural heritage materials into teaching in schools,
highlighting the importance of using cultural heritage in teaching Vietnamese folklore. At the same
time, the authors have also suggested a number of forms and methods of using cultural heritage in
teaching to improve the effectiveness of lessons. However, there has not been any specific research on
the use of cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta in teaching history in high schools in Can Tho city.
Therefore, this is a new direction and has high practical value. In order to effectively exploit and use
the cultural heritage resources of the Mekong Delta in teaching Vietnamese folklore, it is required that
teachers be properly aware of the nature, value and importance of cultural heritages, thereby knowing
how to flexibly apply forms and methods. teaching, pedagogical measures oriented to develop students’
capacity in subject teaching.
2.2. The role and significance of cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta in teaching history at high schools
The process of teaching history in high schools, in addition to the basic knowledge found in
textbooks, reference sources in general, local cultural heritage documents in particular is a valuable
resource, a visual means. Valuable in teaching in general and in teaching history in particular. Cultural
heritage, whether in the form of objects or intangible, can be used in the teaching process in the form
of creating a profound educational environment and means for the young generation. With such an
important role, the use of local cultural heritage in teaching Vietnamese interests at high schools makes
sense for students in all three aspects:
First of all in terms of forming knowledge: The use of cultural heritage in teaching history
contributes to concretizing historical knowledge in textbooks that students need to acquire. Since then,
forming in their mind true symbols, helping students remember long and deeply understand events
related to the lecture with its full aspect. Besides, it also contributes to increase the liveliness of lectures
and children’s attitudes towards events and phenomena through symbols created in students’ minds.
In addition, using local cultural heritage also contributes to expand knowledge for students. Students
not only learn the knowledge already in the program but also have new knowledge discovered during
the experience. From there, it helps students to easily apply their learned knowledge into practice and
explain more scientifically about phenomena related to the surrounding world.
Secondly, developing skills for students: Teaching theory has shown that, references in general,
historical documents, culture in particular, if used appropriately in teaching Vietnam history to contribute
to training, developing skills for students such as: document perception, searching and processing
information, developing independent, creative thinking and especially developing subject learning
capacity, practice capacity; help them easily apply knowledge into real life ...
Third, orientation orientation and capacity formation: on the basis of knowledge formation, skill
development, teaching history in high schools with local cultural heritage also positively contributes to
the formation of attitudes and feelings, emotions for students about history such as: love, hate, agree,
admire, positive, excited, ... In addition, the organization of cultural teaching with local cultural heritage
also contributes to the execution and development of core competencies. For students in the teaching
process, such as: self-study capacity, problem solving capacity, cooperation capacity, information
technology capacity, ... and specialized capabilities in DHLS such as: historical research; historical
perception and thinking; apply knowledge, skills learned; conscious and capable of self-studying
history for a lifetime.
2.3. Content of cultural heritages that need to be exploited and used in teaching Vietnamese
interests from primitive to 1918 at Can Tho city high school
Stemming from the goals, principles of program development, duration, number of periods,
psycho-physiological characteristics, age, level, program and textbook on basic, systematic issues need
to choose. Typical events, events related to the locality so that students can both master the user-friendly
and related cultural heritage in the locality. Events occurring in a locality are of the type shown in the
LSDT course, there is an event type that is only mentioned; There are events that are not mentioned in
the textbook, but when teaching, the teacher (teacher) must mention it. We can state the following facts:
Source of cultural heritages

Lesson Serve content teaching
in the Mekong Delta
Lesson 14, Historical

- Oc Eo cultural heritage in Phong Dien - Section 3: Ancient country of Phu Nam
Textbook 10

- Art of amateurs singing, reformed opera - Section 2: Typical Revolts
Textbook 10

Lesson Serve content teaching
in the Mekong Delta
Lesson 21, Historical - Ong pagoda relic

- Section 2: The Dang Trong Government
Textbook 10 - Binh Thuy communal house relic
- Vinh Te canal relic

Lesson 25, Historical - Section 2: The economic situation and
- Thoai Ha canal relic
Textbook 10 policies of the Nguyen Dynasty
- Nguyen Huu Canh memorial area

- Documentary folklore of the Mekong Delta Section III: The struggles of ethnic minorities
Textbook 10
- Documentary folklore of the Mekong Delta:

folk verses
- Southern patriotic poetry Section III. The resistance of the people
Textbook 11 - Mekong Delta folk festival: of Cochinchina after the Treaty of 1862
+Truong Dinh’s death anniversary
+ Nguyen Trung Truc’s death anniversary
- Southern patriotic poetry
- Mekong Delta folklore documents: a Section I. The French colonialists
Lesson 20, Historical devilish story fought Tonkin the first time (1873). The
Textbook 11 - Religious beliefs: resistance spread to Tonkin
+ Buu Son Ky Huong religion with a resistance

war against the French in the South
- Southern patriotic poetry

- Religious beliefs: Section I. The Can Vuong movement
Textbook 11 + Tu An Hieu Nghia religion persevered exploded
against the French
- Documentaries of folklore of the Mekong

Delta: folk verses, chanty, folk song reflecting
economic and social life
Lesson 22, Historical Section I. Economic changes
- Folk story: a story about the origin and
Textbook 11 Section II. Political changes
place of the South
- Don Ca Tai Tu: the lessons reflecting the
social life of the South in this period
- Documentary folklore of the Mekong Delta:
Section 2: Phan Chau Trinh with reform
Textbook 11 - Folk stories
trends
- Nam Nha Duong relic
- Mekong Delta folklore documents: folk
verses against the French, folk song in Section I: Socio-economic situation
Textbook 11
the South
In addition, in the new general education program, in addition to the core education content, in each
school year, based on the conditions of each locality, the school develops an educational plan suitable to
the conditions of local. In which, it is necessary to increase the practical experience activities to help
students develop their love, passion, and interest in understanding Vietnamese interests. Accordingly,
the teachers can exploit the content of cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta to use in teaching a number
of topics in the new general education program such as:

Thematic Serve content teaching
in the Mekong Delta
Thematic 10. 2: Preservation - Oc Eo cultural relic - Cultural heritage concept

and promotion of cultural
- The ceremony of Ky Yen Thuong Dien - Classification of cultural heritage
heritage values in Vietnam
Dinh Binh Thuy
- The meaning of cultural heritage
- Ceremony of Holy Deity
- The death anniversary of Bui Huu

Nghia, Phan Van Tri
Thematic 11. 1: History of - South Vietnamese amateurs song - Solutions to preserve and promote
Vietnamese traditional art cultural heritage values
Thematic 12.1: History of - Tu An Hieu Nghia religion persevered
beliefs and religions in Vietnam against the French
In summary, depending on the location and significance of events taking place in the Mekong
Delta for the learning and learning of users, there are measures and requirements to exploit the content
and use of local cultural heritage documents and different methods, in order to contribute to improving
teaching efficiency.
2.4. Some measures to use local cultural heritage in teaching Vietnamese traditional interests
from primitive to 1918 at Can Tho city high school
2.4.1. Use local cultural heritage to stimulate the warm-up activity
Warm-up is the first activity, this activity aims to help students mobilize their own knowledge,
skills and experience on issues related to new lessons. Warm-up activities will stimulate the curiosity,
excitement, and attitude of students from the beginning of the lesson. Start-up activities are usually
organized through individual or group activities that will stimulate creativity, help students form
cooperation capacity, the spirit of learning and helping each other when performing tasks. How to
prepare the introductory session effectively must be based on the content of the lesson, the student’s
audience and the teacher’s conditions. Thus, it is understandable that this activity does not require high
thinking, does not take too seriously about knowledge, but mainly creates the best position for them to
enter, attracting them to be interested in them works behind that.
For example, when teaching lesson 16, history 10: The resistance wars against the North, the
teacher can use the excerpt of reformed “Tieng Trong Me Linh” to create a problematic situation, leading
the students into the lesson. Before starting the new lesson, the teacher opened the excerpt “Tieng Trong
Me Linh”, the section Trung Trac sacrificed her husband and soldiers, swore revenge before teacher
gives a suggested question: “Analyzing the cause of the uprising of Hai Ba Trung? Through 4 verses:
One would wash the book of enemy country / Two would bring back the old career of King Hung / Three
injustice to his husband’s heart / Four would be proud . Please tell us the biggest goal of the uprising?”
In your opinion, what does it say that people everywhere come to Me Linh? The use of the above
mentioned Cai Luong excerpts with evocative questions, not only provokes curiosity and excitement for
students but also has a great effect in orienting the basic knowledge that needs to be studied in the lesson.
After watching the clip, the teacher calls the students to answer, the teacher adds, leading comments
to the new article: “Thus, we have just learned about a heroic, majestic female general of the Vietnamese
people. So how did Hai Ba Trung’s uprising take place? What were the results? What is the value of
history lessons left to posterity in the future? We will learn together in today’s lesson?”
To test the feasibility of this measure, we conduct a partial pedagogical experiment of lesson 16 “The
resistance wars against the North” (grade 10 textbook), at Binh Thuy High School, led by teacher Nguyen
Thi Kim. It’s a direct teaching.Through observing class hours, we realize that the learning attitude, the
focus on lectures, the excitement in the perception of students in the control class is higher than that of the
experimental class. That initially shows the feasibility and suitability of the proposed measures.
2.4.2. Organizing activities for students to realize their cultural heritage with local cultural resources
Use documents and pictures about cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta to concretize events,
phenomena and historical figures. Literary works, folklore documents in the Mekong Delta (folk verses,
chanty, folk song,folk tales, ...) or reformed works, appeared in the period of historical events. Great
meaning for the restoration of past images, concretizing historical phenomena and events. The document
used is a short excerpt with content, concise, simple, concise, symbolic, reflecting a past historical event
or phenomenon, students will be able to learn quickly and easily. To conduct history lessons, teachers
can use cultural heritage to concretize events, phenomena, historical characters in order to increase the
vividness, sensuality of lectures and excite learning for students. The teacher can follow the following
basic steps:
- Step 1: Teacher shows movies, photos of cultural heritage, or uses materials on cultural heritage
which are closely related to the basic facts of the lesson
- Step 2: Teacher raises the problem, brings students into the situation that needs to be solved
- Step 3: Students observe and answer questions related to the heritage
- Step 4: Teacher collects ideas and draws lessons of awareness
For example, when teaching lesson 24, History 11: Vietnam in the first world war years (1914 -
1918), Section I: Socio-economic situation, the teacher can use the knife verse:
“Trời cao thăm thẳm đất dầy,
Bao giờ lính mộ sang Tây được về?
Vợ con thương nhớ ủ ê
Biết rằng sang đấy có về được không!”
Translatetion:
“The sky is high and the depths are thick,
When the grave soldiers go to the West can be comeback?
My wife and children miss me so much
How i can come back when i go there!”
After giving the above verse, the teacher asks the question: What event does the above folk verse
reflect on? Or What do you understand through this folk verse? The fact that the teacher uses the knife
in teaching this lesson in combination with the evocation will portray the effects of the first world war
on the social situation of Vietnam. Due to the need to add more forces to the war in Europe, the French
colonialists arrested the young Vietnamese to be sent to the European battlefield as soldiers or workers.
Since then, leading to the situation in many villages leaving only women, children and the elderly,
thereby helping students to understand more deeply the suffering of people in colonial society.
Or to help students understand more deeply about the impact of the first colonial exploitation on
the change of Vietnamese social life in the early years of the twentieth century, teachers use verses
combined with evocation open:
“Cái Răng, Ba Láng, Vàm Xáng, Phong Điền
Anh có thương em thì cho bạc cho tiền
Đừng cho lúa gạo, xóm giềng cười chê”
Translatetion:
“Cai Rang, Ba Lang, Vam Xang, Phong Dien
If you love me, you will give money to me
Don’t give rice, we will be laughed at by neighbors”
The teacher can ask the question: What do you think about the economic life of the people here
through the above folk verse? Students will easily answer, the folk verse reflect the full and full life
of the people. “If you love me, you will give money to me. Don’t give rice, we will be laughed at by
neighbors”, helping students see under the policy of the French colonial rule in colonial exploitation,
besides the negative aspects, the main books in agricultural exploitation have also brought positive
results. Teachers ‘use of the above-mentioned verse in teaching this lesson will have a profound impact
on students’ feelings, helping them to better understand the situation of Vietnamese society in the early
years of the twentieth century under the influence of first colonial exploitation. Since then, it helps them
to have the correct attitude when evaluating an event.
Using documents, pictures on cultural heritage to concretize events, phenomena and historical
characters is a very effective method to create excitement, stimulate the discovery and discovery of
historical knowledge of students very effectively. To confirm the feasibility of this measure, we have
conducted pedagogical experiment part by part, Section III, part 3 People of the three western provinces
against the French (Lesson 19, History 11) The experimental teacher is teacher Khưu Quang Minh (Binh
Thuy High School). We chose two classes 11A5 as the experimental class with 35 students and class
11A6 as the control class with 34 students. The results show that most of the students are very interested
in this measure, because the lesson effectiveness is very high.
Table 1. The results of using cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta to concretize knowledge in DHLS
Experimental results (rate)
Class
(The number of student) Great Rather Medium Weak
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (5-6 points) (<5 points)
Experimental 9 17 9 0
(35 students) (25,7%) (48,6%) (25,7%) (0%)
Control 4 13 17 0
(34 students) (11,8%) (38,2%) (50%) (0%)
Difference 13,9% 10,4% 24,3% 2,7%

It can be affirmed that the use of documents on cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta in the above
DHLS not only contributes to concretizing events, phenomena, historical figures, enriching knowledge
of LSDT, but also has a profound impact on the thought, children’s feelings when studying history. Not
only that, the use of cultural materials in the Mekong Delta region in teaching users will create passion
and the ability to perform and feel folk tunes. Thereby, raising awareness and responsibility of the young
generation in preserving and promoting the precious traditional values of the homeland.
2.4.3. Using local cultural heritage materials to consolidate and practice
After each lesson provides new knowledge, teachers often use questions and exercises to illustrate
some events, clarify the relationship between the local heritage and national history, helping students
create symbols clearer, more vivid about history. In addition, it is possible to use local cultural heritages
in organizing review games. Learning games not only have the effect of changing the form of learning
activities in class, making the classroom atmosphere comfortable, but also making the learning process
more attractive, light, and self-contained, consistent with the student’s psycho-physiological features.
Using the local cultural heritage to organize historical games will help students expand and improve the
knowledge learned in the history program of Vietnam. Thereby promoting the ability to think creatively,
quickly and train the spirit of cohesion and support in the team.
Example: After teaching lesson 24, History 11, the teacher could organize for students the game
“Turn over the puzzle, find legacy”. Heritage to look for is the historical relic of Nam Nha Pagoda (Can
Tho city). Teachers can let students play in teams, each team assigns 5-6 friends to join. How to play as
follows: Hidden numbers under 5 puzzle pieces is a legacy, teams turn to randomly open each puzzle
piece (in each puzzle piece has one question available) and then answer, thinking time for each question
is for 20 seconds, if the correct answer is given, the puzzle piece will be opened and receive 10 points. If
the answer is wrong, the remaining teams will have priority to answer. After turning all 5 puzzle pieces
and answering 5 questions, a picture will appear on the screen about the legacy to be found. What is the
name of that estate? The team that finds the legacy first will be the winner.
Through observation when teachers use local cultural heritage materials to build cognitive exercises
when teaching Vietnamese history, we realize a practical effect, this is a measure to help students develop
an independent and creative thinking so that students can have profound symbols of events, phenomena,
historical figures, thereby helping them to understand more deeply about the national history, understand
the connection the close ties between local cultural heritage and national history. This is the basis for
teachers to refer to and apply when teaching Vietnamese history in high schools.
2.4.4. Organize and guide students to collect local cultural heritage to report to class
This is a powerful method to save time in class, help students consolidate basic knowledge of the
lesson, and forge necessary skills for learning the subject. Because the content of local cultural heritages
mentioned in the Vietnam history program is not much, teachers need to increase the assignment of
homework for students to learn, to help them understand more deeply about cultural heritages in the
locality. Therefore, in addition to the above mentioned practical contacts, teachers can also create
homework for students to collect and prepare reports in class, when teaching ethnic history. For this to
be effective, teachers need:
- Step 1: Give the homework requirements that are suitable for students, and consistent with the
lesson content
- Step 2: Guide and provide them with writing materials on local cultural heritage such as books,
newspapers, magazines, or websites,...
- Step 3: Check and evaluate the work assigned to them within the prescribed time
- Step 4: Organize for students to present results to class
- Step 5: Evaluate the results, draw lessons for awareness
For example: after finishing lesson 21 history 11, to prepare for the learning content lesson 22
Vietnamese society in the first colonial exploitation of the French colonialists, history 11, Ms. Cao Thi Mong
Thuy (Ly Tu Trong High School) has given exercises and assigns tasks to groups of students as follows:
Group 1: Collect a number of folk songs, proverbs, folk songs that reflect the economic and social
life of the people in the southwestern region in this period.
Group 2: Learn about labor tools of farmers in the South West during this period.
Group 3: Explore the excerpts of reformed reforms that reflect social relationships in the South
West during this period.
Group 4: Investigate the anecdotes written about the landowning class in the southwestern region
In the course of conducting a lesson on Vietnam Society during the first French colonial
exploitation, the teacher asked each group to present to the class the homework the teacher had assigned
home. Students send group representatives to present, other groups to review, teachers to comment and
supplement. At the end of class, the groups should be scored in groups so that they know the level of
completing their assignment on the basis of which promote their existing strengths and overcome the
weaknesses they stumble to so that the next exercise can be completed better.
Table 2. The results of using cultural heritage in the Mekong Delta to guide students to collect and expand knowledge
Experimental results (rate)

Class
(The number of student) Great Rather Medium Weak
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (5-6 points) (<5 points)
Experimental
10 (25,6%) 17 (43,6%) 12 (30,8%) 0 (0%)
(39 students)
Control
6 (14,6%) 13 (31,7%) 18 (43,9%) 4 (9,7%)
(41 students)
Difference 11% 11,9% 13,1% 9,7%
Experimental teaching results have shown us that: the majority of students are conscious and
spiritually collecting cultural heritage resources in the Mekong Delta to serve the learning of user-friendly
materials, exciting classes, students actively actively participate in activities. According to the teacher’s
guidance, learning history also becomes gentle, practical and attractive, overcoming the shortcomings of
teaching the subject. However, according to Ms. Cao Thi Mong Thuy, this is a relatively new job, for a
long time the teacher has not dared to organize it for many different objective and subjective reasons, in
which the teachers are mainly afraid of not having time, fear of do not complete the amount of standard
knowledge in the program; Students are lazy to learn; The sources of cultural heritages in the Mekong
Delta are limited, so it takes a lot of time to invest in collecting and researching historical sources.
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Using cultural heritage in teaching history in high schools has a great role in fostering knowledge,
because through each event, historical figures that students learn in the program are The proof is
supplemented by a system of cultural heritage that is found almost everywhere in the country. Besides,
cultural heritage is also a highly effective visual means in teaching history, contributing to the education
of traditional ethics and love for the homeland for students. Thereby, contributing to the formation and
development of subject learning capacities, especially the capacity to practice, apply knowledge to real life.
To make the use of cultural heritage in teaching history in high school effective, we have a few
suggestions.
The Education and Training sector needs to work closely with the Cultural sector to promote
propaganda and widely introduce the typical cultural heritages of the locality to high schools in the area.
Organize to compile teaching materials, lectures on cultural heritages with quality for use in
schools, colleges and universities.
There are forms and measures to attract a large number of students to study, visit the typical
cultural heritages of the homeland, such as free admission tickets, exhibition and exhibition of heritage
culture in schools, organizing competitions to learn about cultural heritage ...
For the ethnic history and local history program in schools, it is necessary to drastically renovate
the content, form and teaching methods, strengthen the organization of field lessons at cultural heritage,
in Bao museums, galleries of monuments, ...
In order to use it effectively, it requires that history teachers not only master history, local history
knowledge, general cultural knowledge and subject teaching theory, but also love their profession,
enthusiasm and dedicated to the job.
REFERENCES
1. Nguyen Thi Coi, Vu Thi Ngoc Anh (2012), Compiling local materials in History, Vietnam Ed-
ucation Publishing House, Hanoi
2. Bao Dinh Giang (1977), Southern Patriotic Poetry (the second half of the nineteenth century),
Literature Publishing House. Ho Chi Minh City
3. Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Can Tho City (2019), The Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Can Tho City
4. Tran Thi Thu Thuy, Nguyen Xuan Truong, Nguyen Duc Tang (2014), Steps for building a teach-
ing plan using intangible cultural heritages, Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
5. Michela Ott, Francesca Pozzi (2011), “Towards a new era for Cultural Heritage Education:
Discussing the role of ICT”, Computers in Human Behavior 27, pp. 1365-1371.
6. Simsek, G (2012), “Heritage education for primary school children through drama: The case of
Aydin, Turkey”, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46, pp. 3817-3824.
7. Tulay Ocal (2016), “Necessity of Cultural Historical Heritage Education in Social Studies
Teaching”, Creative Education, 7, pp. 396-406
8. Graça Magro, Joaquim Ramos de Carvalho and Maria José Marcelino (2014), “Improving his-
tory learning through cultural heritage, local history and technology”, 10th International Con-
ference Mobile Learning, pp. 34-40
APPLYING READER - RESPONSE THEORY IN TEACHING LYRIC POETRY
READING IN HIGH SCHOOL TO FULFILL THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE VIETNAMESE LITERATURE CURRICULUM (2018)
Nguyen Minh Nhat Nam, Chau Hue Mai,
Tran Phat Dat, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy
(Ho Chi Minh University of Education)
Abstract: The Vietnamese Literature Curriculum (2018) (VLC2018) operates in high schools by 2022.
This new curriculum requires high school teachers to teach students communication skills, especially literature
reading skills, in a competency-based orientation. In this context, this study aimed to propose adequate strategies
for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school by applying reader-response theory to fulfill the requirements
of the VLC2018. To construct a theoretical basis, we connected three concepts in reader-response theory with
the curriculum’s orientation of teaching reading. Two main methods in the study were survey and pedagogical
experiment method. Survey questionnaires collected data from 51 teachers and 415 students at high schools in Ho
Chi Minh City (HCMC). The survey revealed that teachers used a few active methods and techniques to enhance
students’ active engagement and response to lyric poetry, and students read lyric poems in an incompletely
competency-based approach. Thus, the findings of this study included ten strategies for eliciting and developing
high school students’ responses to lyric poetry through reader-centered, cooperative, and integrated learning
activities. These ten strategies are implemented before, during, and after students read the poem. A small-scale
experiment based on the VLC2018’s reading outcomes was conducted on 43 grade 11 students at Tran Khai
Nguyen high school (HCMC). Pre-test and post-test results showed that strategies proposed by the study were
relatively usable in the actual classroom and moderately developed students’ skills and interest in reading lyric
poetry. In conclusion, this study will assist high school teachers in designing response-based lesson plans for
teaching lyric poetry reading to meet the renovation requirements of the Vietnamese Literature Curriculum (2018).
Keywords: reading skill, lyric poetry, high school teaching, reader-response theory, Vietnamese Literature
Curriculum (2018).
1. INTRODUCTION
Following a competency-based orientation, the Vietnamese Literature Curriculum issued by the
Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 2018 (VLC2018)1 centers on training students
in four communication skills, including reading, writing, listening, and speaking, to develop their
linguistic and literary competencies (MOET, 2018, p.5). Of four skills, reading skill is highly emphasized
in the VLC2018, indicating the importance of teaching this skill. For example, regarding students from
1 This is a shortened name of the curriculum’s full name: Vietnamese General Education Curriculum in Literature (Chương
trình giáo dục phổ thông môn Ngữ văn của Việt Nam).
grade 10 to grade 12, time for practicing reading constitutes around 60% of the total educational time,
according to the VLC2018 (MOET, 2018, p.90). As Literature has its aesthetic nature, the VLC2018
asks students to “spend more time reading literary texts” (MOET, 2018, p.89), which means teachers
need to prioritize literary texts as reading materials for students. Furthermore, the VLC2018 will operate
in grade 10 by 2022. The context mentioned above motivates this study to look into literature reading
skills in high school (grade 10 – 12).
From grade 10 to 12 in the VLC2018, lyric poetry (lyric) is a literary text genre that is relatively
perplexing for high school students to comprehend due to its linguistic conciseness, complexity, and
polysemy. Adding to the difficulty of reading lyrics in high school in the future is the VLC2018’s
requirement of a high reading skill associated with literary genres in high school (MOET, 2018, p.11),
which asks students to read at the level of analyzing and evaluating (MOET, 2018, p.15). To help
students overcome this difficulty when the VLC2018 operates, teachers are responsible for providing
them instructive and appropriate support to obtain the required skills by the VLC2018 and passion in
reading lyric poetry in class.
The VLC2018 aims at “helping students know how to read and read on their own” (that is,
helping them perceive and use reading skills), “actuating the active, creative reading,” “instructing and
encouraging students […] to eagerly engage in meaning-making, […] to employ personal knowledge,
to utilize life experience in reading” (MOET, 2018, p.82). However, many current methods of teaching
lyric poetry in high schools might have overlooked students’ active role and engagement with the poem.
In this sense, the teacher directs students to a passive reading in which they are not personally connected
with the poem (Pham & Ha, 2019) and are preoccupied with the teacher’s interpretations of the poem
(Nguyen, 2021). Students consequently lack the competency to read and make meanings of a given
poem on their own. There is an urgent need for renovating current methods of teaching lyric reading in
high school to prepare for the VLC2018’s operation in 2022. As the VLC2018 is only a general teaching
framework, not including step-by-step strategies for organizing learning activities, it is necessary to
study teaching strategies to fill the gap between the curriculum and the actual teaching.
In this study, we applied reader-response theory to propose adequate strategies for teaching lyric
reading in high school to fulfill the requirements of the VLC2018. Chiefly developed by L. Rosenblatt,
N. Holland, S. Fish, and J. Culler, reader-response theory has many implications for teaching active
and creative reading skills similar to the pedagogical orientations of the VLC2018 in teaching reading.
Both reader-response theory and the VLC2018 appreciate the importance of the reader’s response to the
text, considering reading as a meaning-making process based on the reader’s background knowledge
and experience. From the response-based viewpoint, to form and train high school students skills in
reading lyric poetry, teachers need to shift their methods from transmitting predetermined interpretations
to instructing students how to approach, discover a poem and respond to it on their own to achieve
competency, which also helps teachers to satisfy the requirements of the VLC2018. The questions of
this study were:
1. What are the adequate strategies for teaching lyric reading based on reader-response theory to
fulfill the requirements of the VLC2018?
2. Are the strategies for teaching lyric reading based on reader-response theory practicable and
effective in developing skills in high school according to the VLC2018?
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Studies on the teaching of reading from the viewpoint of reader-response theory
Rooted in the 1930s within the works of L. Rosenblatt and officially established in the late 1960s
and 1970s, reader-response theory exerted a strong influence on literary criticism and the teaching of
literature. In the 1980s and 1990s, there was a wave of studies on response-based principles, methods,
and framework of teaching reading, with prominent authors such as L. M. Rosenblatt, R. E. Probst, J.
A. Langer, R. Beach. Rosenblatt (1986) presented some implications for building a literature curriculum
based on her transactional theory of aesthetic reading and responding. Rosenblatt’s findings served
as a basis for response-based teaching. Probst (1988) employed Rosenblatt’s transactional theory to
proposed five assumptions and seven principles for instruction in the literature reading class. Langer
studied the reading process, including three stages (before reading, during reading, and after reading)
(Langer, 1982, p.47) and four stances (“being out and stepping into an envisionment,” “being in and
moving through an envisionment,” “stepping back and rethinking what one knows,” and “stepping out
and objectifying the experience”) (Langer, 1992, p.40). In 1994, Langer conducted intensive research in
which she proposed nine general guidelines for response-based instruction and a framework of optional
teaching strategies from a reader-based perspective (Langer, 1994, p.207-209). Langer’s studies proved
the practicability of applying reader-response theory to the literature instruction in the classroom and
offered teachers helpful, optional strategies for developing students’ thinking. Regarding an inclusive
and comprehensible introduction to the response-based approach for teachers, Beach (1993) connected
five different perspectives of reader-based theories (textual, experiential, psychological, social, and
cultural) to propose strategies for planning literature reading lessons and eliciting the student’s response.
The studies mentioned above provide a basis for Vietnamese authors to study response-based
teaching in the educational context of Vietnam. From 2012 to 2016, Pham T. T. H. (2012), Hoang T.
M. (2015), Nguyen T. H. N. and Duong T. H. H. (2016) introduced the reader-response theory and the
problem of teaching reading from a reader-response perspective. From 2016 to 2020, authors such as
Pham T. T. H. (2016), Tran Q. K. (2017), Nguyen T. T. N. (2020) focused on the applications of reader-
response theory in developing students’ reading competency. Studies in Vietnam till 2020 were based on
Rosenblatt’s transactional theory and Langer’s framework. Our recent study (Nguyen et al., 2021) went
beyond this limit by applying Fish’s concept of “interpretive community” to work out the techniques
for eliciting the student’s beliefs and organizing multi-dimensional discussions. However, studies on
response-based teaching in Vietnam thus far have been mostly theoretical, proposing a teaching model
or a set of implications/strategies, while few experimental studies have been conducted to measure the
practicability and efficacy of applying reader-response theory in the teaching.
2.2. Studies on approaches and strategies for the teaching of lyric poetry reading in high school
As aware of the challenge with which high school students may struggle when reading lyric poetry,
both foreign and Vietnamese authors studied the principles and strategies of teaching students to read
poems. Widdowson (1975) suggested a stylistic approach to the teaching of poetry reading. Dias (1979)
presented a response-based approach to teaching poetry in high school for developing independent
readers. The strategies for teaching lyric poetry proposed by Somers (1999) were question-building
and discussion-making, which allow students to interpret by responding to the poem at different levels,
making it lively and multi-meaning.
In Vietnam, studies on approaches and strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school
are content-based or competency-based. The content-based studies mainly include the works of Tran
T. D. et al. (1978), Nguyen T. H. (2000), and Nguyen V. C. (2013). These authors valued the role of
the teacher in exploiting the poem and giving lectures on it, and they focused on strategies for teaching
particular poems rather than teaching students how to read. The competency-based studies include
studies of several authors such as Nguyen T. N. H. (2014), Nguyen T. T. L. (2017), Do N. T. et al.
(2020), Pham T. T. H. and Ha T. H. (2020), Nguyen P. M. (2021). These authors developed models,
strategies, and techniques for teaching reading lyric poetry for high school students, such as genre-
based teaching (teaching students to read with the knowledge of lyric poetry’s features like rhyme,
rhythm, lyric voice, etc.), connected and integrated teaching (using techniques to connect the poem with
the actual world and the student’s life), and response-based teaching. There have been a few specific
studies on teaching reading skills with lyric poems in high school from the response-based theoretical
perspective. Nguyen T. N. H. (2014) employed Langer’s framework in organizing reading lessons with
lyric poetry based on the student’s response. Nguyen T. T. L. (2017) utilized Rosenblatt’s transactional
view for building a system of reading exercises for high school students. Nguyen P. M. (2021) was also
based on Rosenblatt’s theory to propose a system of aesthetic reading questions (before-reading, during-
reading, and after-reading) used in teaching lyric poetry in high school. However, the reading questions
or exercises presented in these studies still contained some predetermined meanings of the poem.
After reviewing previous studies, we concluded that the response-based and competency-based
teaching of lyric poetry reading has been broadly and thoroughly studied in foreign countries, especially
America, but it is relatively new to Vietnam as an approach to teaching lyric poetry reading in high
school. In Vietnam, reader-response theory has served as the theoretical basis of some studies, but it has
been limited to the transactional-experiential viewpoint. Our study differs from the previous studies in
Vietnam by applying three reader-response concepts (theoretically broader than previous studies) and
connecting them with the VLC2018’s requirements of reading lyric poetry to construct a theoretical
basis of teaching lyric poetry reading.
3. THEORETICAL BASIS
3.1. Reader-response concepts and their implications for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school
Reader-response theorists asserted that the meaning of a literary text does not exist outside the
reader’s response, the result of reading activity in a particular context (emotion, evaluation, connection,
etc.). Different reader-response viewpoints revolved around three interdependent factors: the text, the
reader, and the socio-cultural context (Beach, 1993). Based on Beach’s three-factor model, we selected
three reader-response concepts that can be applied in teaching reading lyric poems in high school.
The first concept is “literary convention” (Culler, 1980), implying that reading is influenced
by conventions in the literary text. When reading a lyric poem, students need the teacher’s guide to
acquiring the knowledge of conventions of lyric poetry by which they can read and understand the poem.
The second concept is “aesthetic transaction” (Rosenblatt, 1986), implying that reading is
influenced by the reader’s personal experience. Teachers need to connect the poem with students’
background knowledge and experience, exploiting and developing their response to the poem through
each stage of the reading process.
The third concept is “interpretive community” (Fish, 1980), implying that reading is intersubjective
and influenced by the socio-cultural context (context-sensitive). Teachers need to connect both the
poem and the students with the context when the poem was written and the current context, building a
cooperative classroom to enhance the role of interpretive communities among students.
3.2. Lyric poetry: definition and feature

Lyric poetry is a literary genre. A lyric poem is a statement expressing emotions and attitudes of
a speaker who is called lyric subject or lyric persona (the character in the poem who is an “avatar” of
the lyric subject). Words in a lyric poem are polysemic (having multiple meanings), highly aesthetic,
interrelate, and collectively forming a complex structure (Tran et al., 2014). Table 1 shows typical
elements representing generic features (generic conventions) of lyric poetry. In the VLC2018, mostly
these elements are required to be identified, analyzed, and evaluated by students when they practice
reading skills with lyric poetry.
Table 1. Generic features of lyric poetry
Aspect Element
Visual level The display of the poem on the written text (space, alignment, etc.)
Structure
Phonetic level Rhyme, rhythm, phonetic stylistic device
Lexical-semantic level Words, image, icon, symbol, lexical-semantic stylistic device
Syllable, line, sentence, stanzas (paragraphs) of poetry; phonological,

Line and stanza level
syntactic stylistic device
Compositional level Arrangement, versification (if any), composition (if any)
Textual level The poem as a whole
Thematic unity and Lyric subject, lyric persona, and drama of emotion and attitudes
coherence
Elements representing movements (symbolism, surrealism, etc.)
3.3. The VLC2018’s orientation of teaching lyric poetry reading from grade 10 to grade 12
The aim of the VLC2018 in teaching lyric poetry reading is to develop students’ competency of
reading a poem – knowing how to read. Examining the VLC2018, we deduced the structure of lyric poetry
reading competency in grades 10 – 12 from the expected reading outcomes set by the VLC2018 (Table 2).
Table 2. The structure of lyric poetry reading competency in grades 10 – 12 (VLC2018)
Competency’s components Competency’s general displays/aspects
Language knowledge Content-Form reading

Literature knowledge
Knowledge
1. Identifying the poem’s facts

(knowledge of lyric poetry features,
authors, etc.) 2. Connecting and analyzing the poem’s facts
General knowledge
3. Generalizing and explaining the poem’s structure and meaning
Personal experience (in life and in
reading lyric poetry) 4. Evaluating the poem’s structure, meaning, and merit
Predicting, identifying, connecting, Relating, comparing, connecting, and Extended reading

visualizing, inferring, reasoning, 5. Relating and connecting the poem with oneself to express feelings
Skill
analyzing, evaluating, determining and personal evaluations, to infer messages/lessons, to perceive the
reading motives, tracking, etc. impact of the poem on the way of thinking; relating and connecting
the poem with the socio-cultural context to evaluate the poem; relating
and comparing the poem with other literary texts
Attitude
Feelings and emotions, eagerness, and 6. Employing the experience of reading the poem to read other
activeness when reading the poem poems; employing knowledge after reading the poem to solve actual/
hypothetical problems
The VLC2018 also requires teachers to stick to the generic features of lyric poetry when teaching,
paying attention to the role of students in reading activities, focusing on differentiating the student’s
competency in lyric reading, integrating reading skills with writing, speaking, and listening skills, using
active methods and techniques.
4. METHODS
4.1. Questionnaire survey
The questionnaire survey was used for collecting data on the current state of teaching lyric poetry.
The survey sample included 51 teachers and 415 students from 07 high schools in HCMC. The survey
was conducted from March 4 to March 25, 2021.
Table 3. The participants of the survey
Participant N Percent
Teacher 51
with 1 – 5 years of experience 12 23.5%
with 5 – 10 years of experience 17 33.3%
with over 10 years of experience 22 43.1%
Student 415
in grade 10 70 16.8%
in grade 11 284 68.5%
in grade 12 61 14.7%
The questionnaire included 4-point Likert scale questions on two contents: (1) the frequency of
methods and techniques for teaching lyric poetry reading; (2) the frequency of activities organized in
lyric poetry reading time. Each question had four given answers represented by 4 values: 1 = Never; 2
= Sometimes; 3 = Often; 4 = Very often.
4.2. Pedagogical experiment
The pedagogical experiment was used for verifying and evaluating the practicability and
effectiveness of the strategies proposed by our study. A small-scale experiment based on the VLC2018’s
reading outcomes was conducted from March 27 to April 3, 2021, on the class 11A4 at Tran Khai
Nguyen high school (HCMC) as an experimental group. The experimental group’s size (number of
students participated) was 43 (N = 43).
The supplemental methods in the experiment were: (1) observation for observing the teacher’s
activities and the classroom atmosphere during the experimental lesson; (2) interview for collecting the
teacher’s evaluations on the experimental lesson; (3) questionnaire survey for collecting the students’
opinions on the experimental lesson.
The design of this experiment was a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design because the random
assignment was difficult. Besides, there was no control group in this experiment. Firstly, our aim was
not to compare the validity of the strategies proposed by our study (as the treatment for the experimental
group) with that of current strategies (in the control group). Secondly, our proposed strategies are
completely associated with the VLC2018’s orientation (competency-based) while current strategies are
strictly confined to the orientation of the current curriculum (content-based). The comparison is thus
insignificant due to the obvious difference between the two orientations.
In this experiment, the dependent variable was the student’s competency in reading lyric poetry.
The independent variable was the response-based and competency-based strategies. The experiment
procedure included five stages:
(1) Setting reading outcomes for the pre-test and post-test, and experimental lesson. Six of the
VLC2018’s reading outcomes (O) were selected as learning objectives for the experimental lesson and
as assessment objectives for the pre-test and post-test: O1 – Assessing the aesthetic value of words
and structures; O2 – Analyzing typical details and their relationship in the whole of the work; O3 –
Analyzing and evaluating the feelings and emotions the writer expressed in the text; O4 – Analyzing
and evaluating the message the text sends to readers through its artistic form; O5 – Applying reading
experiences, life experiences, and knowledge related to the history of Vietnamese literature to make
comments on the literary text; O6 – Analyzing the significance or impact of the literary text in changing
individual’s thoughts about literature and life. In the pre-test and post-test, each outcome was assessed
through certain questions with given scores and expressed numerically in a fixed score percentage (%).
(2) Administering the pre-test (T1) as primary observation of the dependent variable to all
students in the experimental group. The poem Chân quê (Countrylike) by Nguyen Binh was assigned as
the reading material for the test. T1’s individual and average scores were recorded.
(3) Administering the experimental lesson as the implementation of the independent variable
(treatment). The students in the experimental class learned a lesson on reading lyric poetry. This lesson
lasted for two school periods (90 minutes). These periods were extra-curricular periods, which means
they were not confined to the current curriculum and potentially open to the VLC2018’s reading
outcomes. The pedagogical orientation of the current curriculum thus did not affect the experiment
results. In the lesson, the poems Tương tư (Lovesick) by Nguyen Binh and Chiều xuân (Spring Evening)
by Anh Tho were assigned as the reading materials for the experimental lesson. The teacher participating
in the experiment utilized the lesson plan conforming to our proposed strategies.
(4) Administering the post-test (T2) as secondary observation of the dependent variable to all
students in the experimental group. The poem Tương tư chiều (Lovesick Evening) by Xuan Dieu was
assigned as the reading material for the test. T2’s individual and average scores were recorded.
(5) Assessing the experiment results, including individual and average scores of T1 and T2,
and qualitative data from the participants. Through data processing, we examined the change on the
dependent variable’s value (student’s competency in reading lyric poetry) from the pre-test to the post-
test, from which evaluating the practicability and effectiveness of the strategies proposed by our study.
Data collected from the survey and the experiment was analyzed by SPSS 25.0.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1. The actual state of teaching lyric poetry reading in high school
The actual state of teaching lyric poetry reading in high school was studied through our survey
conducted in 7 high schools in HCMC. Table 4 shows the average frequency of methods and techniques
that teachers used in teaching lyric poetry reading.
Table 4. Methods and techniques for teaching lyric poetry reading (N = 51)
Methods and techniques Min Max M SD
Methods
1. Traditional lecture-based teaching 2 4 3.07 .68
2. Dialogic teaching 2 4 3.37 .63
3. Group discussion 1 4 3.27 .77
4. Literature club 1 4 2.25 .89
5. Problem-based teaching 2 4 3.00 .63
6. Role-play 1 4 2.72 .77
7. Project-based teaching 1 4 2.41 .95
Techniques
8. KWL 1 4 2.59 .78
9. Visualization 1 4 2.78 .81
10. Learning worksheet 1 4 2.88 .76
11. Four-square (“Table-cover”) and Gallery walk 1 4 2.61 .66
12. Jigsaw (Puzzle) 1 4 2.55 .70
13. Think – Pair – Share 1 4 2.37 .69
14. Mind map 1 4 3.10 .78
M = Mean; SD = Standard deviation

In Table 4, the mean of items ranges from 2.37 (item 13) to 3.37 (item 2). Methods (items from 1 to
7) most often or highly used in teaching lyric poetry reading were dialogic teaching (M = 3.37), group
discussion (M = 3.27), traditional lecture-based teaching (M = 3.07), and problem-based teaching (M
= 3.00). The least often used method was literature club (M = 2.25). Regard techniques (items from
8 to 14), mind map (M = 3.10) was highly or often used, while learning worksheet (M = 2.88) and
visualization (M = 2.78) were moderately used. These results revealed that teachers were relatively
aware of using some active methods and techniques in teaching lyric poetry reading because the items
in Table 4 are mainly active teaching methods and techniques.
Table 5 shows the average frequency of learning activities in the lyric poetry reading time in high
school from the viewpoint of students.
Table 5. Learning activities in the lyric poetry reading time in high school (N = 415)
Learning activity Min Max M SD
1. Activating background knowledge and experience, setting goals and motives

1 4 2.71 .92
before reading the poem
2. Directly reading the poem 1 4 3.20 .81
3. Eliciting during-reading experiences with the poem 1 4 2.66 .93
Practicing skills in reading lyric poetry
4. Identifying 1 4 2.73 .93

5. Connecting and analyzing 1 4 2.63 .83
6. Generalizing and explaining 1 4 2.72 .86
7. Evaluating 1 4 2.67 .86
8. Relating, comparing, and connecting 1 4 2.52 .85
9. Reading further and solving problems 1 4 2.40 .89
10. Assessing the in-class reading outcomes 1 4 2.57 .78
Survey results in Table 5 revealed that the organization of activities in the lyric poetry reading time
in high school quite focused on before-reading (item 1, M = 2.71) and during-reading activities (item 2,
M = 3.20) as well as students’ reading skills associated with lyric poetry, mainly identifying (M = 2.73)
and generalizing (M = 2.72). Assessing activities (M = 2.57) was noticed but no so often. The survey
results showed a tendency of competency-based teaching.
The survey results indicated a potential of fostering competency-based teaching of lyric poetry
reading in high school, as there was a group of teachers using some methods and techniques towards
developing students’ competency.
5.2. Response-based strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school (to meet the
VLC2018’s requirements)
Based on the theoretical grounds and survey results, we prosed a system of response-based strategies
for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school to satisfy the VLC2018’s reading outcomes (Table 6).
Each strategy aims at training students a particular reading skill (displaying an aspect of student’s
competency) in a specified circumstance (coming across the poem’s rhymes, symbols, emotions, visual
form, etc.). For practical purposes, we suggested manageable methods and techniques compatible with
each strategy. At the systematic level, these strategies have determined goals and their underlying three
principles. The system aims at:
(1) guiding students to read and respond to a lyric poem adequately, constructing its meanings and
gaining knowledge on reading skills;
(2) developing the literary experience;
(3) developing the student-student and student-teacher cooperation through dialogic discussion
inside and outside the classroom.
Three principles of these strategies are:
(1) complying with the characteristics of reading activity (conventional, continuous and
transactional, context-sensitive and intersubjective) and the features of lyric poetry;
(2) complying with the VLC2018’s structure of lyric poetry reading competency in grade 10 – 12
and ensuring the integrated and differentiated teaching;
(3) ensuring the systematicity (the interrelation of strategies) and flexibility (the compatibility with
various teaching methods and techniques).
Table 6. Strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school
STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED BEFORE READING
Strategy 1 Purposes: creating engagement and activeness; creating a scheme for reading the poem
Exploiting students’
beliefs and experiences Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the poem’s facts; connecting the
of students on issues poem with the background experiences
related to the poem
Skills can be trained: identifying; predicting; connecting
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: relating, comparing, connecting
Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; KWL; brainstorming; freewriting; etc.

Strategy 2 Purposes: recalling and supplementing background knowledge; creating a scheme
Recalling and for reading the poem
supplementing students’
background knowledge Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the poem’s facts; connecting the
poem with the background knowledge
related to the poem
(particularly knowledge
Skills can be trained: identifying; connecting
of genre conventions)
Suggested methods/ techniques: games; brainstorming; KWL; keyword-card; etc.
Strategy 3 Purposes: creating engagement; setting the reading goal; creating an aesthetic state
Evoking students’ of mind before reading the poem
motives and desires
when reading the poem, Aspects of competency can be trained: connecting the poem with oneself
creating aesthetic
Skills can be trained: connecting; predicting; goal setting
expectations within
students, setting goals
for reading the poem
Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; KWL; student-generated
question; etc.
STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED DURING READING
Strategy 4 Purposes: maintaining reading engagement; practicing identifying and expressing

Exploiting the student’s (feelings)
literary experience while Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the facts in the poem; contacting,
reading the poem connecting the poem with oneself to express general feelings about the poem
Skills can be trained: identifying; emotion expressing; connecting; visualizing
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: reading details, expressing feelings, and personally

evaluating
Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; cooperative teaching; learning

worksheet; Think – Pair – Share; side-note; etc.
Strategy 5 Purposes: practicing reading the text as parts; tracking the reading
Guiding students to
interpret the poem as Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the poem’s facts; analyzing,
explaining, and evaluating some details in the poem; connecting the poem to the real
parts and track the world
interpretive strategy
while reading the poem Skills can be trained: identifying; predicting; analyzing; explaining; reasoning;
evaluating; connecting
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: reading details, expressing feelings, reading words

and images
Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; learning worksheet; Think-

aloud; “I wonder… + question”; etc.
STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED AFTER READING
Strategy 6 Purposes: practicing reading the text as a whole; enhancing cooperative reading
Developing students’
response to the poem as Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying, analyzing, and connecting
a whole the poem’s facts; generalizing and explaining the poem’s structure and meaning;
evaluating the poem’s structure, meaning, and merit
Skills can be trained: identifying; analyzing, connecting; reasoning; evaluating
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: content-form reading of the whole poem
Suggested methods/ techniques: cooperative teaching; jigsaw/ learning worksheet/

dialogue journal; mind map/ visual note; etc.
Strategy 7 Purposes: practicing relating, comparing, and connecting; enhancing cooperative reading
Broadening students’
response to the poem Aspects of competency can be trained: relating, comparing, and connecting the
through activities on poem with oneself (to express feelings and evaluations on the whole poem), with other
texts, and with the socio-cultural context (to evaluate the poem’s merits)
contacting, comparing,
and connecting
Skills can be trained: emotion expressing; comparing; connecting; evaluating
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: content-form reading of the whole poem; relating,

comparing, connecting
Suggested methods/ techniques: cooperative teaching; dialogue journal; four-

square; etc.
Strategy 8 Purposes: practicing employing reading outcomes to solve problems

Broadening students’
response to the poem Aspects of competency can be trained: employing the after-reading knowledge to solve
through activities on actual/ hypothetical problems
employing the after-
Skills can be trained: connecting; employing
reading knowledge
to solve actual/
hypothetical problems
Suggested methods/ techniques: problem-based teaching; cooperative teaching;
one-minute freewriting; etc.
Strategy 9 Purposes: self-assessing of the reading outcomes and the practice of reading skills
Guiding students to
summarize and evaluate Aspects of competency can be trained: connecting the poem with oneself
their reading of the
poem Skills can be trained: connecting; evaluating; tracking
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: content-form reading of the whole poem; relating,

comparing, connecting
Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; KWL; etc.

Strategy 10 Purposes: practicing extended reading; practicing reading skills performed in class
Guiding students to
employ the reading Aspects of competency can be trained: employing the experience after reading a
poem to read other poems; certain aspects of competency trained in class
experience drawn from
the reading of a poem Skills can be re-trained: certain skills trained in class
for extended reading
VLC2018’s reading outcomes: extended reading; outcomes towards which students
have to practice
Suggested methods/ techniques: cooperative teaching; project-based teaching;

reading journal; literature group; seminar; gallery walk; discussion forum; etc.
These strategies are not only used by the teacher as teaching and learning are reciprocal and
inseparable. First, the teacher implements these strategies on the student’s reading process with close
guidance, then, within a short-term or long-term plan, the teacher gradually moderates guidance and
transfers these strategies to the student. Thenceforth, the student obtains the strategies and implements
them at hand to achieve the competency.
In high schools, the reading activity with a lyric poem should have three “reading rounds” (Table
5.4). In each round, the appropriate strategy (strategies) is (are) implemented.
Table 7. Strategies implemented on reading rounds and stages
Student’s reading process (rounds and stages) Strategy
Before-reading Strategy 1, 2, 3
1 Reading round
st
(pre-class reading) During-reading Strategy 4, 5
After-reading Strategy 6
Before-reading Strategy 1, 2, 3
2 Reading round
nd
During-reading Strategy 4, 5
(in-class reading)
After-reading Strategy 6, 7, 8, 9
3rd Reading round (after-class reading) Strategy 8, 9, 10
5.3. Pedagogical experiment results

The main results of the experiment were the pre-test (before treatment) and post-test (after
treatment) results and t-Test results, presented in Table 8, Table 9, and Table 10. Both the pre-test and
post-test used the 0-10 score scale. The raw test scores were rounded to 2 decimal places.
Table 8. Pre-test (T1) and post-test (T2) results

Test N Highest score Lowest score Mean Standard deviation
T1 43 3.13 0.75 1.9679 0.5311

T2 43 7.13 1.63 2.9621 1.2125
Table 9. Independent Sample t-Test results
T1 T2 Mean difference (T2 – T1) p-value (2-tailed)
1.9679 2.9621 +0.99419 0.000
Table 10. Paired Sample t-Test results
Mean (by outcome) Mean difference

VLC2018’s reading outcomes p-value (2-tailed)
(T2 – T1)
T1 T2
Outcome O1 0.1384 0.2058 +0.06744 0.131
Outcome O2 0.6353 0.0500 –0.58535 0.000
Outcome O3 0.0207 0.2872 +0.26651 0.000

Outcome O4 0.1753 0.2872 +0.11186 0.001
Outcome O5 0.3081 0.3512 +0.04302 0.024
Outcome O6 0.0058 0.0581 +0.05223 0.130
The experimental group achieved an average score of 2.9621 on the post-test, higher than the
average score of 1.9676 on the pre-test (Table 8). The moderate increase of the experimental group’s
average score after treatment revealed that the proposed strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading
created a positive effect on the improvement in the lyric reading competency of the experimental group.
The standard deviation also increased from the pre-test to the post-test (1.2125 > 0.5311), showing an
increase in the differentiation of the students’ competency from the pre-test to the post-test. According to
Independent Sample t-Test results, the difference in the experimental group’s average score from the
pre-test to the post-test was +0.99419 and this was a significant difference with the p-value < 0.05 (Table
9). After the experiment, the experimental group made certain progress in the competency of reading
lyric poetry, which means the experiment achieved positive results. According to Paired Sample
t-Test results, half of the preset VLC2018’s reading outcomes – O3, O4, and O5 – were improved from
the pre-test to the post-test (positive mean difference and p-value < 0.05). This result proved that the
implementation of our proposed strategies had a relatively effective impact on some aspects of the
lyric poetry reading competency required in the VLC2018. From these results, we expected that the
remaining reading outcomes, O1, O2, and O6, would be improved in longer exposure to treatment1.
1 The outcome O6 requires high-level reading skills, thus in a short time, it was difficult for students to improve O6. The outcomes
O1 and O2 are associated with text-form reading that were also being taught in high schools, it was difficult to create a
significant improvement in student’s competency. On the other hand, the outcomes O4 and O5 was relatively new to the
experimental group, creating a positive learning attitude within students, therefore, after short-term treatment, the experimental
group was able to show a clear improvement of competency towards these two outcomes.
The following supporting results of the experiment also served to prove the practicability and
effectiveness of the strategies proposed by our study. Firstly, through observing during the experimental
lesson, we found that the teacher performed quite well in guiding students to read the assigned poems.
Due to short time (2 school periods), the teacher did not have many opportunities to elicit students’
responses and organize in-depth discussions. The classroom atmosphere was quite energetic with
students’ engagement and relative completion of the learning tasks. Secondly, in the after-experiment
interview, the teacher reported that our proposed strategies applied to the experimental lesson had
moderately created certain effects on the development of students’ reading skills with lyric poetry and
changed the teacher’s awareness of teaching lyric poetry reading in the competency-based orientation of
the VLC2018. Finally, after-experiment survey results showed that 76.8% of students in the experimental
group wanted to continue learning with the strategies implemented in the experimental lesson, while
20.9% reported neutral and 2.3% did not want to.
6. CONCLUSION
To answer the study questions, we proposed a system of response-based strategies to teach lyric
poetry reading in high school to fulfill the VLC2018’s requirements of developing competency, including
strategies implemented in rounds and stages of the students’ reading process. Consequently, the small-
scale pedagogical experiment results verified the initial practicability and effectiveness of the strategies
in an actual high school classroom. However, further experiments are required to ensure the validity of
these strategies.
Regarding recommendations for further studies, it is significant to design tools for teachers and
students in teaching and learning reading lyric poetry in the orientation of the VLC2018, such as model
lesson plans, poetry reading notebooks for students, teacher manuals, etc. In addition, there is still an
urgent need for studying the response-based teaching of reading other text genres in high school to fulfill
the VLC2018’s requirements.
REFERENCES
1. Beach, R. (1993). A Teacher’s Introduction to Reader-Response Theories. Urbana (IL): National

Council of Teachers of English.
2. Culler, J. (1980). Literary Competence. In Jane P. Tompkins (Ed.), Reader-response criticism:
From formalism to post-structuralism, London: JHU Press.
3. Dias, P. (1979). Developing independent readers of poetry: An approach to teaching poetry in
the high school. McGill Journal of Education/Revue des sciences de l’éducation de McGill,
14(002), 199-214.
4. Do N. T. (Chief Ed.), Bui, M. D., Do, T. H., Pham, T. T. H. & Le, T. M. N. (2020). Competency-
Based Teaching of High School Literature. Ha Noi: University of Education Press.
5. Fish, S. (1980). Interpreting the Variorum. In Jane P. Tompkins (Ed.), Reader-response criticism:
From formalism to post-structuralism, London: JHU Press.
6. Hoang, T. M. (14/05/2015). Reader-Response Theory and Renewing Methods of Teaching
Reading Literature in Secondary and High School. http://www.vienvanhoc.vass.gov.vn/noidung/

tintuc/Lists/LichSuVanHoc/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=91.
7. Langer, J. A. (1982). The Reading Process. In Alen Berger & H. Alan Robinson (Ed.), Secondary
school reading: What research reveals for classroom practice (pp. 39-52), Urbana (IL): ERIC
Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills.
8. Langer, J. A. (1992). Rethinking Literature Instruction. In Judith A. Langer (Ed.), Literature
instruction: A focus on student response (pp. 35-53), Urbana (IL): National Council of Teachers
of English.
9. Langer, J. A. (1994). A Response-Based Approach to Reading Literature. Language Arts, 71(3),
203-211.
10. Ministry of Education and Training (MOET). (2018). General Education Curriculum in
Literature (promulgated in addition to Circular No. 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT of the Minister of
Education and Training on December 26, 2018). Ha Noi.
11. Nguyen, M. N. N., Chau, H. M., Tran, P. D., & Nguyen, T. N. T. (2021). Some Suggestions for
Applying Reader-Response Theory to Teaching Reading Comprehension of Literary Texts in
the 2018 Literature Curriculum. Ho Chi Minh City University of Education Journal of Science,
18(5), 853-865.
12. Nguyen, P. M. (2021). Developing a System of Questions to Enhance the Effectiveness of
Aesthetic Reading in Teaching Lyric Poetry in High School Literature. Vietnam Journal of
Educational Sciences, 37, 36-41.
13. Nguyen, T. H. (2000). Understanding and Teaching Literature. Ha Noi: Vietnam Education
Publishing House.
14. Nguyen, T. H. N. (Chief Ed.) & Duong, T. H. H. (2016). Methods for Teaching Reading Texts
(Coursebook). Can Tho: Can Tho University Press.
15. Nguyen, T. N. H. (2014). Organizing the Literature Reading Class Based on Student-Reader’s
Response. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Can Tho University Press.
16. Nguyen, T. T. L. (2017). Developing the Competency of Reading Lyric Poetry for High School
Students through a System of Exercises. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Ha Noi University of Education.
17. Nguyen, T. T. N. (2020). Developing Creative Competence for Junior High School Students in
Reading Comprehension of Literary Texts through Experiential Response Activities. Vietnam
Journal of Educational Sciences, 26, 24-29.
18. Nguyen, V. C. (2013). Methods for the Genre-Based Teaching of Literary Works. Ha Noi:
University of Education Press.
19. Pham, T. T. H. (2012). Reading and Reading Strategies in High School. Ha Noi: University of
Education Press.
20. Pham, T. T. H. (2016). Transaction-Response and Organizing Transactional Activities for
Students in Nguyen Tat Thanh Secondary & High School. Vietnam Journal of Education, Special
volume(1), 52-57, 28.
21. Pham, T. T. H. & Ha, T. H. (2020). Connected and Integrated Questions in Teaching Reading
Vietnamese Poems in the Medieval Period for High School Students. VNU Journal of Science:
Education Research, 36(2), 59-65.
22. Probst, R. E. (1988). Transactional Theory in the Teaching of Literature. Journal of reading, 31(4),
378-381.
23. Rosenblatt, L. (1986). The Aesthetic Transaction. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 20(4), 122-128.
24. Somers, A. B. (1999). Teaching Poetry in High School. Urbana (IL): National Council of
Teachers of English
25. Tran, D. S., Phan, H. D., La, K. H., Phung, N. K. & Le, L. O. (2014). Coursebook on Theory of
Literature. Ha Noi: University of Education Press.
26. Tran, Q. K. (2017). The Reader in the View of Transaction-Response Theory and the Applying
of the Theory into Teaching Literature. Vietnam Journal of Education, 403, 26-29.
27. Tran T. D., Huynh L., Hoang N. M., Phan S. T. & Dam G. C. (1978). The Issue of the Genre-
Based Teaching of Literary Works. Ha Noi: Vietnam Education Publishing House.
28. Widdowson, H. G. (1975). Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. New York: Routledge.
THE CURRENT STATE OF HIGH SCHOOLS’ HOMEROOM
IN HO CHI MINH CITY IN THE CONTEXT
OF GENERAL EDUCATION RENOVATION
Nguyen Thi Thuy Dung
(University of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City )
Abstract: Regarding to the homeroom teachers’ duties, the homeroom session is a once-a-week event when
the teachers officially meet with their students and have face-to-face conversations with them. The homeroom could
be more important for high school students who should be mentally prepared for a next stage of life. In the context
of general education renovation, the homeroom is required to be changed towards encouraging students’ self-
discipline, improving their independence and competency in communication, collaboration, problem solving and
creativity. The paper presents the research results of the current state of holding homeroom sessions in public high
schools in Ho Chi Minh City. The research aimed to create a practical basis to propose measures for enhancing
the quality of homeroom activities in high schools in Ho Chi Minh City to meet the requirements of general
education renovation. The survey was conducted by a combination of in-depth interviews and questionnaires
among 46 school managers, 472 homeroom teachers, and 6837 students of public high schools in 11 urban
districts and 3 rural districts of Ho Chi Minh City. The results show that the teachers and students might not
be aware of the important role of homeroom sessions. Teachers mainly spend time on overviewing classroom
situation for the previous week and deploying students’ work for the next week rather than performing integrated
educational activities for students in homerooms. Teachers are still in controlling the classrooms instead of letting
students being self-disciplined and independent. This makes homerooms unattractive for students. The research
results could be used as a reference for pedagogical colleges and high schools in teacher training or continuing
professional development to enhance the competency of handling homeroom duty.
Keywords: homeroom, high school, general education renovation, Ho Chi Minh City.
1. INTRODUCTION
In pre-higher schools in general and in particular, in high schools, homeroom work plays an
important role in educating and teaching students. It is more crucial for high school students who are in
the final stage of pre-higher education and in the age of having many worries and excitements for a next
stage of life. They must improve their knowledge, skills, self-confidence and be ready for studying in
vocational schools or universities, or getting to work early.
Regarding to homeroom teachers’ work, homeroom is the only time of the week for teachers to
officially meet their students. This allows teachers to receive information from students, listen and
discuss their issues timely, and consequently educate them in a more proper way.
Homeroom becomes increasingly important in the context of general education innovation.
The General Education Curriculum (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018) defines students’
common core competencies including competency in self-discipline and self-studying, competency
in communication and collaboration, and competency in problem solving and creativity (section IX).
Weekly homeroom sessions might help teachers creating oppotunities for students to be self-disciplined,
which contributes effectively to the development of these competencies for students.
However, in practice, many homeroom teachers in high schools organize the weekly class meetings
with monotonous forms and boring content. Since Ho Chi Minh City is the largest and the most populous
city in Vietnam, large classes seem to be a common problem in most of high schools, where homeroom
teachers are under pressure of monitoring and controlling student behaviors. Consequently, there is a
tendency that teachers use homeroom for administrative purposes and addressing student misconduct,
and in case of negative punishment, students get tired of being insulted in front of the class from
teachers’ reprimand and punishment. Morever, teachers sometimes allow students to do their homework
in homeroom.
In Vietnam, a considerable amount of literature has been published on homeroom work and
homeroom teachers. However, there is a shortage of studies that focus on weekly homeroom sessions
in high schools.
Therefore, it has become increasingly necessary to study on the current state of the homeroom
session in order to create a practical basis to propose measures for enhancing the quality of homeroom in
high schools in Ho Chi Minh City, which improves students’ activeness, proactivity and creativity, and
contributes to the development of students’ competencies to meet the requirements of the new general
education curriculum.
2. CONTENT
2.1. Literature review
* Homeroom teacher in schools
In many countries around the world, there are a number of names referring to the position of
homeroom teacher such as “homeroom teacher” (United States, Canada, New Zealand, Japan, China,
South Korea), “form teacher” (Singapore, Australia, Austria), “class teacher” (India, Bangladesh…),
“class mentor” (Netherlands), or “form tutor” (United Kingdom, Spain). While the names are different,
the duty is similar, which includes managing the class, assisting students in learning and school activities,
keeping in touch with families and holding homeroom sessions, which are daily or weekly, depending
on school regulations.
In Vietnam, every class in secondary and high schools has one homeroom teacher. The school’s
headmaster can assign this role to any type of teacher without depending on the seniority and educational
experiences. Several researchers have investigated the teacher’s homeroom competency, for example,
Nguyen Duc Quang (2010) with the paper “Discussion on educational competency of secondary and
high school homeroom teachers” (p.23-27); Phan Thanh Long (2011) with the article “The necessary
competencies of a homeroom teacher in the current era” (p.133-137); Mai Trung Dung (2017) with
PhD thesis “Developing homeroom competency for pedagogical university students in Northern
mountainous region” (Hanoi National University of Education). The authors found that the homeroom
competency associated with the responsibilities of planning for educational work, monitoring student
progress and classifying students, organizing team building activities for students, and deploying various
comprehensive educational contents.
The responsibilities of a homeroom teacher are stated in The regulations of secondary schools, high
schools and multi-level schools (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020, Article 29, Paragraph 2). The
regulations in Career standards for teachers of school education (Ministry of Education and Training,
2018b) also outlined some important responsibilities such as advising and supporting students (Standard
2, Criterion 7), building educational environment (Standard 3), and developing relationships among
school, family and society (Standard 4). Additionally, the Ministry of Education and Training (2018) also
emphasized that, in the time of Industrial Revolution 4.0 with the great progress in technology and science,
and rapid changes in economy, culture and society, the homeroom teacher’s guiding role for students has
become increasingly important. The homeroom teacher needs to “provide guidance so that students do
not get lost”, and “one day in the future, robots will probably replace teachers, but sense and sensibility,
sacrifice and devotion, abilities to connect and motivate will always be the great mission of teachers,
especially those with homeroom work (Ministry of Education and Training, ETEP Program Management
Unit, 2018).
Taken together, from the research results and the legal documents of Ministry of Education and
Training, it is possible to identify that the homeroom teacher has to play multiple roles of a student
manager, an educator who organizes educational activities for students, and a social activist who
establishes relationships and coordinates all educational resources inside and outside of a school to
educate students.
* Homeroom work in schools
Several studies have been carried out on homeroom work in schools. Ha Nhat Thang (2001)
outlined the content and methods of homeroom work in his books The work of homeroom teacher in
general education schools and The development of efficient work methods for homeroom teacher in high
school. More recently, Nguyen Thanh Binh (2011) investigated the detail in homeroom work in his book
Current issues in homeroom work in high schools.
The homeroom work was introduced and discussed in training materials of teacher training
organizations such as “Training materials for homeroom work in secondary and high schools” of the
Institute of Educational Managers Ho Chi Minh City (2010). It was also presented in legal documents of
Ministry of Education and Training, for example, “Training materials for homeroom work in secondary
and high schools” issued in 2011 by Ministry of Education and Training, which was used for enhancing
the competency of homeroom teachers (Ministry of Education and Trainning, 2011).
In summary, based on the researches and the official documents, we can collectively describe the
framework of homeroom work, which includes planning educational activities for students; performing
educational activities as planned; collaborating with subject teachers, students’ families, and organizations
such as Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union, Ho Chi Minh Young Pioneer Organization, or other
social organizations in providing education to students; recording and assessing student progress for
each academic term or year.
* Homeroom session in schools
Currently, there is a shortage of studies that focus on homeroom sessions in schools in general and
in particular, in high schools. Just a small number of school managers and teachers write about their
homeroom innovations in the form of reports of teaching experience and publish them on the websites
of district department of education. However, these reports do not reach the required quality standards
of a scientific paper.
A research on homeroom session in schools was conducted by Nguyen Thi Thuy Dung (2019) with
a scientific paper “Developing the homeroom competence for students in secondary and high school
teacher training” in Proceedings of International Conference New issues in educational sciences: Inter-
Disciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary Approaches (p.343-355).
Homeroom is the time when homeroom teacher officially meet the students in class. The homeroom
teacher needs to invest in the class meetings, and should have knowledge and skills to effectively organize
these meetings such as planning and deploying class meetings with innovative contents, methods and forms:
- In terms of homeroom content: in addition to overviewing classroom situation for the previous week
and deploying students’ work for the next week, the teacher should integrate educational contents such as
life skills education, sexuality education, career education, or teaching the value of local history, traditions
and cultures...
- In terms of homeroom methods: the teacher should use various active methods in homeroom,
giving students the chance to improve self-discipline, proactivity and creativity, while only guiding and
assisting students when needed.
- About the form of homeroom: in addition to class meetings inside classroom, the teacher could
organize extracurricular activities outside classroom, student competitions, team work projects or
engagements with special guests...
In summary, innovation in homeroom gives students the opportunity to gain self-discipline,
communication and collaboration, problem solving and creativity to meet the requirements of current
general education innovation.
2.2. Overview of the survey
* Survey objectives: to clarify the current state of homeroom in public high schools in Ho Chi Minh
City in order to create a practical basis to propose measures for enhancing the quality of homerooms to
meet the requirements of general education innovation.
* Survey content: homeroom teachers and students’ awareness of the role of weekly homeroom
sessions, and the current state of the use of methods, forms and content in those sessions.
* Survey area and survey sample:
The survey was conducted in public high schools in Ho Chi Minh City of 8 urban districts, 3
districts of Thu Duc City, and 3 rural districts.
The following table presents the survey sample of 7355 individuals chosen by stratified random
sampling method (Table 1):
Table 1. Survey sample
School Homeroom
TT Districts Students Total
Managers Teachers
1 District 1 1 41 737 779
2 District 3 1 52 479 532
3 District 5 4 18 58 80
4 District 7 3 30 40 73
5 District Binh Tan 1 13 635 649
6 District Go Vap 0 17 37 54
7 District Tan Binh 7 32 122 161
8 District Tan Phu 1 49 1592 1642
9 Thu Duc City (3 districts) 15 149 2444 2608
10 District Can Gio 4 30 261 295
11 District Hoc Mon 9 32 150 191

12 District Nha Be 0 9 282 291
Total 46 472 6837 7355
* Survey methods: The survey was conducted by mixing in-depth interview and questionnaire methods.
The questionnaire was used for gathering information from 7355 school managers, homeroom
teachers and students, which required participants to evaluate the homerooms using the 5-point Likert
scale as follows: 5 (= Strongly Agree), 4 (= Moderately Agree), 3 (= Slightly Agree), 2 (= Slightly
Disagree), 1 (= Strongly Disagree). To represent the mean figure, the cell ranges were determined as
follows: from 1 to 1.80 (= Strongly Disagree), from 1.81 to 2.60 (= Slightly Disagree), from 2.61 to
3.40 (= Slightly Agree), from 3.41 to 4.20 (= Moderately Agree), and from 4.21 to 5 (= Strongly Agree).
To clarify the questionnaire results, in-depth interviews were then conducted with 6 school managers
(from CBQL1 to CBQL6), 12 homeroom teachers (from GVCN1 to GVCN12) and 12 students (from
HS1 to HS2).
2.3. Survey results
a) The homeroom teachers and students’ awareness of the role of homeroom
By the end of the survey period, data had been collected from 46 school managers, 472 homeroom
teachers and 6387 students, and the results obtained from the analysis of the role of homeroom are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Evaluation of the role of homeroom in high schools
School Homeroom
Students Total
Managers Teachers
No Questionnaire items
Standard Level of
Mean Mean Mean Mean Rank
deviation Agreement
Weekly homeroom sessions help homeroom

teachers receive information of student Moderately
1 progress in order to update their education 4.52 4.41 4.14 4.16 0.93 1
Agree
techniques and propose relevant teaching
methods to subject teachers.
Homeroom gives the chance to build
Moderately
2 strong relationships between teachers 4.54 4.39 4.13 4.15 0.99 2
Agree
and students, and among students.
Homeroom gives students the chance
Moderately
3 to improve self-discipline, activeness, 4.48 4.03 3.79 3.81 1.12 4
Agree
proactivity and creativity.
Homeroom gives students the chance

Moderately
4 to learn life skills and participate in 4.26 3.98 3.63 3.65 1.21 5
Agree
experiential learning activities.
Homeroom contributes to creating a safe,
Moderately
5 healthy and friendly learning environment, 4.46 4.15 3.91 3.93 1.06 3
Agree
which can improve student’s performance.
Total 4.45 4.19 3.92 3.94 0.88
As shown in Table 2, school managers scored all questionnaire items at the level of Strongly Agree
(Mean > 4.21). It suggested that they had strong awareness of the crucial role of homeroom in high schools.
However, there were only two items, “Weekly homeroom sessions help homeroom teachers receive
information of student progress...” and “Homeroom gives the chance to build strong relationships...”,
that homeroom teachers gave scores at the level of Strongly Agree. They just evaluated the role of
homeroom in increasing students’ self-discipline and creating an effective learning environment at a
lower level, Moderately Agree. Additionally, students responded to all of the five questions at the level
of Moderately Agree, and they also gave the lowest score to the role of homeroom in enhancing their
independence and building a good environment for them to study.
The study found that homeroom teachers and students, who directly involve in the homeroom,
might not be entirely aware of the role of homeroom in developing students’ qualities and competencies
towards the general education innovation in Vietnam. The managers of high schools in Ho Chi Minh
City should take this issue into account and concentrate more on enhancing their awareness.
b) The school managers, homeroom teachers and students’ evaluation of the homeroom contents
Table 3 below shows the summary statistics for the contents of homeroom evaluated by school
managers, homeroom teachers and students.
Table 3. Evaluation of homeroom’s contents
School Homeroom
Students Total
Managers Teachers
Standard Level of
deviation Agreement
In homeroom, reviewing class situation for Moderately

1 4.17 4.14 4.08 4.08 0.97 2
the previous week was well-performed. Agree
In homeroom, assigning tasks for the next Moderately

2 4.37 4.38 4.07 4.10 0.98 1
week was well- performed Agree
In homeroom, teaching life skills for Moderately

3 3.78 3.77 3.60 3.61 1.18 3
students was well- performed Agree
In homeroom, sexuality education for students Slightly

4 3.48 3.33 3.24 3.25 1.35 6
was well- performed Agree
In homeroom, career education for students Moderately

5 3.63 3.68 3.54 3.55 1.23 4
was well- performed Agree
In homeroom, teaching the value of local
Moderately
6 history, traditions and cultures was well- 3.17 3.31 3.46 3.45 1.25 5
Agree
performed
Total 3.77 3.77 3.67 3.67 0.95

As can be seen in Table 3, “reviewing class situation for the previous week” and “assigning tasks for
the next week” were the highest- ranking contents, which were evaluated at the level of Moderately Agree
by all type of respondents. Additionally, school managers and homeroom teachers evaluated the item “In
homeroom, assigning tasks for the next week was well-performed” at the level of Strongly Agree (4.37
and 4.38). Meanwhile, it seems that the integration of educational contents in homeroom was not highly
rated, and especially, the content of sexuality education, which is considered important to high-school-aged
students, stood at the lowest ranking in all responses (Mean= 3.25). Homeroom teachers and students just
slightly agreed that sexuality education for students was well-performed in homeroom.
In addition, the above questionnaire results were also aligned with data collected by the in-depth
interviews, where there was a great similarity between the opinions of the participants including school
managers, homeroom teachers and students as follows:
Since the homeroom teacher is usually a subject teacher in his/her class, he/she has a chance to
see the students during the week. However, homeroom is reserved for homeroom work, where teachers
officially meet the students of his/her class;
Because homeroom only occurs once a week, it is the time for teachers to overview the classroom
situation for the previous week and to deploy students’ work for the next week.
Additionally, a range of noticeable responses were elicited during the in-depth interviews:
Every week, school managers deploy a key educational topic to homeroom teachers to intergrate in the
homeroom session. However, they never check whether the teachers actually did it” (6/6 school managers);
Because homeroom teachers are facing the pressure of ensuring students’ learning performance,
during homeroom, they spend most of the time correcting students’ mistakes, and pushing them hard to
learn (10/12 homeroom teachers);
Sometimes, homeroom teachers allow students to perform extracurricular activities, but the they
spend most of the time correcting mistakes and pushing students hard to learn, especially prior to the
period of term examination (12/12 students) .
Our study has led to the conclusion that due to a number of objective and subjective reasons such
as the teachers’ awareness of homeroom, the lack of managerial control in deploying homeroom, and the
pressure of ensuring students’ learning performance, the teachers are less likely to concern about integration
of innovative educational contents in homeroom, such as life skills education, sexuality education, career
education, or teaching the value of local history, traditions and cultures...
c) The school managers, homeroom teachers and students’ evaluation of methods used in homeroom
Table 4 illustrates how school managers, homeroom teachers and students evaluated the
implementation of methods used in homeroom:
Table 4. Evaluation of the implementation of methods used in homeroom
School Homeroom
Students Total
Managers Teachers
Standard Level of
deviation Agreement
In homeroom, teachers were well-performed

Moderately
1 in providing advice and guidance, and 3.72 4.01 3.95 3.95 1.08 2
Agree
assisting students in educational activities.
In homeroom, teachers were well-performed

in providing assessment, learning from Moderately
2 3.96 4.16 4.06 4.07 1.02 1
experiences, and encouraging students in Agree
educational activities.
Students were well-prepared for activities in Moderately

3 3.50 3.67 3.80 3.79 1.08 3
homeroom. Agree
Students were well-performed in self- Moderately

4 3.61 3.71 3.73 3.73 1.10 4
organizing acitivities in homeroom. Agree
Total 3.70 3.89 3.88 3.88 0.91
It can be seen in Table 4 that homeroom methods which encourage student to actively participate in
homeroom activities and the role of teacher in guiding and supporting were not highly evaluated, and all
respondents just moderaly agreed that the methods were well-performed. The students’ self-organizing
method was rated the lowest among all respondents’ evaluation (3.73).
In addition to the questionnaire, we also carried out in-depth interviews with some homeroom
teachers and students to explore their insights about methods used in homeroom:
In homeroom, teachers mostly talk about what should be done and needs to be done. Students just
listen and take notes (12/12 teachers);
In homeroom, students usually report or answer teachers’ questions about weekly learning
progress, or students can ask teachers for more information. However, teachers always control the
session (12/12 students);
“Sometimes, we organize competitions in the class ourselves, or we report teamwork projects

launched by the school. However, there was usually not enough time for us to prepare for these activities
because we were so busy in learning” (HS 2).
Therefore, the analysis results of in-depth interviews and questionnaire were similar and collectively
illustrated that homeroom teachers were less likely to attach special significance to the methods which
activate students in homeroom, and there was less chance for students to be self-organizing. Additionally,
everything in homeroom is controlled by the teacher. Homeroom teachers should give students the
opportunity to gain self-discipline, collaboration, problem solving... to meet the requirements of current
general education innovation.
d) The school managers, homeroom teachers and students’ evaluation of forms of homeroom
Table 5 shows the summary statistics for the evaluation of school managers, homeroom teachers
and students for various forms of homeroom.
Table 5. Evaluation of the implementation of homeroom forms
School Homeroom
Students Total
Managers Teachers
Standard Level of
deviation Agreement
Holding homeroom in the classroom was Moderately

1 3.96 4.06 3.97 3.97 1.00 1
well-performed. Agree
Holding homeroom outdoor activities at

Moderately
2 school campus, school lobby, or playground 3.22 3.62 3.48 3.49 1.33 4
Agree
near school was well-performed.
Organizing homeroom competitions following Moderately

3 3.46 3.77 3.63 3.63 1.23 2
monthly topics was well-performed. Agree
Organizing homeroom teamwork activities

such as performing dramas, dancing, Moderately
4 3.20 3.45 3.57 3.56 1.26 3
singing, doing projects, collecting sources Agree
of history was well-performed.
Engagements with special guests such

Moderately
5 as inside or outside experts or parents in 2.83 3.19 3.43 3.41 1.33 5
Agree
homeroom was well-performed.
Total 3.33 3.62 3.61 3.61 1.04
Table 5 shows that 5/5 forms of homeroom were evaluated at the level of Moderately Agree that they
were well- performed. All respondents evaluated outdoor activities (mean = 3.49) and engagements with
special guests (mean = 3.41) at the lowest ranking (4th and 5th respectively). Meanwhile, school managers
and homeroom teachers gave evaluation to the form of guest engagemenrs just at the level of Slightly
Agree (2.83 and 3.19 respectively), which were even lower than the students’ evaluation (3.43 point).
There are several possible explanations for this result collected in the in-depth interviews:
Homeroom are primarily organized in classroom because the school campus is not large enough
for a number of classes doing outdoor activities at the same time (5/6 school managers);
“Sometimes, I want to organize homeroom at school yard, or playground near school, but I hesitate
to ask for permission from school managers. On the other hand, a homeroom session lasts only 45 minutes,
which is too short for students to move between room and campus, and they even cannot get to the next class
on time” (GVCN 7);
“Inviting inside or outside guest speakers to the class is a form of homeroom, which can get
students interested and engaged in learning. However, it is not easy to find the right guest speaker for
the homeroom which lasts only 45 minutes. Additionally, sometimes the school invites guest experts to
talk about various topics such as sexuality education, or career education. Therefore, inviting them to
homeroom is not necessary (GVCN 4)”.
On the other hand, all 12/12 students who were interviewed stated that:
If teachers remind or educate students in homeroom by organizing more interesting activities such
as outdoor activities, or inviting special guest speaker instead of holding homeroom in the classroom, it
would definitely be the greatest time of the week for students to learn.
In summary, organizing various forms of homeroom for high school students would make the
session more interesting, non-monotonic and unboring to students. Although there are still a number of
objective problems, school managers should try to make school schedule more effectively, make school
campus resources more accessible, financially support, or assist in inviting guest speakers, which can
encourage homeroom teachers performing a range of attractive forms of homeroom.
3. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the theoretical research has underlined the importance of homeroom session, which
is one of the crucial duties of homeroom work in general education schools, and particularly in high
schools. In the time of general education innovation towards improving student competencies, there is a
need to reform the homeroom in schools. This requires the teachers’ awareness of the important role of
homeroom in developing students’ self-discipline, communication and collaboration, problem solving
and creativity. To obtain this objective, teachers should enhance the content, methods and forms of the
homeroom.
The practical research with the combination of in-depth interviews and questionnaire, which was
conducted among school managers, homeroom teachers and students in high schools in Ho Chi Minh
City, shows that the teachers and students have not been fully aware of the role of homeroom session. In
terms of the content of homeroom, teachers primarily concentrate on summarizing and deploying school
work instead of integrating various educational contents. Teachers still play a key role in controlling the
class, while students are less likely to be active and self-organized. Additionally, students were hardly
ever engaged in homeroom which was held only in the classroom. The research results could be used
as a reference for pedagogical colleges and high schools in teacher training and continuing professional
development to enhance the competency of handling homeroom session for high school teachers.
REFERENCES
1. Ha Nhat Thang. (2001). The work of homeroom teacher in general education school. Hanoi:
Vietnam Education Publishing House.
2. Ha Nhat Thang. (2001). The development of efficient working methods for homeroom teacher
in high school. Hanoi: Vietnam National University Press.
3. Institute of Educational Managers Ho Chi Minh City. (2010). Training materials for homeroom
work in secondary and high schools. Ho Chi Minh city.
4. Mai Trung Dung. (2017). Developing homeroom competency for pedagogical university
students in Northern mountainous region. Educational Science PhD Thesis. Hanoi National
University of Education.
5. Ministry of Education and Training. (2011). Training materials for homeroom work in second-
ary and high schools.
6. Ministry of Education and Training. (2018a). The General Education Curriculum.
7. Ministry of Education and Training. (2018b). Career standards for teachers of school education
(published based on Circular No. 20/2018/TT-BGD&ĐT dated August 22, 2018).
8. Ministry of Education and Training, ETEP Program Management Unit. (2018, March 25). “The
homeroom teacher in the era 4.0”. Retrieved from etep.moet.gov.vn (March 23, 2019).
9. Ministry of Education and Training. (2020). The regulations of secondary schools, high schools
and multi-level schools (published based on Circular No. 32/2020/TT-BGDĐT dated June 15,
2020 by Minister of Education and Training).
10. Nguyen Duc Quang. (2010). Discussion on educational competency of secondary and high
school homeroom teachers. Journal of Educational science, 63, 23-27.
11. Nguyen Thanh Binh (chief author). (2011). Current issues in homeroom work in high schools.
Hanoi: University of Education Publishing House.
12. Nguyen Thi Thuy Dung. (2019). Developing the homeroom competence for students on se-
condary and high school teacher training. Proceedings of International Conference New issues
in educational sciences: Inter-Disciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary Approaches (p.343-355).
Hanoi: Vietnam National University Press.
13. Phan Thanh Long. (2011). The necessary competencies of a homeroom teacher in the current
era. HNUE Journal of Science, 56, 133-137.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION
IN TEACHING CHEMISTRY
TO DEVELOP STUDENT’S PROBLEM-SOLVING COMPETENCY
Vu Minh Trang, Nguyen Tung Lam, Nguyen Thi Phuong
(VNU University of Education )
Nguyen Thi Phuong
(Diamond School Center)

Abstract: In the 21st century, most countries in the world tend to innovate and reform their education to be
more modern, Vietnamese education is also shifting from a content-oriented education to a capacity development-
oriented one. The purpose is to educate people with new knowledge, creativity, dynamism, and proactively solving
problem in life. The objectives of the article are: 1) An overview of the theoretical basis of the application of
information technology (IT) in teaching Chemistry; problem-solving competency, 2) Developing criteria for
assessing problem-solving competency, 3) Proposing principles and procedures for applying IT in teaching
Chemistry, 4) Proposing solutions using some selected IT applications in teaching Chemistry through 03 teaching
plans for chapter “Electrolysis”, Chemistry grade 11 to develop problem-solving competency for students. Our
study evaluated the possibility of these solutions on two experimental classes and two compared classes (173
students) in grade 11 of two high schools in Hung Yen and Hai Phong. The results of pedagogical experiments
show that the application of IT in teaching Chemistry has achieved the set goals and helped students not only
improve their learning results but also build and develop problem-solving competency.
Keywords: Problem-solving competency, information technology (IT), teaching Chemistry
1. INTRODUCTION
Entering into the 21st century, most countries in the world would want to innovate and reform their
education in a more modern way. As a result, ‘Vietnam’s education is also shifting from content-oriented
education to the competence development-oriented education to equip people with new knowledge,
creativity, dynamism, and the ability to flexibly adapt to the surrounding environment and proactively
solve problems in life. In the context that the fourth industrial revolution is happening rapidly worldwide
and has a profound impact on many fields of society, the application of IT in education is inevitable
because it brings many advantages in supporting management, teaching and learning.
In the teaching process, teachers need to innovate their teaching methods from one-way imparting
of knowledge to promoting positivity, initiative, and the ability to creatively apply knowledge to solve
practical problems. In addition, teaching with the help of IT applications is one of the measures to
help students not only absorb learning contents easily, conveniently, and effectively, but also help
form and develop the ‘students’ ability to solve problems through the subject-learning process at high
schools today. Therefore, Chemistry as a scientific subject closely combining theory and experiment
is a subject closely connecting with other natural sciences as well as connecting knowledge with
practice, contributing significantly to developing this ability of each student. Therefore, the use of IT
applications to help simulate abstract and challenging knowledge of Chemistry or chemical phenomena
with complicated reactions and experiments that require a lot of time to establish a chemical reaction
system to ensure safety, success, and easy observation of phenomena; or consolidation, review, test and
evaluation of knowledge in the form of pre-programmed games, etc. will interest and stimulate students
to participate in learning activities, thereby helping them improve their learning efficiency and develop
necessary competencies.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, OBJECTS AND METHODS
- Research objectives: Build and design some teaching plans for the chapter of “Electrolysis” of
Chemistry 11 with the support of some IT applications in Chemistry to help students solve problems in
learning and life, thereby developing their problem-solving competencies, contributing to improving the
quality of teaching and learning Chemistry at high schools.
- Research objects: Measures to organize and teach some lectures of the chapter of “Electrolysis”
based on using some IT applications in teaching Chemistry to develop the problem-solving competencies
for high school students.
- Research methods:
* Theoretical research method
Systematize and generalize the theoretical and practical documents related to the topic of applying
IT in teaching Chemistry on smart electronic devices, helping the development of competencies
for students, especially the problem-solving competency in teaching Chemistry at high schools, the
knowledge and content related to the chapter of “Electrolysis”.
* Practical research method
Survey, investigate the current situation, and make observation through assessment tools that are
the questionaires to investigate the current situation of using IT applications in teaching Chemistry
and developing the problem-solving competency for students in teaching Chemistry for 16 Chemistry
teachers and 668 students in grade 11 of An Thi High School, Hung Yen Province, and Thuy Son High
School, Hai Phong City.
* Experimental method of pedagogy
Evaluating the effectiveness of IT application in teaching Chemistry in the chapter of “Electrolysis”-

Chemistry 11 in order to develop the problem-solving competency for students.
Select the control class and the experiment class in the academic section A, with the same teacher,
the same number of students and the same learning capacity. Teach students in the control class in
accordance with the traditional lesson plan, and teach students in the experiment class in accordance
with the lesson plan using IT in the direction of developing the problem-solving competency.
Survey the experimental results qualitatively through questionnaires for teachers and students of
the experiment class, and quantitatively through the assessment form according to teachers’ criteria
combined with students’ self-assessment form on the development of the problem-solving competency of
students. The 15-minute test and 45-minute test after conducting 03 lectures have also been implemented
in the control class and the experiment class based on the 10-score scale.
* Mathematical method of statistics

Quantitatively process the results of investigation and pedagogical experiment through the
mathematical methods of statistics, and apply pedagogical science to analyze data, evaluate the reliability
and validity of the data collected from the form of assessment of problem-solving competency according
to teachers’ criteria, and the students’ self-assessment form, along with scores obtained from 15-minute
test and 45-minute test.
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
3.1. Application of information technology (IT) in teaching Chemistry
According to the ‘Government’s resolution No. 49/CP, the concept of IT is clearly defined as follows:
“is a collection of scientific methods, modern technical means and tools, mainly telecommunications and
computer engineering, to organize, exploit and effectively use affluent and potential information resources
in all activities of human and society”.
Application is the written program or pre-programmed software to run on many different platforms
such as computer, phone or web.
From the definition of IT and application, we can define IT application as the use of IT in activities
within the fields of socio-economic affairs, foreign affairs, national defense, security and other activities
to improve productivity, quality and effectiveness of these activities.
Therefore, the application of IT in teaching is the use of IT application software to simulate
experiments in the teaching process to equip learners with the knowledge, skills, techniques, outlook on
life, and problem-solving methods [2].
Introducing some IT applications to support Chemistry teaching
Firstly, CHEMIST – Virtual Chem Lab
Introduction of the application: This is the perfect virtual laboratory with 17 essential instruments,
more than 200 inorganic reagents and more than 60 organic chemicals that can meet the academic
requirements of study programs at all levels.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages Disadvantages
+ Avoid risks such as fire and explosion when reacting. When there + High cost, and when
are reactions that we do not know how it will happen, the software will choosing organic matters,
practice first and show the results; then we can practice with actual users continue to pay fees.
chemicals.
+ Have realistic simulations, full chemicals and lab instruments
+ Perform experiments easily by clicking, dragging and dropping.
+ Helps with deeper learning: calculate all chemical data in the

experiment in real-time.
+ No internet connection is required after installation.

Figure 1. Instructions for installing and using the CHEMIST – Virtual Chem
Secondly, PhET Simulations

Introduction of the application: PhET provides simulation experiments for fun science in science
subjects (such as Chemistry, Physics, Biology, etc...), simulation experiments on the PhET application
have been tested and evaluated to ensure educational effectiveness.
+ Fun simulations based on interactive research for use in STEM + The number of experiments
education is limited and not abundant.
+ Simulate what is invisible to the eye by using graphics and visual + There are a few experiments
controls such as click and drag, slider and radio button. that still have errors.
+ Provide measuring instruments: ruler, stopwatch, voltmeter and
thermometer.
+ It is free on the PhET website and easy to use and include in the
classroom.
+ No internet connection is required after installation is complete.
Figure 2. Instructions for installing and using the PhET Simulations

Thirdly, Virtual Lab - Open Classroom

Introduction of the application: The application website has Virtual Labs of lively interactive
science subjects, which meet the access needs of millions of students and help them directly do
experiments on the application. Open Classroom focuses on the practical element and application of the
learned knowledge in practice to ensure learning with practice. PhET Interactive Simulations provides
the experiments and images used by Virtual Lab.
+ Allow students to interact, perform experiments, and simulate + Experiments are limited, not
visually and vividly. Thereby, students are interested in learning, grasp abundant. Experiments are only
the lesson contents easily and discover new knowledge. available for some chapters.
+ No accidents. + Need Internet connection
and access to the website:
+ Visually simulate experiments to help students understand their
openclassroom.edu.vn
nature.
+ Help students think creatively, take the initiative in learning and
develop skills in accordance with the requirements in life
Figure 3. Instructions for installing and using the Virtual Lab - Open Classroom
3.2. Problem-solving competency

Currently, there are many different definitions of Problem Solving Competency. However, in this
report, the following definition is used: Problem Solving Competency is a general competency, expressing
an individual’s ability to discover and recognize cognitive dissonance in learning and life problems and
situations, then find ways to solve problems effectively and overcome challenges with a positive spirit,
thereby acquire new knowledge and skills, demonstrate the ability of cooperation and thinking in solving
and choosing optimal solutions [9,10].
3.3. The role of development of the problem-solving competency in teaching Chemistry

Training and development of the problem-solving competency for students are important in
teaching Chemistry:
- Help students go deep into the core knowledge, link theory and practice, have skills to observe,
collect and process information, form the scientific and practical research methods through designing
the experiments on electronic devices, always be active and proactive in solving problems in learning as
well as in life; therefore, create excitement and motivation to study Chemistry for students.
- Through self-studying and applying knowledge of Chemistry to explain phenomena in the real
life, hypothesizing and doing research to solve problems, students are educated to be aware of and
responsible for themselves, their family, school and society. Therefore, teachers can evaluate students’
cognitive and thinking ability, thereby facilitating the classification of students more accurately,
contributing to innovating teaching methods and assessing students’ learning results, thereby meeting
the requirements of educational reform in the current time [5].
3.4. Principles and procedures for applying IT applications in teaching Chemistry to develop the
problem-solving competency for students
* Principles
IT applications, if used correctly, will greatly increase the pedagogical effectiveness of teaching
content and methods. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the following principles:
+ Principle 1: Use at the right time: For example, use IT applications at the time of need, at the time
when students want. Therefore, teachers need to have a reasonable use plan to improve the effectiveness
of each application.
+ Principle 2: Use in the right place: Find a place to introduce and present IT applications to the
lesson in a reasonable way, help students use a lot of skills, operations on the application, many senses
to absorb lesson contents evenly in all positions in the class.
+ Principle 3: Use the right intensity to attract students to new and attractive things, and help
students maintain more attention to the lecture.
+ Principle 4: When selecting and using IT applications, teachers must carefully study their content
and applicability synchronously and systematically, diversify forms, and use them from the point of
view of active student-centered teaching.
+ Principle 5: Organize group learning activities for students to learn together and do experiments
on the application such as preparing new lessons, reporting, exchanging lesson content in class [3, 7].
* The procedure of applying IT applications in teaching Chemistry

Diagram 1: The procedure of applying IT applications in teaching Chemistry
3.5. Solutions to apply some IT applications in teaching Chemistry through the teaching plans for the
chapter of “Electrolysis”, Chemistry 11 to develop problem-solving competency for students
In the chapter “Electrolysis”, some IT applications such as Chemist – Virtual Chemlab, PHET
Simulations, Virtual lab – Open Classroom can be applied to the lessons to simulate experiments.
Solutions to use the applications in each specific lesson:
LESSON 1: ELECTROLYSIS
* Use 02 IT applications: PhET Simulations and Virtual lab - Open classroom.
Scenario 1: Testing the conductivity of water, acid, base, salt, sugar to form the concept of
electrolytes
- Step 1: Teacher raises the problem: Why are there solutions that conduct electricity, and solutions that
do not conduct electricity? Which solutions conduct electricity? Which solutions do not conduct electricity?
- Step 2: Teacher creates a problematic situation: Let students experiment to test the conductivity
of water, acid, base, salt, sugar using two software: PhET Simulations and Virtual Lab - Open Classroom,
and ask students to observe the phenomenon. From there, comment on the existence of electric current
and explain physical and chemical phenomena.
Acid Base Water Salt - Sugar
Figure 4. Illustration for using PhET Simulations application for Lesson 1- Electrolysis
From there, raise the question: why are there solutions or substances that conduct electricity, and
solutions or substances that do not conduct electricity?
- Step 3: Problem-solving: Teacher asks to repeat the concept of electric current and asks students
to observe the dissolution and conduction process of solutions when experimenting. Then, ask students
to state the mechanism of the electrolysis process
Give hypotheses:
+ State the existence of electric current according to the knowledge of Physics and Chemistry, and
state the mechanism of electrolysis process:
Knowledge of Physics: Electric current is the directional movements of charged particles, usually
electrons.
Knowledge of Chemistry: The solutions of acids, bases and salts dissolved in water dissociate into
ions, and because the ions exist in the solutions, they can conduct electricity.
+ Mechanism: When acids, bases, and salts dissolve in water, they dissociate into positive and
negative ions. Due to the interaction between polar water molecules and ions combined with the constant
chaotic movement of water molecules, the ions of acids, bases, and salts gradually separate from each
other, which leads to the dissociation of molecules into ions.
- Step 4: Conclusion of the problem, and application in different situations: Students conclude
on the concept of electrolytes and electrolysis: “The substances that, when dissolved in water, form
conductive solutions are called electrolytes” and “Electrolysis is the process of dissociating substances
in water into ions”.
Teacher expands the problem: Can the concept of electrolytes be stated that “”The substances
whose solutions conduct electricity are electrolytes””? Explain?
Student: Give an answer
Scenario 2: Classify strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes. Then introduce the concept of
strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes.
+ Use PhET Simulations application to classify strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes:
- Step 1: Teacher raises the problem: Do different substances have different levels of electrolysis?
If yes, how are they classified?
- Step 2: Teacher creates the problematic situation: Let students do experiments using PhET
Simulations software
Strong acid Weak acid Strong base Weak base
Figure 5. Illustration for using PhET Simulations application for Lesson 1- Electrolysis
The teacher asks students to observe the brightness of 2 bulbs with the solutions of strong acids,
strong bases, and weak acids, weak bases. Why is there such a difference in the brightness of the two
bulbs? (based on the number of ions dissociated)
- Step 3: Students Solve the problem

Give hypotheses:
+ (1): When strong acids and strong bases dissolve in water, they will produce more ions than weak
acids and weak bases; therefore, they conduct electricity better, so the bulbs are brighter.
+ (2): Strong acids, strong bases are electrolyzed more strongly than weak acids and weak bases;
therefore, they conduct electricity better, so the bulbs are brighter.
Implement the plan and solve the problem:
- Step 4: Conclusion of the problem, and application in different situations: Conclude the concept of
weak electrolytes and strong electrolytes and how to write dissociation equations with weak electrolytes and
strong electrolytes. Ask students to give more examples of strong and weak electrolytes; Write dissociation
equations for these electrolytes.
Thus, to form the concept of electrolytes, electrolysis, and classification of electrolytes, teacher
uses PhET Simulations and Virtual Lab - Open Classroom to conduct experiments on the conductivity
of different solutions of substances in order to create contradictions in the perception of students, then
combine with specific teaching activities, instruct students to solve problems from which to draw
conclusions and acquire new knowledge. Therefore, through these research activities, students show the
signs of the problem-solving competency.
LESSON 2: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
* Use the application: CHEMIST – Virtual Chem Lab to prove that Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2
compounds are amphoteric hydroxides. From there, form the concept of amphoteric hydroxide.
Scenario 1: Prove that Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 compounds are amphoteric hydroxides
- Step 1: Teacher raises the problem: as we have learned, a base is a compound that has one or more
OH groups attached to a metal and it is soluble in acids and does not react with bases. So the compound
Al(OH)3 is a hydroxide with 3 OH groups, is it soluble in NaOH solution or not?
- Step 2: Teacher creates a problematic situation: Teacher asks students to perform the experiment
using the CHEMIST - Virtual Chem Lab application: Take two large beakers to experiment, put 3.9
grams of Al(OH)3 in each beaker, and add 8 grams of solid NaOH and water in the first beaker to make
the solution, add the excess HCl solution in the second beaker. The teacher asks students to perform
experiments on the application and observe the experimental phenomenon.
Students comment on the phenomenon: Al(OH)3 dissolves in both test beakers. Then, the teacher
asks students to raise questions to find out the problem: Al(OH)3 is a base, how can it be soluble
in NaOH?
- Step 3: Solve the problem
- Give hypotheses:
+ (1) Al(OH)3 shows basicity when reacting with HCl and shows acidity when reacting with NaOH.
That is, Al(OH)3 has 2 types of dissociation depending on the condition.
+ (2) NaOH solution has water, H2O has , so it has the acidity to dissolve Al(OH)3.
- Implement a plan and solve the hypothesis:
+ (1) Do experiment on the application: Take two large beakers to experiment, put 3.9 grams
of Al(OH)3 in each beaker, and add 8 grams of solid NaOH and water in the first beaker to make the
solution, add the excess HCl solution in the second beaker. It is found that Al(OH)3 is soluble in both test
beakers. It is proved that Al(OH)3 reacts with both NaOH and HCl.
+ (2) Al(OH)3 is insoluble in water, so this hypothesis is rejected.
- Step 4: Conclusion of the problem, and application in different situations: Al(OH)3 is an amphoteric
hydroxide. The teacher asks students to tell the concept of amphoteric hydroxide. Then, the teacher
concludes and gives more examples of common amphoteric hydroxides: Zn(OH)2, Al(OH)3, Sn(OH)2,
Pb(OH)2. These compounds are sparingly soluble in water and have weak basicity and acidity.
Apply the situation: Use the application: CHEMIST - Virtual Chem Lab to do the same experiment
with Zn(OH)2 to prove it is amphoteric hydroxide.
Figure 6. Illustration for using the CHEMIST – Virtual Chem Lab application to prove that Al(OH)3 is amphoteric hydroxide
Thus, to form the concept of amphoteric substances, teacher creates a problematic situation:
“Can Al(OH)3 react with NaOH?”, and uses CHEMIST - Virtual Chem Lab to assist students in
solving problems by observing the phenomenon that occurs when experimenting with the reaction
between Al(OH)3 + HCl and Al(OH)3 + NaOH on the this software. In addition, combining with the
organization of specific teaching activities, teacher will help students show the signs of the problem-
solving competency.
LESSON 3: ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER. PH. ACID-BASE INDICATOR
+ Use IT applications: PhET Simulations and Virtual lab – Open Classroom.

Scenario 1: prove that water is a weak electrolyte
- Step 1: Teacher states the problem: in the previous lesson, we have concluded that substances that
conduct electricity such as acids, bases, salts and water are classified as non-electrolytes.
- Step 2: Teacher raises a problem: let students do experiments on the electrolysis of water on the
PhET Simulations application. Ask students to identify the dissociation ability of water through the number
of ions in the solution after electrolysis. Thereby, conclude whether water is a strong or weak electrolyte.
Figure 7. Illustration for using the PhET Simulations application for Lesson 3- Electrolysis of water. pH. Acid-base indicator
- Step 3: Students solve the problem situations:

- Perform experiments on the application, and answer questions: Give hypotheses:
+ Water dissociates into few ions, does not make the light on → the water is not electrolyzed
+ Water dissociates into few ions, does not make the light on → the water is a weak electrolyte
+ Water dissociates into few ions, does not make the light on. It is experimentally determined that
at normal temperature (, only one molecule in 555 million water molecules dissociates into ions and the
product of ions of water → water is a very weak electrolyte.
Implement the plan and solve the problem: Perform the experiment and select the appropriate
proposal.
- Step 4: Conclusion of the problem, and application in different situations:
Dissociation equation of water: H2O ↔ H+ + OH- (1)
Product of ions of water: From the equation (1) (at 250C)
K[H2O] = K[H2O]= [H+].[OH-] = 10-14; KH2O: Product of ions of water
- A neutral environment is an environment in which: [H+].[OH-] = 10-7 M
Teacher apply other situations: In a neutral environment: [H+].[OH-] = 10-7 M, so how to do [H+] and
[OH-] change in acidic and basic environments?
Students answer:
- Know [H+] in solution → calculate [] and vice versa.
- The acidity and alkalinity (basicity) of the solution can be evaluated by [H+]
* [H+]>10-7Mz → Acidic environment
* [H+]≤10-7Mz → Alkaline environment
Scenario 2: Identify the environment through the indicator and the pH value of different
solutions.
- Step 1: Teacher states the problem: How does the pH value of different substances change? And
how does the indicator change its color?
- Step 2: Teacher raises the problem: let students verify the pH value of different solutions on
the IT applications via phone: 2 groups apply the PhET application with 2 different contents, 1 group
applies the Open Classroom application. Ask students to observe the phenomena, explain why there is a
difference between the phenomena. From there, give conclusions about the pH value and color change
of indicator in acidic, basic and neutral environments.
For the PhET application
Measure the pH value or identify the color of strong or weak acids, strong or weak bases, water,
and some solutions, here are some illustrations:
For the Open Classroom application
Figure 9. Illustration for using the Open Classroom application for Lesson 3- Electrolysis of water. pH. Acid-base indicator
=> Teacher: Through the above experiments, ask students to draw comments on the color change
of litmus paper in acidic, basic and neutral environments.
- Step 3: Students solve the situation:
Give hypotheses
+ Acidic environment gives the pH value < 7, the indicator turns red. The basic environment gives
the pH value > 7, the indicator turns blue. A neutral environment gives the pH value = 7, the indicator
does not change its color.
+ Acidic environment gives the pH value < 7, the indicator turns red for the strongly acidic
environment, pink for the weak acidic environment. The basic environment gives the pH value > 7, the
indicator turns dark blue for the strong basic environment, and light blue for the weak basic environment.
A neutral environment gives pH = 7, the indicator does not change its color.
Implement the plan and solve the problematic situation:
+ pH < 7: Acidic environment → litmus paper turns red
+ pH > 7: Basic environment → litmus paper turns blue
+ pH=7: Neutral environment → litmus paper does not change its color
Teacher applies it to real situations: In addition to measuring the pH value or using an indicator to
identify the environment, measuring the pH value is also applied in medicine such as testing ‘patients’
blood and urine to check whether they are sick or not?
Students: Find out and answer the questions
Scenario 3: Do a solution dilution experiment, calculate the pH of that solution and re-verify the
answer by doing a pH measurement experiment with PhET Simulations software
- Step 1: teacher states the problem: After dilution, does the pH of the diluted solution change? and
how does it change?
- Step 2: Teacher raises a problem: Ask groups to use the PhET Simulations application to
implement the following requirements and present to the class:
+ Pour 0.2 liters of orange juice into a beaker (available in the application)
+ Measure the pH of the beaker of orange juice.
+ Then, add 0.3 liters of distilled water to the beaker. Calculate the pH of the solution after diluting
the solution on the application. (Calculation before experimenting)
- Step 3: Students solve the problem
Proposal to solve the problem
+ Pour 0.2 liters of orange juice into a beaker, measure the pH of the beaker of orange juice. Then, add
0.3 liters of distilled water to the beaker, the volume of the solution increases, the concentration of [H+]
decreases, the pH increases → pH after dilution is calculated by the formula pH =
+ The initial volume is V1, [], the volume after dilution iszV2. Then, experiment on the application
is as follows: Pour 0.2 liters of orange juice into a beaker, measure the pH of the beaker of orange juice.
Then, add 0.3 liters of distilled water to the beaker, the volume of the solution after dilution increases,
so the concentration of [H+] decreases (the number of moles of the solution does not change) → the pH
increases. And the pH after dilution is calculated by the formula pH =
Implement the plan and solve the problematic situation:

+ After dilution, the volume of the solution increases but the number of moles of the solution does
not change → [H+] decreases → the pH of the solution increases.
+ From the above example, the teacher asks each student to perform the same experiment with
other solutions already integrated on the application and asks students to present that experiment in the
next lesson.
Therefore, to prove that water is a weak electrolyte, the teacher creates a contradiction between
the knowledge that students already knew that “water is not an electrolyte” and the new knowledge
about the electrolytic ability of water based on a problematic situation, and to identify the environment
through the color change of the indicator at different pH values of solutions with acidic, basic, and
neutral environments, and how to calculate this pH value, PhET Simulations is selected to support
students in conducting research and verification experiments to solve problems. Besides, combining
with specific teaching activities will help students show the signs of the problem-solving competency.
3.6. Evaluating the problem-solving competency of students
* Quantitative results
- Evaluation through the table of criteria and levels of assessment of problem-solving competency
The table of criteria and levels of evaluation of ‘students’ problem-solving competency is built based on
the following evaluation criteria [1, 4, 6, 8]:
Table 1. Criteria and levels of evaluation of problem-solving competency
Levels
Component
competencies Criteria Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Very good
(1 score) (2 scores) (3 scores) (4 scores)
1. Analyze Can analyze Analyze the Analyze the Analyze the problematic
problematic content the problematic problematic problematic content fully
content, but content, but not content
unclearly specifically appropriately
Detect and
solve problems 2. Detect problematic Detect the problem Detect the Detect the Detect the problematic
situation with the help of the problematic problematic situation in the most
teacher situation but not situation complete and accurate
enough completely manner
3. State problematic State the State the State the State the problematic
situation problematic problematic problematic situation and clarify
situation with the situation but not situation scientific problems
help of the teacher enough completely
4. Collect and clarify Can not identify, Identify the Identify the Identify the
information related to or identify the information information information quickly,
the problem information in incompletely completely completely and
an unscientific scientifically
manner
5. Analyze the Cannot analyze or Analyze the Analyze the Analyze the
information can analyze the information but information information in the
information but incompletely completely and clearest, most
unclearly specifically specific, scientific and
Set up the
complete manner
problem space
6. Find out the Find out the Find out the Find out the Find out the problem-
chemistry knowledge problem-related problem-related problem-related related knowledge in
and the problem- knowledge knowledge in the knowledge in the textbook, reference
related knowledge from personal textbook the textbook materials and through
experience, but and through discussion with your
unclearly discussion with friends
your friends
7. Propose a Cannot propose a Propose a Propose a Propose a hypothesis
hypothesis hypothesis hypothesis, but hypothesis specifically, clearly
Make and not specifically specifically and scientifically
execute a plan
8. Make and execute Cannot make and Make and Make and Make and execute a plan
a plan execute a plan execute a plan, execute a plan specifically, appropriately
but unclearly specifically and scientifically
9. Assess the solution Cannot assess the Assess the Assess the Assess the solution
solution solution but solution appropriately and
unclearly appropriately scientifically
Assess the
solution to 10. Give a conclusion Cannot conclude Conclude the Conclude the Conclude the problem
solve the about the solved the problem and problem but problem clearly, clearly, scientifically
problem problem, and apply cannot apply it to a not specifically, and apply it to a and apply it well to
it to solve other new situation and cannot new situation other situations
situations apply it to a new
situation
Criteria and levels of assessing the ‘students’ problem-solving competency in teaching with IT
applications are implemented before and after conducting experimental teaching in the experimental class and
controlled class after each lesson, and observing the ‘students’ expression and behavior in the experimental
class and controlled class. Code the students of the experimental class from 1 to 88, and the students of the
controlled class from 1 to 85. The obtained results are shown in Graph 1 and Graph 2:
Graph 1. Improvement of problem-solving competency of the students in the experimental class through each lesson
Comment: The results show that the average observed score of students in the experimental class
before conducting the teaching sessions is lower than that after teaching with IT applications. Specifically,
before the experiment, the problem-solving competency of most of the students has just developed at
a satisfactory level. After each lesson, the observed scores increased gradually, and by lesson 3, 73/88
(82.95%) students had the observed scores of above 3.0 (good and very good levels). It is proved that
the problem-solving competency of students has developed more than that in the previous two lessons.
For the remaining number of students, their observed score also changed positively, but it was still not
high (below 3.0); with this score, these students still need to practice and the teacher also needs to pay
more attention to the next lessons.
Graph 2. Improvement of problem-solving competency of the students in the experimental class compared
to the students in the controlled class
Comparing the observed scores between students in the experimental class and the controlled
class shows that the average score of students in the experimental class is always higher than that of the
controlled class, which has initially shown the effectiveness in developing the ‘students’ problem-solving
competency through the application of IT in teaching.
Evaluation by the test
After finishing the lessons, one 15-minute test and one 45-minute test were implemented for
students in the experimental class and controlled class. The quantitative comparative analysis method
based on the results of two tests with the 10-score scale and the 4-rating method is as follows:
+ Very good: 9, 10 scores. + Average: 5, 6 scores
+ Good: 7, 8 scores. + Weak – poor: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 scores.
From the test scores of the experimental class and controlled class, the characteristic parameters
are given in the following table:
Table 2. Summary of characteristic parameters of the tests
T-test Effect size
Test class Ẋ Mode Median S S2 V(%)
P ES
Control 6.37 7 6 1.36 1.84 21.296

15- minute test 0.01777
Experiment 7.07 7 7 1.65 2.73 23.384 0.52
Control 6.61 7 7 1.48 2.20 22.434

45- minute test 0.00301 0.58
Experiment 7.47 7 7 1.37 1.87 18.337
Comment: Based on the pedagogical experiment results and through the processing of pedagogical
experiment data, it has been shown that the learning quality of students in the experimental class is
higher than that in the controlled class. This is shown as follows:
- Percentage of weak-poor, average, good and very good students:
The percentage of students getting very good and good scores in the experimental class (64.77%
- 80%) is higher than that in the controlled class (47.73% - 53.66%); On the contrary, the percentage of
students getting weak and average scores in the experimental class is lower than that in the controlled class.
Thus, the above experimental plan has affected developing the problem-solving competency for
students, contributing to reducing the percentage of weak and average students, and increasing the
percentage of good and very good students.
- Value of characteristic parameters:
+ The average score of the students of the experimental class is higher than that of the controlled
class, which proves that the students of the experimental class firmly grasp and apply knowledge and skills
better than the students of the controlled class.
+ The standard deviation in the 45-minute test in the experimental class is smaller than that in the
controlled class, which proves that the data of the experimental class is less scattered than that of the
controlled class.
+ The experimental V values range from 10% to 30% (with average variation). Therefore, the
obtained results are reliable, which once again proves that applying IT in teaching Chemistry has been
effective in developing the chemical problem-solving competency for students.
+ The effect size (ES) in the range of 0.52 - 0.58 is average; therefore, the effect of the experiment
is at the average level.
+ It is found that in the experimental class, the T-test p < 0.05, so the difference in scores between the
experimental class and the controlled class is significant. This shows that the quality in the experimental
class is better and more uniform than in the controlled class.
Through the aforementioned observations, evaluation results and comments, I could conclude that
the development of problem-solving competency in the chapter of Electrolysis via the use of some IT
applications is effective in creating excitement, positivity, thinking ability, informatics ability, scientific
discovery, and especially developing the problem-solving competency of students in the learning process.
* Qualitative results
In addition to analyzing the quantitative results, we have also observed and analyzed the changes
of students in the experiment classes compared to the ones in the control classes through questionnaires,
learning attitude, classroom atmosphere, and especially development of problem-solving competency.
After evaluation, we have some following conclusions about students in the experiment classes:
- Combining the active teaching methods with the use of IT applications on smart electronic devices
in simulating Chemistry experiments to solve learning problems shows that students in the experiment
classes are very excited when doing experiments with their own hands, observing the reaction process,
students pay more attention to listening to lectures, actively think, present their personal opinions, self-
study, research, share, support, and interact with members in the learning group and with teachers in the
process of solving situations or problems of learning tasks as well as applying the learned knowledge in
real life.
- Beside developing the problem-solving competency, students in the experiment classes also form
competencies such as group cooperation ability, ability of informatics, ability of scientific research and
inquiry, etc... and skills to help them more active and confident, and show their creativity.
4. CONCLUSIONS
After researching and implementing the topic, compared with the purposes and tasks set out, this
research paper has completed the purposes and tasks set out. Specifically as follows:
- Give the literature review of the application of IT in teaching Chemistry; problem-solving competency.
- Propose the principles and procedures for using IT applications in teaching.
- Propose the solutions to use some selected IT applications in teaching Chemistry through
03 teaching plans for the chapter of „”Electrolysis””, Chemistry 11 to develop the problem-solving
competency for students.
- Conduct pedagogical experiments at An Thi High School and Thuy Son High School. The research
has evaluated the feasibility of these solutions on two experimental classes and two controlled classes
(173 students) of Grade 11 at two high schools in Hung Yen and Hai Phong.
The results of pedagogical experiments show that the application of IT in teaching Chemistry has
achieved the teaching objectives as set out, and helped students not only improve their learning outcomes
but also form and develop the problem-solving competency for students. Besides, it also increases the
‘students’ interest in learning, which contributes to improving the quality of teaching and learning at
high schools in accordance with the requirements of educational innovation in the current period.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of Education and Training (2018), Education program in Chemistry for high schools.
2. Le Huy Hoang (2008), Teaching equipment and information technology application in university
teaching, Pedagogical training materials for lecturers at universities, colleges, Hanoi National
University of Education.
3. Tran Thi Hue (2018), Developing student’s problem-solving and creativity competency through
a number of exercises in nitrogen group (advanced Chemistry 11), Vietnam Journal of Education,
Special Issue 6/2018, p. 194-199.
4. Le Kim Long – Nguyen Thi Kim Thanh (2017), Methods of teaching Chemistry in high schools,
Hanoi National University Publisher.
5. Tran Minh Man (2019), Building a scale to evaluate students’ practical problem-solving
competency in teaching mathematics in secondary schools, Vietnam Journal of Education, No.
463 (Term 1 – 10/2019), p. 35-39.
6. Nguyen Quang Thuan (2019), Some principles of information technology application in teaching
Civic Education to the orientation of competency development in current high schools, Vietnam
Journal of Education, No. 452 (term 2 – 4/2019), p. 61 -62.
7. Tran Dinh Thiet - Le Kim Long (2019), Applying project-based learning in teaching Silicon
and its compounds to develop problem-solving competency for high school students, Vietnam
Journal of Education, Special Issue 12/2019, p. 187-191.
8. Bernd Meier, Nguyen Van Cuong (2014), Modern teaching theories, Publishing House of Hanoi
National University of Education.
9. OECD (2010), PISA 2012 Problem Solving Framework, p. 12.
10. Jeal-Paul et al (2006), The Assessment of Problem-Solving Competencies, Deutsches Institut für
Erwachsenenbildung.
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN ORGANIZATION OF COMPILATION
AND SELECTION OF GENERAL EDUCATION TEXTBOOKS
Nguyen Thi Hong Van, Nguyen Thi Hao

(Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences)

Abstract: The 2018 general education curriculum is implemented under the policy of “one curriculum,
many textbooks”. The compilation and selection of textbooks under the new curriculum has been implemented in a
number of years and has achieved initial results. In the coming time, in order for the implementation of the above
policy to be convenient and effective, the management levels need to make necessary adjustments, in line with the
actual implementation, in which learning more international experience is also an important reference. This paper
gives some information related to the compilation and selection of textbooks of some countries in the world and
proposes for Vietnam next time.
Keywords: textbooks, general education, international experience on textbooks
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Wikipedia (Vietnamese), the textbook is a type of book that provides knowledge,
compiled for the purpose of teaching and learning at school. In general education, textbooks are the
expression of the specific content of the general education curriculum. Article 32, Law on Education 2019
clearly states: “Textbooks implement the general education curriculum, specifying the requirements of
the general education curriculum in terms of educational objectives, content, requirements of students’
characters and competences, orientation on teaching methods and ways of testing and evaluating
educational quality; the content and form of textbooks do not bear prejudices against ethnicity, religion,
occupation, age and social status; textbooks are presented in the form of printed books, Braille books,
and e-books” (National Assembly, 2019). Thus, textbooks play an essential role in the implementation
of the educational curriculum. In general education, textbooks are tools for both students and teachers
to use in the teaching process. Modern textbooks not only show the content of the subject’s knowledge,
but also show the method of organizing teaching and learning activities to help students absorb and
apply knowledge, and also have instructions on assessment. In particular, with the requirement of
flexible teaching and assessment methods to convey teaching content suitable for students, in fact, there
can be many options for organizing and implementing the curriculum, which means there are many
textbooks. Vietnam’s regulation on “one curriculum with many textbooks” when implementing the
2018 general education curriculum requires textbooks to be compiled and selected to meet the practical
requirements of education.
It is the first time that Vietnam has implemented the policy of “one curriculum, many textbooks”.
Although the Ministry of Education and Training has issued documents regulating the compilation,
evaluation, and distribution of textbooks, in reality, testimonials over the past time still show that
many contents need to be further researched and adjusted. The change in the number of textbooks in
the 2020-2021 school year with 05 sets of textbooks for grade 1 and school year 2021-2022 has only
three sets of textbooks in grades 2, 6 and ideas around how to organize the compilation, evaluation,
publication and effective use of textbooks is still a concern for managers, researchers and a large number
of teachers. Therefore, finding out the experience of countries in the region and the world on organizing
and selecting textbooks is a necessary requirement to have a comparative look at the current process of
compiling and selecting textbooks.
2. OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE ON THE ISSUE OF ORGANIZING THE COMPILATION
AND SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS
Learning about issues of organizing the compilation and selection of textbooks is reviewed based
on a number of research results by organizations INCA, OECD, and information from some countries
in the region and worldwide. According to the information obtained, it is possible to generalize some
trends in the compilation and selection of textbooks in the world as follows:
Textbooks in the world today are organized and compiled in a vibrant and diverse way. According
to INCA statistics (2013) in countries: England, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, France,
Germany, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Japan, South
Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa, Russia, the United States, the organization of compiling,
providing and selecting textbooks is as follows: in most of the above countries, publishers organize
textbooks writing on the basis of curriculum that the state promulgates; in some countries, the state will
organize the compilation of only some books (Korea, Singapore); or the state only regulates the content
and quality of textbooks, and provides a list of textbooks used, the selection of textbooks for teaching by
teachers and schools is decided (Italy, Hungary, Germany, France, Switzerland, Canada, New Zealand,
and some states of the United States, and Russia.
2.1. The first trend: The State (through the Ministry of Education) manages and controls the
compilation of textbooks
This trend is reflected that based on the curriculum issued by the state, the Ministry of Education
(MOE) will provide a list (limited) of publishers allowed to organize the compilation of textbooks; in
some cases, the state (through the MOE) will actively organize the compilation of some textbooks. The
MOE organizes a council to evaluate textbooks before allowing them to be used in schools.
Some countries follow this trend:
South Korea has many textbooks, especially subjects related to national exams (for university -
college entrance) such as Maths, Korean, English, etc. Over the years, the MOE has delegated authority
to private companies to organize the compilation, printing and distribution of textbooks, except for
a number of subjects, including the Korean language. Textbooks are compiled by a team of university
professors, specialized agencies of the MOE, and the Korean Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation
(KICE),... Publishers organize themselves and submit to higher levels to be considered, evaluated and
granted (Textbook certification).
Russian Federation: All textbooks in the licensed category of MOE have an electronic version.
Schools can use both paper and e-books, or use both at the same time. The Research Institute for Teacher
Training and Retraining is responsible for coordinating the training of teachers on electronic textbooks.
China implements the principle of “one curriculum with many textbooks”, on the basis of
ensuring the consistency of a national curriculum, textbooks are diversified at different levels, adapting
to different learning regimes and regional conditions. The state encourages and supports units, mass
organizations and individuals that fully meet the conditions prescribed by the Circular to compile high-
quality textbooks with their own identity by the requirements of teaching reform. The compilation and
evaluation of textbooks are managed by the educational administrative agency of the State Council and
the educational administrative agency of the province.
In Malaysia, after having the curriculum, the MOE will appoint publishers to make textbooks and
accompanying documents such as teaching guides, CD sets for students, CD sets for teachers and other
reference materials. The publisher will select the author and organize the compilation of the textbook
according to the requirements set out from the subject programs. Each subject program will have three
sets of textbooks for three different regions. For special students, there will be adjustments from the
national curriculum and a separate set of textbooks according to the adjusted national curriculum. The
time for writing textbooks is one year, in which time for preparing manuscripts is 6-8 months, time for
printing books is one month, the remaining time is for distributing books to regions (1 month for two
large areas and ½ month for the rest).
2.2. The second trend: The State and the Ministry of Education do not manage the printing of textbooks
and allow many sets of textbooks; Textbooks are compiled and published entirely by publishers
Some countries follow this trend:
UK: Like the education system of other Western countries such as the US, Germany, France, the
MOE does not manage the printing of textbooks and has many sets of textbooks. Textbooks are compiled
and published entirely by publishers. For example, famous publishing houses Oxford, Cambridge, etc.
Correspondingly, for different localities, the selection of textbooks is regional nature, sometimes by the
agreement of the local Education Council, the local government and the school. Teachers have the right
to choose their own textbooks for their students and can use multiple textbooks in their teaching. Some
localities in Northern Ireland also provide an annual budget to test some integrated textbooks and bring
them to some schools.
Australia: Textbooks are mainly commercial. The Research Council can publish supporting
documents for organizations in the compilation of textbooks. The state does not provide a list of approved
textbooks and allows teachers to choose and use them freely. Parents often buy books (or have to pay a
fee to rent books at schools) (INCA, 2013).
Germany: The state is in charge of developing the curriculum (including standards for subjects),
publishers will base on the curriculum to write textbooks. The use of textbooks depends on each school.
There are different textbooks for each school and type of school, although the curriculum framework is
common across the country. Schools will decide which books to use in the catalogue provided by the
Department of Culture and Education. Teachers also use textbooks in very different ways to prepare
lessons for class and give assignments to students. In Maths, for example, mathematical proof problems
and cognitive challenges play an important role at the Gymnasium schools, while the use of algorithms
to apply mathematical ideas is emphasized at the Hauptschule and Realschule schools. Specifically,
teachers at Gymnasium schools often use the content in textbooks to suit the level of students in the
teaching class and often pose problems more suggestively, encouraging students to deeply exploit the
problem, while teachers at the Hauptchule schools often practice the use of algorithms through solving
problems rather than explaining and developing mathematical proof ideas. Therefore, students at the
Hauptschule schools are rarely asked to expand and exploit the ideas of the problem like students at the
Gymnasium schools.
France: Textbooks are compiled and published entirely by publishers. The state does not manage
and evaluate. The selection of textbooks for students is usually conducted by a group of subject teachers
in the grade level. The reputation of the editor and publisher plays a significant role. In fact, teachers often
use a combination of many textbooks in teaching, preparing separate sheets with photocopies for students.
In recent years, most publishers have provided digital textbooks (CD, USB or/and online) in addition to
traditional printed textbooks with simple versions or expanded versions, for students or teachers.
Thus, basically, the compilation and use of textbooks follows the trends: The state develops and
promulgates the curriculum, the publishers compile the textbooks mainly, and the textbooks that want to
be used must go through the evaluation and authorization by the state; or assign it to reputable publishers
to organize the compilation and distribution. The state can actively organize the compilation of a number
of textbooks (for certain levels, subjects or regions); the selection and use of textbooks belongs to
schools and teachers.
3. SPECIFIC INFORMATION ON COMPILATION AND SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS OF SOME COUNTRIES
3.1. The countries following the first trend: The State (through the Ministry of Education) manages and
controls the compilation of textbooks
3.1.1. South Korea
In South Korea, student textbooks include school books and other study-guide books. Textbooks
also include all kinds of books, audio recordings, pictures, electronic works, etc. used in schools to
educate students. Instruction manuals are books, audio recordings, images, electronic works, etc.
used by teachers to educate students at school. The South Korean MOE stipulates the classification of
textbooks into three categories: books designated by the Government (copyright belongs to the MOE),
certified books (the MOE authorizes the compilation and publication of publishers), and recognized
books (accepted for use by the Minister of Education when there is no government-designated or certified
books, or difficult-to-use books that requires replenishment) (Article 2, Decree 2256 dated 08/10/2014
on textbook regulation by the President.
There are many sets of textbooks, especially textbooks of subjects related to national exams (for
university - college entrance) such as Maths, Korean, English,... Over the years, the MOE has delegated
authority to private companies to organize the compilation, printing and distribution of textbooks, except
for a number of subjects, including the Korean language. Textbooks are compiled by a team of university
professors, specialized agencies of the MOE, and the Korean Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation
(KICE),... Publishers organize themselves and submit to higher levels to be considered, evaluated and
granted (Textbook certification). Like Singapore, South Korea is also a country where private publishers
have a huge publishing impact. Textbooks are retained by the Government to develop into special priority
social content according to a separate pedagogical principle (Smart & Jagannathan, 2018).
There are three types of textbooks: Type I is compiled and copyrighted by the MOE; Type II
is certified by the Ministry of Education and can be used; Type III is recognized or managed by the
MOE. Type I is the type used in nearly all primary schools. For secondary schools, there are subjects
such as the Korean language, Korean history, and moral education. Type II is the type of textbook used
mostly in secondary schools, and Type III is the type that is rarely used.
The 2019 revised curriculum and textbooks have been made in two years and published in August
2011. After researching, developing and verifying textbooks within two years (2012 and 2013), in 2014,
textbooks were applied step by step.
Level 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Primary school 1-2 1-4 1-6
Announced
Secondary school Research, develop and verify textbooks 7 7-8 7-9
in August
(Pilot)
2011
High school 10 10-11 10-12
During the editing process, the curriculum always implements: announcement of correction
points, a public hearing about the correction points, check the applicability of the editing points,
organize a forum on editing,… All these steps help improve the quality of the curriculum and the
feasibility of the curriculum as well as the compilation of textbooks smoothly.
Textbooks are appraised by the National Textbook Review Council. This council is established
by the Minister of Education for each subject at each school level. The composition of the council:
scientists, educators, educational administrators with experience and prestige. In which, 1/3 of the
members must be teachers teaching the subject or educational activity of the corresponding grade that
will use the textbook. Minimum is seven members. In addition to the above criteria, council members
must also meet the standards of ideology, morality, health, have an appropriate university degree or
higher, be knowledgeable in textbooks, and must participate in one of the following jobs: curriculum
development, textbook compilation, textbook evaluation, and at least three years of teaching at the
assessed school level. If at least 3/4 of the members evaluate the textbook as pass, the textbook will be
rated as pass. Appraisal activities must ensure the principles of transparency and openness. In addition,
in order to make the process transparent, before performing the authorization activity, the Minister of
Education must publicly announce on the portal of the MOE and print in newspapers the following issues
at least one year and six months prior to the start of the school year in which the first certified book is used
(Dang Tat Dung, 2019).
The subgroup of the South Korean textbooks into three categories makes it convenient to review
textbooks. The Law on Elementary and Secondary Education of South Korea and the Presidential Decree
on Textbooks are based on this classification to specify the selection of textbooks for each education
level. Kindergarten, for example, will primarily be material that is copyrighted by the MOE. Primary
schools are allowed to use a wider range of textbooks but also focus on this group. Secondary schools
can use the group of textbooks verified by the MOE to compile. Vocational high schools and specialized
high schools use books authorized by the MOE.
3.1.2. Malaysia
After the curriculum is in place, the MOE will designate publishers to make textbooks and
accompanying documents such as teaching guides, CD sets for students, CD sets for teachers and other
reference materials.
In Malaysia, before the 1970s, all textbooks were imported. Since 1970, manuscripts have been
published by MOE. From the late 1980s to the present, MOE has announced an open tender in which
a single publisher is awarded the contract for each set of textbooks (Smart & Jagannathan, 2018). The
publisher will select authors and organize the compilation of the textbook according to the requirements
set out from the subject program. Malaysia is also one of the countries that conducted the compilation
of electronic textbooks in 2014.
Each subject program will have three sets of textbooks for three different regions of Malaysia. For
exceptional students, there will be adjustments from the national curriculum and a separate textbook
written according to the adjusted national curriculum.
The time for writing textbooks is one year, in which time for preparing manuscripts is 6-8 months,
time for printing books is 1 month, the remaining time is for distributing books to regions (1 month for two
large areas and ½ month for the rest).
Each textbook manuscript will be reviewed three times by the Center for Evaluation and Quality of
the publisher. The center consists of three parts:
+ Content Evaluation Committee: Evaluate the presented contents based on the national curriculum.
Composition: 1 chairman and 3 or 4 members.
+ Language Assessment Committee: Evaluate the use of language in textbooks, such as checking
spelling, writing sentences, expressions. Composition: 1 chairman, 3 members and editors.
+ Technical Evaluation Committee: Evaluate technical design such as space usage, quality of
pictures, photographs, illustrations. Composition: 1 chairman, 3 members and illustrators).
Because the textbook’s production time is 8 months, testing new programs and textbooks is
conducted during book production and only some new contents (or modified content) are tested according
to the general plan when developing the program. When the textbook has been printed and published in
mass, there is no more testing.
* Select the publisher’s textbook authors:
Textbook authors: subject experts and experienced high school and university teachers.
Criteria for selecting textbook authors: professional competence, professional qualifications,
textbook writing competence.
Measures for selecting:
+ The publisher will advertise to find the author in the media.
+ Authors are required to write test papers for a period of 1 month.
+ The test documents are taken by the publisher to get expert opinions based on the existing
program content.
+ The publisher conducts direct interviews with registered authors.
+ The publisher makes the decision to select the author.
3.1.3. Japan
Textbooks are the central teaching materials in educational activities, playing an principal role in
educating children. Japan has implemented the policy of “one program and many textbooks” since 1963.
Japanese textbooks are used according to the accreditation regime. From development to use, each
set of textbooks must follow a 4-step process, usually lasting 4 years, and each phase of this process is
regulated by the MOE. For example, accreditation of primary school textbook has been conducted in
2009, in 2013, and in 2017). At the same time, every 4 years, the tested textbooks have the opportunity to
be revised, adjusted or supplemented according to the textbook editing process (statistical information,
changes in objective facts, updated knowledge,…). Through the synergy of stakeholders, the quality of
textbooks is improved and regularly checked before being introduced to schools.
Textbooks are built in accordance with the Learning and Teaching Program issued by the MOE.
Teachers use textbooks as the main teaching materials but are allowed to use other educational materials
appropriately and creatively.
Textbooks used in schools today are published mainly by companies publishing textbooks, more
than 50 companies, accounting for 90% of the textbook market share, approved by the textbook appraisal
council of the MOE.
The development, evaluation and use of textbooks is carried out every 4 years, through 4 stages
(MEXT, 2009):
- Stage 1 (first year): Writing a book (by private companies).
- Stage 2 (second year): Evaluation. The company submits an application for accreditation to the
Evaluation Council of the MOE. After being inspected by the Textbook Examination Authority, the
textbook is transferred to the Council. The assessment of textbooks is based on standards previously
developed and published by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Information, and Science and
Technology. Textbooks are required to meet professional and academic qualifications corresponding to
the program’s goals and contents and evaluate the elaboration and creativity with points.
Council members and accreditation results are publicly available. The council is divided into sub-
committees corresponding to the required subjects in the program.
- Stage 3 (third year): Selection, introduction
Companies send samples of certified books to the local Board of Education, the principals of
public and non-public schools. The Board of Education and Principals will carefully examine, research
and select which books to use locally at their schools. The Education Councils of the provinces, cities,
districts and wards continue to set up the councils to appraise and select textbooks for the locality.
The examination and research of textbooks will be carried out according to the textbook selection
form developed by the local council. This council also guides, advises and supports the right to choose
textbooks of the Board of Education and Principals.
Each locality will estimate the number of textbooks in the locality, and report it to the Minister
of Education to request the book-issuing companies to prepare for distribution. The book publishing
company is responsible for issuing books to registered schools nationwide on the contract of providing
textbooks to ensure the reliability and accuracy in the free distribution of textbooks.
- Stage 4 (fourth year): One year after being selected, textbooks are distributed freely to all students
at all levels of the compulsory education period.
Thus, the compilation, evaluation and selection of Japanese textbooks are carried out according to
a rigorous process in all stages, especially in giving adequate time for localities and schools to learn and
make the right choice for practice. The accreditation mode allows textbooks to be adjusted, updated and
completed in each period.
3.1.4. China
In order to ensure the implementation of teaching according to the new curriculum, the textbook
system is compiled according to the motto “one curriculum with many textbooks”, that is on the basis
of ensuring consistency under a unified national curriculum, textbooks are diversified at different levels,
and adapted to different modes. There are textbooks for areas nationwide, adapted to the requirements of
schools in general. There are textbooks for relatively developed economic and cultural areas, suitable for
schools with relatively good conditions. There are textbooks for urban and rural schools to use, and there
are textbooks for teaching in difficult areas. The central and provincial governments are responsible for
evaluating textbooks and assigning the education sector at the provincial or regional level to choose
the use of textbooks under the direction of the provincial education agency, and at the same time create
conditions to expand the high schools’ right to select textbooks gradually. The government encourages
and supports the conditions for organizations, groups and individuals to develop a variety of quality
textbooks for primary and secondary schools according to certain standards. Authors apply to the MOE
for approval if they wish to develop new textbooks. The MOE will organize the review and if approved
to put into use, there must be a critical assessment by the Provincial Textbook Review Committee. The
evaluator must be independent of the textbook publisher (OECD, 2016).
Textbooks of general education levels are textbooks used for classroom teaching in primary and
secondary schools (including pictures, textbooks, electronic audiovisual) and necessary teaching support
materials. The state encourages and supports units, mass organizations and individuals that fully meet
the conditions prescribed by the Circular to participate in investing and compiling textbooks of high
quality with their own identity, and in line with the requirements of reforming of teaching methods in
primary and secondary schools, especially suitable for use in rural areas and ethnic minority areas (Bui
Duc Thiep, 2016).
The compilation of textbooks must first be reviewed and approved by the textbook management
agency. After completing the compilation, it must be appraised by the textbook evaluation agency
before being used in primary and secondary schools. Specifically, the compilation and evaluation
of textbooks are managed by the educational administrative agency of the State Council and the
educational administrative agency of the province. The educational administrative agency of the State
Council manages the development of the national curriculum and textbooks. The provincial education
administration agency manages the compilation and evaluation of local curricula and textbooks.
The unit that organizes the compilation of textbooks must have a compiler in accordance with
the conditions prescribed by the MOE, have a corresponding budget for compilation, ensure that the
compilation work takes place normally and have other necessary compilation conditions.
The compilation of textbooks is done according to the project management method. Textbooks
for compilation projects must be subjects specified in national or local programs. The compilation
of textbooks must seek permission from the respective educational administrative agency for project
formulation, and the compilation proceeds only after being approved.
State officials and officials of educational management agencies are not allowed to participate in
the compilation of textbooks in any form.
Verification and appraisal members of national and provincial textbook evaluation councils, during the
time of being invited to join the council, are not allowed to assume the responsibility of compiling textbooks.
After completing the compilation of textbooks within the stipulated time, the compiling organization
or individual must transfer it to the textbook appraisal council for preliminary evaluation. The draft
for preliminary evaluation must be all textbooks; in special cases, it may be the textbook of a grade
with the basic framework and explanations of the entire textbook. After the preliminary assessment,
through the textbook, it is possible to conduct a test within 400 classes or 20,000 students. The testing of
textbooks must be approved by the educational administrative agency of the province and the educational
administrative agency of the locality in the experimental area, and must be reported to the educational
administrative agency of the State Council. The educational administrative agency of the State Council
is in charge of monitoring and evaluating the testing of textbooks.
Textbooks that have been approved by the Provincial Appraisal Council and approved by the
provincial educational administrative agency will be allowed to be included in the list of books used
for teaching in primary and secondary schools of the province (autonomous regions, affiliated cities)
and provided to schools to select. The national and provincial educational administrative agencies
periodically evaluate the appraise textbooks, promote textbooks to promptly reflect new developments
in the economy, society, science and technology, and form an innovation mechanism of textbooks.
3.2. The countries following the second trend: The State and the Ministry of Education do not
manage the printing of textbooks and allow many sets of textbooks. Textbooks are compiled and
published entirely by publishers
3.2.1. The United States of America

Textbooks are a significant investment by publishers in the United States because they want to
ensure that their work is approved and purchased by as many state and local education departments as
possible. The two states with the largest school systems in the country, Texas and California, have a
significant influence on textbook content and publication.
One of the major publishers in the United States is Holt McDougal. This publisher provides both
paper and electronic textbooks, teacher books. Book content can be compiled for each grade or level.
There are also books compiled by subject, especially those for integrated subjects. To put into teaching,
textbooks undergo a rigorous pilot process and are implemented according to the following basic steps:
a) Guide to pilot textbooks and teaching materials
Teaching materials include textbooks, technical and technological documents and other educational
materials, and assessment tools. Traditionally, the Board of Education has only released programs with
basic guidelines (including programs designed for use by state students and teachers as a critical learning
resource). The content and structure of the document is consistent with the requirements of an entire
course (1 year in school).
These pilot guides can be used for textbooks and instructional materials for grades K-8 and can
also be used for textbooks and materials for grades 9-12, including content developed by schools and
local councils.
To pilot instructional materials, the state Board of Education used a representative sample of classes
over a specified period (usually 1 school year) in many local schools. An organized and supervised pilot
process can help schools select instructional materials.
An effective pilot program will help teachers identify the resources needed to implement a standards-
based curriculum. The core of the pilot process is to determine the relationship of the documents to the
standards and teacher assessment to see how well these materials are for students. The use of classroom
materials will provide teachers with experience in curriculum organization, assessment, and instructional
strategies. The evaluations of the pilot teachers will significantly influence the final decision about the
time to make the material selection decision.
b) Select pilot materials

- Establish a representative committee responsible for introducing instructional materials to
the district. This committee includes parents, administrators, teachers at all grade levels and special
programs, including one for English learners. The committee will:
+ Review the assessment criteria for evaluating teaching resources as outlined in the latest
framework approved by the Education Committee for each subject.
+ Review the standards that the state or district Board of Education has applied for each subject (if any).
+ Evaluate reports on instructional materials of the California Board of Education for grades K-8 and the
state level of assessment for each program.
+ Point out students’ strengths and weaknesses by using appropriate data from each district/ region.
Analyze student achievement in math and language from API results and STAR results. Review the
evaluation results of the localities for the content for which the document is used. Local assessment data
would be particularly useful for content areas that do not have STAR results.
+ Identify common problems that students often face that the manuals need to cover.
- Identify and prioritize the evaluation criteria. Build an assessment tool. This toolkit needs to reflect
state standards, but it also needs to reflect local specific requirements, such as teacher documentation
structure, references, teacher qualification requirements, preparation time, etc.
c) Conduct pilot
- The pilot process includes all local representatives: parents, administrators, some special subjects.
- Pilot sequence:
+ Contact publishers to see how they can help, e.g., a number of free or discounted pilot materials,
training/ support forms of pilot teacher, consultation with teachers during the pilot process.
+ Establish contact points in each locality with publishers. Establish ground rules with publishers
and teachers. Limit the number of documents and objects to be distributed.
+ Ensure that teachers are comparing similar elements of competing programs by standardizing
pilot elements.
+ Review the use of materials before and after the pilot. This can be done with subjects used to
determine API scores or to determine what to maintain and develop.
+ Establish a system to remove unusable documents at the end of the pilot. Inform teachers, publishers
and time managers about pilot processes.
+ Determine the pilot implementation time. Determine what information is needed from the pilot
materials and give teachers enough time to develop a complete unit or concept so that they will be able
to evaluate the program best. Indicate allowing teachers to use more than one program to establish a
basis for comparison and assessment.
+ Determine the pilot site (pay attention to the diversity of the composition of students and teachers).
These programs are evenly distributed by grade level.
+ Ask teachers to attend a training session on materials. They need to know what they have and
how to use it to evaluate the material. They also need to understand that they are part of a small group
of people who will give valuable input to the Board of Education to select.
+ Review assessment tools with pilot teachers during training. Send these toolkits to publishers
before the training so they can discuss them during the training.
+ Collect evaluation results immediately after the pilot program is completed. Analyze the results
and send them to the selection committee, teachers and publishers. Indicate trends by grade level,
assessment criteria and student composition in each school. The committee should use these assessments
as a step in the development of curriculum/ teaching materials.
d) Other points to consider
- Not biased towards any publisher.
- Discipline in the form of warnings to teachers and publishers for accepting or providing gifts,
bonuses, meals, etc. Evaluations of piloting need to be based on the program’s values and its effect on
student learning. This has been stipulated in the Education Law when considering prohibitions among
publishers and school administrators.
- Develop guidelines related to contact between publishers and local people at the initial stage as
well as throughout the pilot process.
- Inform the review committees that publishers are fully subject to all laws and regulations,
especially the review committees should note that publishers are prohibited from advertising extracts in
their marketing materials, in part or all of the state IMAP/CRP report.
- Verify correlation/ normative maps provided by publishers against actual standards and check
citations for specific lessons and pages. Materials published by the board of education must meet
standards; however, some may be more relevant to the needs of students than others.
- Consult with educators outside the locality to leverage their experiences with instructional
materials being piloted or considered for adoption.
3.2.2. Finland
In Finland, the same subject can have many different sets of textbooks compiled by publishing
houses. Currently, the requirement to appraise textbooks at the national level has been abolished.
Textbooks play an important role in teaching.
Authors of textbooks can be experts in their field, teachers having a pioneering role in their field.
The publisher will form teams in which the presented editor is in each team. During the working process,
there is a close bond in the team. For example, WSOY Publishing House: the team meets about every
3-4 weeks; the manuscript is read by all team members;... The team exchanges new ideas, pay attention
to the current program, pedagogical trends, new teaching methods, suitability with students’ level, etc.
The publisher provides the funds and necessary conditions for the textbook compilation. A teacher or
an author can suggest a new textbook to the Publisher. According to the WSOY Publishing House, now
the number of textbook authors who are teachers has increased compared to before. The high level of
teachers in Finland is also a basis for this.
In addition, in organizing and compiling textbooks, publishers always pay attention to the good
connection with teachers, teacher training department, and education experts; and get a realistic view of
the school’s resources, teachers and learners.
Attached to the textbook are other documents such as teachers’ books, assessment materials, audio
material, web pages, etc.
Direct marketing to teacher: The teacher decides the choice of textbooks. The fierce competition
among publishers requires them to be always ready to innovate and have new solutions to meet the
expectations and needs of users best.
3.2.3. France
Textbooks in France are both textbooks and reference books for teachers and students. Like
Vietnam, the French general curriculum is also publicly announced on the website of the French MOE
and related organizations such as schools, educational agencies, etc.
In France, there are many different groups of authors who compile textbooks, but they are all
unified and must be consistent with the curriculum. In some subjects, the curriculum development board
clearly defines what is allowed and not allowed to be included so that the authors can agree.
A subject has many different sets of textbooks compiled by different groups of authors.
After the textbook is published, the person who decides to select the textbook is the subject teacher
who directly teaches. Even teachers can use two sets of textbooks for the same grade simultaneously
if it is appropriate and necessary. Teachers are also not bound by the distribution of the program in the
existing framework, and are flexible in approach and method.
Textbook authors are education experts and subject teachers. University lecturers rarely participate
in the compilation of general school textbooks.
A publishing house can publish one or more sets of books, for example, Bordas Publishing
House publishes two sets of Physics - Chemistry books for secondary school: Collection Vento and
Collection E.S.P.A.C.E compiled by two different author groups. Textbook authors are usually primary
school teachers, education inspectors, maybe more pedagogues, university teachers,... For primary and
secondary schools, regions provide budgets for schools to buy textbooks (selected by teachers) for
students to borrow. Some regions also provide high school textbooks.
4. SEVERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR VIETNAM ON THE COMPILATION AND SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS
Decision No. 404/QD-TTg dated March 27, 2015, approving the Project on Renovation of
Curriculum and Textbooks of the General Education has stated implementing one curriculum with many
textbooks. The new curriculum is developed, appraised and promulgated in advance as the basis for
the compilation of textbooks. The new curriculum is uniformly implemented nationwide, which stipulates
the requirements to meet students’ characters and competences after each educational level, the content and
the duration of compulsory education for all students. At the same time, there is an appropriate part for
educational institutions to actively apply in accordance with specific local conditions. To encourage publishers,
organizations and individuals to compile textbooks. Schools and teachers actively select textbooks.
Thus, Vietnam has been implementing the policy of “one curriculum, many textbooks”, which
aligns with the current world trend in program development. The compilation and selection of textbooks
in Vietnam is carried out according to the first trend: The state (through the MOE) manages and controls
the compilation of textbooks; based on the curriculum issued by the state, the Ministry of Education
(MOE) will provide a list (limited) of publishers allowed to organize the compilation of textbooks; the
MOE organizes a council to evaluate textbooks before allowing them to be used in schools. The selection
of textbooks has changed over a number of school years: teachers and schools actively select textbooks
(the school year 2020-2021); assigned the local People’s Committee to establish a textbook selection
council (the school year 2021-2022).
In the coming time, Vietnam also needs to imagine the difficulties and inadequacies that may arise
in the implementation of the policy and regulations on the compilation and selection of textbooks. In
fact, there may be textbooks written by a few publishers and groups of authors, and the reason may be
that the content is difficult to write; the number of publications is likely not much. At the same time,
there are subjects/ grades that will have many publishers and authors writing textbooks, more or less
affecting the selection of books, ensuring the connection between grades. There may also be negative
problems in the process of mobilizing to participate in the writing of textbooks, being well evaluated by
the evaluation council, and having a good business market. On the other hand, without good supervision,
the state may not be proactive in ensuring enough textbooks for students to study.
In order to proactively overcome possible difficulties in the coming period, management and
direction levels can take several measures as follows:
- It is necessary to develop and issue a detailed “outcome standard” system to serve as a basis for
compiling and evaluating textbooks. Currently, the program has given “achieved requirements”, but the
contents designed in “achieved requirements” are almost not clear and detailed according to the levels of
competences that students achieve in each learning content in each grade. The outcome standard system,
if built, will provide a system of criteria to assess the level of meeting the requirements of the textbook
more precisely and explicitly.
- Monitor and speed up the process of writing textbooks and regularly evaluate the quality of
textbooks during the compilation process (from reviewing and evaluating detailed outlines to reviewing
and evaluating each chapter, testing the quality of contents of textbooks,...). In particular, there is a
mechanism to monitor the process of organizing the experimentation of textbooks on a large scale to
ensure that the orientations for reforming the curriculum and textbooks are implemented in accordance
with the reality and the acceptance of parents and students.
- There can be orientations to have textbooks suitable for students in regions with different economic
conditions, meeting the diverse requirements of society in accessing education. In the same subject,
there are textbooks written for the general audience, ensuring the core contents; there are books written
for students in regions with developed economic conditions, compiled according to advanced methods
and modern forms, the price may be higher according to the quality of textbooks.
- In the course of curriculum development, based on practice and results of registration and selection
of publishers and author groups to participate in writing each textbook, the state can take the initiative in
organizing (or appointing publishers) to write necessary textbooks for students that may not have been
selected by any publishers and author groups.
- Organize for teachers and parents to have early access to textbooks to choose suitable to practical
conditions. According to the roadmap, it is necessary to assign the right to actively choose textbooks for
teachers, and be flexible in considering textbooks as references. It is possible to refer to many textbooks
during the teaching process.
5. CONCLUSION
The policy of “one curriculum with many textbooks” represents the reforming process of the
general education curriculum in the direction of creating conditions for diverse options in organizing
teaching contents according to the curriculum, allowing teachers to be more flexible in choosing
appropriate learning resources for teaching; students from different regions have the opportunity to
access appropriate textbooks, meeting the requirements of educational practice. In order for the above
policy to be effectively implemented in practice, in the coming time, educational management levels
need to continue to research to make necessary and timely adjustments to the process of compiling and
selecting textbooks to best implementation of the 2018 general education curriculum.
REFERENCES
1. Bui Duc Thiep (2016). The development trend of the general education program. Vietnam
Education Publishing House.
2. Dang Tat Dung (2019). Improving the evaluation and selection of textbooks and suggestions
from the Korean experience. Journal of Legal Research, 18(394), 59 -64.
3. INCA comparative tables. (2013). Truong Cong Thanh (translated).
4. National Assembly (2019). Law on Education, No. 43/2019/QH14 issued on June 14, 2019.
5. OECD (2016). Education in China: A snapshot.
6. Smart, A., & Jagannathan, S. (2018). Textbook policies in Asia: development, publishing,
printing, distribution, and future implications. Asian Development Bank.
7. Tran Cong Phong & Nguyen Thi Hong Van (Eds.) (2016). Development trend of general
education programs in the world. Vietnam Education Publishing House.
Website:
http://www.nier.go.jp
http://www.hurights.or.jp
KEDI - http://eng.kedi.kr
http://www.educationmalaysia.org.my
https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/taisen/kentei.html
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/tosho/003/gijiroku/08052214/001.htm
INTEGRATING HANDS-ON DESIGN PROJECT IN PROJECT-BASED
LEARNING IN ORDER TO ENHANCE STUDENT’S COMPETENCY OF
ENGINEERING DESIGN: A CASE STUDY IN HCMC UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION
Vo Xuan Tien
(University of Technology and Education HCMC)
Abstract: Project-based learning (PBL) is favorite teaching method to train student’s skill of hand-on in
technical field, applied commonly in Vietnamese universities, especially in technology field. Hence, it becomes policy
at the university (HCMUTE 2012, Regular Nr. 117, p. 1). However, a survey, conducted in recent semesters, exposed
limitations of the PBL: student’s initiative and also the mind of engineering design process, which could be useful
to support student effectively hand on his trouble, because the PBL lacks a systematic approach of design process.
And students usually skipped relevant steps of engineering design process such as defining design’s problems or
controlling/testing project’s results. On the other hand, the two limitations are key factors to help student overcome
challenges in his future career because it could make their design unstable and unreliable. To solve this exposure
of PBL, the mind of engineering design process that consists of an eight-step design process, used as strategic
approach, would be integrated in PBL in order to support students build up design thinking. The paper is intently
written to report first achievement of the process, in which students are instructed through eight-step design process
to finish their project. With qualitative and quantitative research method, students’ accomplishment are recorded and
collected. Ultimately, the paper contributes hopefully innovation act at the University of Technology and Education
HCMC to equip student essential skills such as mind of thinking design process in preparation for accustoming
highly demands of industry 4.0.
Keywords: design thinking process, systematic approach, Project-based learning, hands-on activities.
1. INTRODUCTION
Project-based Learning (PBL) has been applied at University of Technology and Education Ho
Chi Minh City since 2011 when the first cohort of faculties returned from Arizona State University
after they had been trained in the frame of the project “Higher Engineering Education Alliance Program
(HEEAP), initiated by Intel. The HEEAP is a breakthrough project of Intel, considered as solution to
solve disadvantages in Engineering Education, which was exposed through the myth about the Intel’s
recruitment event “just only 40 graduated engineers passed the recruitment test of Intel among 2000
competitors” when the company looked for qualified workforce in order to operate its next assembly
and test manufacturing plants (ATM), which would be placed in Ho Chi Minh City. This may be an
exaggeration of media. In fact, Intel had had difficulty in employment qualified workforce for its new
ATM due to shortage of skilled labor. The story of Intel was not a single case in this moment because
Mori’s research “Skill Development for Vietnam’s Industrialization: Promotion of Technology Transfer
by Partnership between TVET Institutions and FDI Enterprises” of, a Japanese expert of Technical and
Vocational education and training, has stated this shortage of skilled labor:
Many enterprises are still seeking: (i) multi-skilled production-line leaders who can manage and
improve the entire production process rather than remain limited to a specific one; (ii) engineers
or technicians who are skilled at high-precision processing in making metal, plastic parts, molds
and dies; and, (iii) middle managers who can lead day-to-day improvement of factory operations
by identifying and resolving problems from a broad and long-term perspective… (Mori 2009, p. 5)
His statement has directly identified the specific shortage of skilled labor workforce in Vietnam:
“Vietnam needs industrial human resources who can initiate and manage the improvement of production
operations, rather than those who can perform only standard tasks.” (Mori 2009, p.5). Consequently,
Mori also figured out difficulties of Japanese manufacturers in recruiting middle managers and engineers
in Vietnam, who should be able to deal with complex value-added engineering products such as design
process, has gradually increased in the period 2003-2006. In contrast, the ratio of manufacturers that
reported difficulties in recruiting general workers (production-line workers) is relatively low. In his
research, the definition “Engineers” is also issued as a person: “who lead the improvement of factory
layout, jigs, person-hours, and in-house logistics flows in close cooperation with the production and
design departments of an enterprise’s headquarters”. This is also determined by Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) Office in Vietnam, as Monozukuri (*) – “making thing” (Mori 2014, p.
4). Monozukuri - high-skill manufacturing, which “implies manufacturing for the primary purpose of
achieving customer satisfaction through high quality in the spirit of a proud and dedicated artisan, rather
than just making profits” (Ohno 2009, p. 9).
Return to the Intel’s story, Rick Howarth – Vietnam Intel Products’ general director has also
mentioned about skill shortages of Vietnamese candidates in media’s interview: Besides professional
competencies, Intel demands also another relevant skills such as foreign languages, multi-tasking,
professional behaviors, team-working. He was, therefore, conduce disadvantages of Vietnamese
candidates: communication skill in foreign languages, negotiation skill, conflicts-solving skill in multi-
cultures environment, problem-solving skills, decision making, etc. Moreover, he has a remarkable
comment about higher engineering education in Vietnam that instructional activities in Vietnamese
universities is heavily theoretical. Students are almost required reading books, then they just have
occasions of application their knowledge when they are graduated. The company want to reduce this
gap – learning and doing should be instructed in the same time.
To solve this problem, Intel has started the HEEAP, which intend to improve instructional activities
of faculties and learning ways of students, in which process of knowledge transfer would be enhanced by
increasing interaction between them. And the most important innovation act is integrating Problem-based
learning in courses, conducted in engineering education programs at HCMUTE. Profiting from the program,
PBL has been successfully and wide integrated at HCMUTE and become the most popular hands-on activities
in the classroom in order to provide students with a more interactive higher education experiences.
In addition, Crawley et. al. has discussed about important industry need, which employers expect
from their engineers who can Conceive, Design, Implement, and Operate complex products and systems
in a modern, team-based environment (Crawley et. al. 2014, p. 50). He has advised that building syllabi
should be based on concept of CDIO, abbreviation of Conceive – Design – Implement – Operate and
fulfil such standards as Design-implement experiences, integrated learning experiences Integrated learning
(*) Monozukuri means “making things”, defined by Prof. Ohno in his paper “Avoiding the Middle Income Trap:
Renovating Industrial Policy Formulation in Vietnam” at Vietnam Development Forum (VDF) in Hanoi 2010
experiences that lead to the acquisition of disciplinary knowledge, as well as personal and interpersonal
skills, and product, process, and system building skills 8 Active learning 6 Teaching and learning
based on active and experiential learning methods (ibid, p.36). Therefore, Crawley et. al. suggest that
teaching activities should focus on students’ cognitive and affective development that includes analytical
reasoning and problem solving, experimentation, investigation and knowledge discovery, system thinking,
creative thinking, critical thinking, professional ethics and other responsibilities. (ibid., p. 51).
2. IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING – MORE HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES BUT LACK

OF DIDACTICAL APPROACH OF ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
According to the university’s policy about CDIO approach, students at HCMUTE are involved
with PLB since they are freshman in such courses as Introduction to Engineering right in the first year.
Almost courses at HCMUTE are now designed and conducted according to CIDO approach, which
students should spend their time during courses to apply their learned knowledge to do their project.
Based on Problem-based learning, all courses at HCMUTE rests on a foundation of motivating students
to acquire knowledge out of curiosity and a desire to solve a particular problem. In each course, Design-
implement experiences will focus on developing professional engineering skills and competencies while
applying and reinforcing knowledge in order to build their practicing compentency. Figure 1 shows
students’ hands-on activities in welding training course, in which they are requested to work in teams and
develop a hands-on project themselves. Dealing with implementation projects, students have chances
to apply their learned welding skills in the courses to build metal structures such as bicycles, decorative
windmills, swings etc. Through these hands-on projects, they are trained important skills such as team-
working, communication, negotiation, etc. However, they are lack of mind’s engineering design process
regarding to author’s observation. But their activities are driven spontaneously and depend totally on
lecturer’s instruction. Their working are led under adjustment of their instructor and often done through
try/fail cycle. There are two key reasons account for the lack of convergence between engineering
education and engineering practice: (1) an absence of rationale (engineering design concept as guideline
for student’s project implementation, and (2) an absence of detail (lecturer’s observation and controlling
if students go through design process step by step or not in order to be sure that student’s relevant skills
could be formed during project proceeding). Thus the starting point of research’s effort was a statement
of the underlying need for engineering education: clear formulating of engineering design concept
which can accompany by PBL teaching method at HCMUTE. Thereby students can finish their project
more scholarly and effectively. The design concept makes student’s project proceeding more explicit.
Fig. 1. Students are conducting their project while they take part in welding training course (Source: Vo 2017, p. 10)
This assumption is supported by a research, conducted at beginning of previous semester. In

the research, student are requested to answer some questions involved with the topic “engineering
design” with main research question “How students involve with their projects?” First of all,
author has conducted qualitative interviews among 13 students at first meeting in frame of course
“manufacturing technology”, complement a hand-on project is perquisite condition to pass the course,
with following questions:
- What is engineering design really?
- What is outcome of engineering design?
- Which step do you usually skip when you conduct your course’s project?
- Which step is the most important step in the engineering design process from your view?
Result from interviews indicates that student consider engineering design as building technical
drawings rather than a process. They often tend to finish projects based on requests from their lecturers.
Accordingly, students have tendency to quit controlling or testing their project models completely.
They just try to finish required project promptly. However, they also recognize that testing or
controlling project’s model operation is a vital step of design process to make their project’s
achievement working properly.
Moreover, a further quantitative research with 120 students, who have to finish project as course’s
requirement, has been conducted, in which the questionnaire has been composed with following questions:
- Please use one word to describe engineering design
- How would you begin to implement their project?
- Would you test project’s model operation in order to be sure that it work properly?
- Which step might you quit in process of implementing your project?
At the first question, answer is diversified and involve with sketching or drawing technical objects.
The answer show student’s consideration about engineering design just an activity rather than a process.
They need to be equipped the conceive-design-implement-operate premise in order to understand that
design in engineering is really a process. Actually, engineering design is a loop and has specific process
alignment not a straight though process. In addition, it is very interesting when 39 percent students have
tendency to skip the first step of the process with the question “which steps in the designing process,
you might skip?” (See Fig. 2). This answer exposes the fact that students need to instruct mind of design
carefully in order to help them to be in the habit of logical thinking in design. On the other hand, students
believe that they should focus on the step of testing and evaluation performance rather than defining
the problem and collecting information about research object. This is a positive point from the research.
However, students also show that they have no idea how they can deal with testing activities.
Fig. 2 Trend of skipping the first step of engineering process when students do their project (my own research)
Therefore, they should be provided the systematic approach to engineering design in order to
strengthen their thinking of project processing and build their mind of engineering design. It will be
helpful for future career path of student. The designing skill is very essential for engineers in the era of
technology, because the term “Engineer” is defined in the research of Mori as “…should be considered
production engineers who lead the improvement of factory layout, jigs, person-hours, and in-house
logistics flows in close cooperation with the production and design departments of an enterprise’s
headquarters” (Mori 2009, p. 5) and engineer should do “the job of engineers to be able to engineer”:
Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate complex value-added engineering products, processes, and
systems in a modern, team-based environment (Crawley et. al, 2014, p.50). As mentioned before,
according to author’s observation, students have no consideration how to conduct testing and evaluation
design’s performance. Hence, it leads to the incompletion of the design easily. Because “if the design
of a bridge produces a new structure that is visually stunning with no consideration for its strength, this
is design without the engineering. If, on the other hand, the designers of a new concept car use analysis
or experiments to evaluate air drag, structural integrity, and manufacturability in addition to style when
coming up with a new exterior design, this is engineering design” (Kosky P. et al., p. 347). Providing
thinking design to students has two main goals: (1) to eliminate personal bias from the process and (2)
to maximize the amount of thinking and information gathering that is done up front, before committing
to the final design. The result is fewer costly design changes late in the product development stages. In
fact, almost student’s project at HCMUTE stay at very first phase of engineering design and need to be
upgraded. Some projects will be improved and completed during research’s proceeding such as smart
bin project, automatic hand-washer project, sea-bin project. It is more than a fact that whether students
become practicing engineers or engineering researchers, setting their educational experiences in the
context of the conception, design, implementation, and operation of systems and products strengthens
their backgrounds (Crawley et. al. 2014, p. 50). And engineering education should formulate engineering
manufacturing environment precisely.
3. Innovation act of integrating hands-on design project in project-based learning with systematic
approach to engineering design – results and remarks
The need of innovation comes from the fact of manufacturing when the author does qualitative
interviews, in which industry sectors was asked to figure out demands on their recruited workforce,
especially engineers, who are graduated from Technology Universities (TU). Responses are very definite
that companies expect their engineers as designers should make smart and cost-efficient design choices
and in turn minimize the product critique and unnecessary communication as well as time wasted during
the start-up of a new component. Because the design engineer’s initial solution usually receives product
critique from the supplier during the design of a new component. This results in a lot of communication,
both in and outside of the company.
Integrating hands-on design project and leading students from the beginning of project’s initial to
the end are not only giving tasks and request students to do their project or control their implementing
results about the project but also giving them the mind of design concept. Firstly, students should be
equipped theoretically the systematic approach to engineering design, which comprises eight steps:
define the problem, generate alternative concepts, evaluate and select a concept, detail the design, design
defense, manufacture and test, valuate performance, prepare the final design report (See fig. 3). This
flowchart is applied to show and explain at the beginning of the semester in order to help students
understand the way to conduct their project. Consequently, students should be clear about this design
process flowchart and have to follow these steps in conducting their project.
Fig. 3. Design Process Flowchart (Kosky P. et al., p. 352)

According to the design concept of Kosky, students are demanded to apply the flowchart throughout
from first step: defining the problem, which they are concerned and develop their conceptual solutions
laterally and the lecturer should carefully control each steps and makes sure that students are free from
questions and problems in order to help them reach their project’s target in each steps. They are engaged
to express their ideas or observations about troubles, difficulties, which they have to face or conceive
from reality. This is, actually, a brainstorming process because students have to present their ideas to
another group and discuss about alternative solutions, which they want to choose. They have even to
defend their conceptual solution in front of class by explaining 4W-1H: What is their concern? Why do
they choose it? Where do they intend to apply the solution? Who will get benefit from the solution? And
how do they solve the problem? (See fig. 4).
Presenting ideas Developing conceptual design
Evaluating the concept Defending the concept
Fig. 4 Hands-on activities in classes, in which the systematic approach to engineering design is applied
Through these activities, students can understand deeply the problem, should be solved.
Consequently, they can gather relevant information, which are essential for developing conceptual
design. It makes communication between team members and teams more effectively and aids them
depict their thinking more precisely.
After finishing the first step, they can develop not only one but also several alternatives for their
project design. At the second step, they must also negotiate with team members and other teams in order
to decide most suitable design conceptual for their project, which they can turn into detail sketch or
drawing then.
The integration of design’s thinking really helps students solve the problem more effective than
before. This can be proved through the case of “smart dustbin design project”. This project is an
advancement from prior project at previous semester, when they have not yet learnt how they can get
along with engineering design. They could not complete their design perfectly because they did not
conduct experiment on model’s project properly. As a part of the research, the team has been requested to
improve their prior project by focusing on step of results and analysis, which they had no consideration
in last semester. The following table is big change of the team, who take advance in implementing their
project. They enhanced their project by focusing on the step of evaluating and analyzing the design of
smart bin. Thus, they had developed some prototypes and tested them in several definite situations (see
Table 1). Through this step, the team can easily run tests on their model and modify the design. Finally,
they could choose the appropriate concept for their project. This step makes their smart bin’s operation
work more stable and reliable.
Table 1. Testing conditions, in which the project “smart dustbin” would be operated and checked
Prototype Change-log Analyze the result
- Set the detective range of the first sensor is 380 - The bin could not open although it is full (didn’t
mm at the totally empty condition and 100 mm at have enough space for the lid to rotate).
the full condition. The remaining space is divided
into 4 levels. - The lid still opening in full condition.
- Set the maximum detective range of the second - The lid also opened although it was in an
sensor is 250mm. accidental case. (Need to be optimized).
1 - Set the delay for the users to put the trash in the - The lid closes fast (cause difficulty for the users).
bin at 3 seconds.
- The bin was still working when cleaning (risk
- The indicate LEDs display 4 different colors to of components being damaged).
show the remaining space.
- Annoying users with notification and email.
- The alert notification and email will send continuously.
- Set the opening angle of the servo motor at 50°.
- Change the detective range at the full condition - The bin was working more stable.
to 140 mm.
- The lid still closes fast.
2 - Change the program to force the lid to close in
full condition. - Some issues still could not be solved.
- Increase the delay time up to 5 seconds.
- Increase the remaining space level to 8. - The bin was working more stable and more
- Update to increase indicate LEDs colors to 8. accurate.
- Add LEDs display patterns to alert when the - The lid still closes fast.
second sensor detected person in range and
3 - The alert period was more suitable.
when they go away.
- Update program to set the pushing notification - Some issues still could not be solved.
and email period between each time is 15
minutes
- Update program to remove delay time and now - The bin is working effectively, stable and
keep the lid open until the users go away. accurate now.
- Update program to stop the bin from working - The lid opening angle I suitable for the user.
when the user is cleaning it.
- All issues are solved.
- Add ‘Do not disturb’ mode for the user to
4 stop pushing notification and email to avoid
annoying user.
- Add the slider to change the brightness of the
LEDs to reduce power consumption.
- Change the opening angle of the servo motor
to 60°.
Furthermore, students in another groups were also required to focus on the step of analyzing the
pilot model’s performance, which are usually skipped when they complete the project. In this step, it
is important for students when they can decide and state testing conditions, which the model should be
run smoothly and perfectly. According to results of this step, they can choose more suitable concept
for the project thoroughly. Converting ideas to project’s model by doing it scholarly rather than let
them do it upon natural way as “try and fail”. And Kosky’s eight-steps-design-process is suitable
cognitive structures in this case to simulate manufacturing environment. They can practice by dealing
with this didactical thinking of design in order to be accompanied with design-implement experience,
which is an activity in which learning takes place through the development of a product, process, or
system. Consequently, students are engaged in applying and developing their knowledge and skills
while working on an authentic engineering task, in working modes resembling professional engineering
practice. That is why the research approaches by instructing student concept of engineering design. It
is really useful to help students on the way from novices to experts of technology design. This can be
proved through another successful completed projects such as automatic hand washer, model of Scare
robot for chess playing, water bin (for trash collecting on sea surface), etc. which all of them can work
stable and reliable. Addition of design’s concept give student roadmaps to lead them go through design
process scholarly from beginning to the end. They will not skip any important step while they proceed
their project, especially they can build specific testing conditions.
4. CONCLUSION
The innovation act of the systematic approach to engineering design at HCMUTE in frame of the
research has started in previous semester. Results, reported in the paper, are just a very first achievement
of the research. This act should be implemented in following semesters and needs more time to evaluate
precisely. Moreover, impact of this act should be evaluated by specific statistic model. However, results
from the first semester, when the innovation act was applied, have great promise. Students can finish
their project more completely. They can also recognize how an engineering design process carry on and
how relevant to align the design process steps by steps. They considered also that they should not quit
any step of the procedure because each step has specific duty and has relevant effect on their level of
project completion. Moreover, the systematic approach to engineering design ignites student’s initiative
in realizing their project. It provides them a didactical way in thinking and doing, which plays important
role to lead them to success.
This paper is just a first briefly report on integrating mind of design at HCMUTE. The author
will continue the innovation and also observe more precise impacts in order to provide more valuable
information about the innovation. Afterwards, the systematic approach to engineering design is
hopefully an effective addition in order to help students fulfil high demand on labor market in new
circumstance of industry 4.0, in which undergraduate students are often pushed into design department
in companies and expect to the job of engineers to be able to engineer: Conceive-Design-Implement-
Operate complex value-added engineering products, processes, and systems in a modern, team-based
environment (Crawley et. al, 2014, p.50).
5. REFERENCES
1. Crawley E. F., Östlund J. M. S. Edström D. R. B. K (2014). Rethinking Engineering Education:
The CDIO Approach, 2nd Edition, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
2. Japan International Cooperation Agency Vietnam Office – JICA (2014). Policy Paper Promoting
Tripartite Partnerships to Tackle Skills Mismatch: Innovative Skills Development Strategies to
Accelerate Vietnam’s Industrialization, Vietnam Office, Hanoi, 10. 2014.
3. Junichi Mori, Nguyen Thi Xuan Thuy, Pham Truong Hoang (2009). The final report to Hiroshima
University’s COE project entitled “Research on Cooperation in the Fielded of Skill Development
Education and Economic Development”: Skill Development for Vietnam’s Industrialization:
Promotion of Technology Transfer by Partnership between TVET Institutions and FDI Enterprises,
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vietnam Country Office.
4. Tien Vo, Xuan (2017). WIL in Vietnam and Best practice example of CDIO at HCMC University.
In: TVET@Asia, issue 9, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue9/vo_tvet9.pdf
5. University of Technology and Education Ho Chi Minh City (2012). Regular Nr. 117 regarding to
Innovation of teaching and learning activities at HCMUTE.
THE MODEL OF CONTEXTUALIZATION AND PERSONALIZATION IN LEARNING:
THE CASE OF VAR AND MOBILE LEARNING APPLICATION
Nguyen Tung Lam, Ton Quang Cuong
(VNU University of Education )
Nguyen Hoa Huy
(VNU Center for Education Accreditation )
Pham Thi Hai Yen
(VNU ULIS Foreign Languages Special School)
Abstract: In the digital transformation in education today, learning is increasingly shaped by highly
contextualization and personalization concepts. Virtual reality and augmented reality technology (VAR) combined
with mobile teaching platforms (Mobile Learning) has been helping to enlarge the learning space, environment,
context and opportunities for interactive experiential learning activities toward adaptive learning and the diversity
of learners’ needs. Therefore, building up and applying a technology-based model to analyze and generate
contextualization and personalization is a critical issue in digital learning. Based on the technology integrated
into the learning model TPACK-XL, this study analyzed and evaluated the feasibility of the proposed model in
contextualization and personalization by applying VAR technology and Mobile Learning toward acceptance,
access to learning, and competencies development for today’s learners.
Keywords: contextualization, personalization in learning; VAR; Mobile Learning; Digital Learning;

TPACK-XL
1. INTRODUCTION
In the current digital transformation trend in education in Vietnam, personalized and differentiated
teaching and the implementation of the General Education Program are hotly debated topics. In particular,
in the context of the increasingly popular and pervasive application of educational technology in all
elements and activities of the teaching process, the role of “personalizing learning activities” of learners
is more and more crucial.
The issue of personalized teaching was mentioned nearly 40 years ago when B. Bloom [2]
hypothesized that: all students can learn if they provide and create favorable conditions for them before,
during, and after school; Teaching is not about comparing one student to another, but about creating contexts
so that all students can achieve the goals of the pre-established educational and teaching program [3].
The premise of personalized teaching was first put forward by B. Bloom (1984) in the form of a
famous puzzle called “2 Sigma”: How can we teach effectively? If teaching in the style of “One-to-One”
(One-to-One) but still ensures cost? In this study, B. Bloom proved that, if teaching students in the style
of “tutor” (i.e., “one-to-one”), combined with regular assessment, feedback, and continuous adjustment
instruction, the student performed two standard deviations (2 sigma) better than the other students in the
regular classroom. In other words, overall, students who receive regular tutoring will do better than the
remaining 98% of students in the traditional classroom [4].
When analyzing learning outcomes (evaluated by grades), there is usually a value called the “Normal
Distribution” according to the bell curve. This value generally creates a stereotype for teachers that there
will be some (groups) of students who will not (or are unlikely to) achieve high academic results, in
other words, are not capable study. However, this is not entirely true because although each student’s
learning ability is different, it does not mean that the student cannot achieve the goals set out by the
curriculum. Because, with different intellectual, cognitive, manipulative, and learning characteristics,
each student is a “special individual” in a collective learning community and has his or her own way
of learning to accomplish a common goal. The problem for educators is how to “contextualize” the
learning process to suit individual learners!
Personalized learning
The idea of personalization of education (or personalized learning) can be traced back to the XIX
century when Helen Parkhurst created the Dalton Plan stating that each student can program his or her
curriculum in order to meet his or her needs, interests, and abilities; to promote both independence and
dependability; to enhance the student’s social skills and sense of responsibility toward others. The idea
of customization and personalization of education has evolved ever since. In the 1970s, Victor Garcìa
Hoz was the first to coin the term personalization in educational science. Unfortunately, up to this date,
there is no single definition of this concept. In order to explain what is usually meant by “personalized
learning”, let us have a look at extracts from several documents defining the term at the national or
provincial level in different countries.
National College for School Leadership, UK: “Personalized learning is a highly structured and
responsive approach to learning for each individual child and young person. It creates an ethos in which
all pupils can progress, achieve and participate. It strengthens the link between learning and teaching by
engaging pupils and their parents as partners” [7].
The Personalized Learning Foundation, California, USA: “Personalized Learning is a blended
approach to learning that combines education delivery both within and beyond the traditional classroom
environment. The Personalized Learning model fosters a collaborative partnership between the teacher,
parent, student and school that designs a tailored learning program for each student according to the
needs and interests of each individual student. Personalized Learning is truly a 21st-century approach to
education that, in practice, through flexibility and choice, honors and recognizes the unique gifts, skills,
passions, and attributes of each child, as well as each child’s challenges and obstacles to learning. The
key attributes that comprise the Personalized Learning model are based upon a solid foundation of the
latest educational research findings as to how students learn most successfully. These attributes include
a strong emphasis on parental involvement, smaller class sizes, more one-to-one teacher and student
interaction, attention to differences in learning styles, student-driven participation in developing the
learning process, technology access, varied learning environments, teacher and parent development
programs, and choices in curriculum programs. No other educational model offered in today’s public
education system has integrated these proven educational research results in such an in-depth and
comprehensive manner to serve the diverse needs of today’s public education students” [9].
Calgary Board of Education, Alberta, Canada: “Key components of personalization have been
identified as integrating and differentiating curriculum, development of learner profiles, flexible program
delivery, technology infusion, social construction, and individual student learning plans” [6].
British Columbia Ministry of Education, Canada: “Personalized learning for each student in
British Columbia means a shift from delivery of a set of broad, uniform learning outcomes and courses
throughout the Pre-K to 12 Education Program, to learning that is increasingly student-initiated, self-
directed, and interdisciplinary and that is facilitated by the teacher and co-planned with students, parents
and teachers. Rigorous learning requirements will continue to be the core of the education program; the
amount and nature of required core learning will change as students’ progress through the program…
Personalized learning provides individual learners with the differentiated instruction and support they
need to gain the required knowledge, skills and competencies and also provides them with the flexibility
and choice they need to develop their individual interests and passions” [5].
Personalized learning, broadly understood as Adaptive Learning, is the formation of the teaching
process in the direction of teaching “learners” rather than teaching in “classes” focusing on students’
needs and establish individual learning paths for learners. Therefore, learning increasingly bears the
personal imprint of the learner in a bolder way. Educators have introduced several concepts such as
differentiation teaching, individualization, personalization, and customization or tailored to indicate the
trend of teaching that needs to be focused, towards learners, for the learners themselves. The essential
components of Adaptive Learning are:
- Differentiated learning is a “prism” to detect, screen, classify and acknowledge learners as
different (attributes, qualities, abilities... of each individual) in the relationship “together towards unity
in diversity” (the purpose of teaching is unified but must be realized based on the differences of learners);
- Individualized learning acknowledges the “individual” uniqueness of the individual of the learner
in the learning process, in relation to the learner himself (uniqueness, individuality). For example, the
choice of disciplines, subjects, and technological means according to individual learners’ needs and
interests; programs are designed to be diverse, flexible, interconnected, highly selective to meet the
individual needs of learners, learners are unique (customized learning); the program is assembled,
designed and customized for themselves (tailored learning);
- Personalized learning classifies the “separate” of learners in relation to other individuals in the
classroom, collective, or learning community. For example, learners have different learning styles, so
teachers will have to diversify teaching methods to maintain a fair opportunity in accessing learning…
Although the names and manifestations of these teaching approaches may be different in practice,
they all aim for a common goal: learning must come from the learners’ own context, there is no general
concept of learning (one-size-fits-all) or learning by itself, which must be specifically recognized from
a combination of attributes and abilities of learners.
Contextualized learning
Based on a constructivism theory contextual learning transforms information presentation (the task
of teacher) to developing some skills, providing opportunities for students to construct meaning based
on their own experiences during the learning process (i.e., makes learning relevant, increases learner
confidence & enthusiasm, and enhances interest in long-term goals).
Following this trend, the current teaching process, which is directly oriented towards the learners,
has transformed into the following branches: - formal teaching according to established programs
(including face-to-face and online teaching); - individual-oriented teaching (contents and formats that
meet individual needs, driven by individual capacity, speed, interests...); - group-oriented teaching
within a particular organizational setting (e.g., a classroom, in a school...) and network group (meeting
the needs of the network group outside the organization); - incidental teaching (learning what, from
whom, at what time according to the needs of “randomly, by chance”).
On the other hand, with the development and strong support of educational technology, personalized
teaching gradually becomes a new “form” of social relations in teaching. All participants contribute to
creating knowledge, contributing a separate “Me” that has been customized according to the context and
personal experience in the process of working towards the common goal.
In essence, this new form of relationship is reshaping a new approach to teaching: the trend
of personal experience based on knowledge sharing (with purpose) and multi-dimensional social
interaction in learning-based teaching. In other words, teaching is about providing and supporting
flexible, customized learning experiences that meet an individual’s unique needs through feedback,
pathways, personalized learning progress, and timely resources (rather than providing common learning
experiences for all classes).
Personalized and contextualized learning with VAR support
To develop high-level thinking, learners not only observe and remember things and phenomena
but also interact to discover them. However, in reality, it is not always, anywhere and with any audience
that learner can do this experiential activity. VAR/MR (mixed reality) solutions applied in teaching will
create opportunities for personal interaction in physical/virtual space, multi-dimensionality, increasing
accessibility and information processing; expanding space, learning environment (real-virtual); develop
creative thinking and problem-solving abilities; enhance adaptive learning, immersive learning and
seamless learning for individual learners.
Besides the ability to integrate multimedia and multi-format, VAR/MR aims to create a highly
simulated environment, contextualize the problem, and activate multi-dimensional interaction in
teaching. VAR/MR solutions force individual learners to face problems/situations (simulated in virtual
space), self-identify and make appropriate choices and solutions, creatively solve them problems on their
own in hypothetical situations. Thereby, learners simultaneously experience the psychological states
that appear when performing their own decision-making tasks. By repeating the actions and experiences
integrated with VAR/MR technology over and over again, learners will perform learning tasks to achieve
their teaching goals in their own way. Specifically: - Remove barriers in content access: learners interact
directly with learning content, extract virtual objects from the display screen (simulation, 360o videos,
360o photos, audio...), self-actualization performs object navigation tasks. - Activate multi-sensory
activities, multi-channels of movement: hearing, vision, and movement are integrated into experience
activities and emotional and psychological states. - Promote creativity and critical thinking: the virtual
environment will create a sense of security from within, encourage risk-taking, failure, learning from
mistakes, and thinking clearly to find a solution. Some studies also show that learners who interact
with lifelike VAR/MR content tend to ask higher-order questions to dig deeper into abstract concepts. -
Develop independence, confidence in learning: virtual learning context allows learners not to be afraid of
making mistakes (freely making mistakes from which to learn from mistakes), promoting independence,
self-esteem, and confidence in learning, forming a belief in being ready to overcome challenges to
achieve goals. - Encourage individual efforts in collaborative activities: real-life situations and problems
in project teaching are contextualized thanks to VAR/MR technology, learners are “embedded” in a
virtual, online environment continues to interact with other learners to accomplish common goals.
Mobile technology enabled for personalized and contextualized learning

Using technology devices and mobile and approaching BYOD (Bring Your Own Devices) is a
popular trend today in education around the world). Personalizing learners also means allowing the use and
enhancement of personal applications and devices according to user needs. Through the mobilization and
exploitation of personal technology devices for learning, teachers and learners can speed up accessing and
processing information thanks to educational applications running on the device platform, mobile devices
(Mobile Apps); increase interaction, sharing and connection of individual learners. These applications
are designed and developed on mobile platforms (App, Web) of smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other
portable and wearable devices for an authentic learning experience in a personalized environment.
Learning contextualization can be personalized at high levels of both learners’ and teachers’
activities. App-users should adapt to technological, metacognitive, academic skills in social-share
networks in cyber-physical environments.
On the other hand, in personalized teaching, the use of iPad, tablets, laptops, smart connected
devices, mobile and handheld (boards, smart teaching devices, etc.) using cloud computing platforms,
web infrastructure, connecting to large databases, easily sharing and interacting in learning; convenient
in centralizing, storing and distributing digital learning materials in multiple formats (simulation, 3D...);
replace traditional teaching tools and equipment (boards, books, printed materials, visual teaching aids,
etc.). These personal devices can also be exploited (with control and management) as a tool to connect,
share information, interact and communicate instantly between stakeholders in the field of education.
Moreover, the mobile context has a close relationship with the learning environment with mobile
and ubiquitous learning strategies (i.e., blended, flipped, and personalized learning approaches).
Gamification, VAR/MR, simulation, 3D environment, digital resources will motivate learners to interact
actively and perform multiple academic, metacognitive, and technology competencies. The lecturing,
narrations, presentations, discussions, debate case studies, assessment, and reflection, etc. via mobile
devices encourage learners to transform from the followers - customers to producers - creators at
their convenience, flexibility, and portability. The well-organized and structured mobile context also
indicates one’s personality, characteristics of individual learners’ progression, control, mastering, and
development throughout the learning process.
Shifting TPACK-XL to PLM model

TPACK (Technology, Pedagogy and Content Knowledge) is a well-known exploratory theory that
integrates technology. It provides a framework of three specific areas related to the nature of knowledge
in the learning environment. In the TPACK model, there is a dynamic concept of the learning process,
working together to address the teacher’s concepts of knowledge and pedagogy, supporting matching
techniques and entering the subject’s content (Mishra, Koehle, 1996, 2005).
TPACK-XL: Saad and others (2012) created a transformative view of integrated technology
in general mode, adding components such as Specific Learners (L) and Language-specific scene (X)
in the learning process. According to this model, educational technology (T) considers the essential
role in learning (i.e., platforms, solutions and tools for interaction, content sharing, learning resources,
assessment, etc.) between teachers and students in the online environment). Figure T must be connected
to other components in the TPACK-XL model (in short, TPCLX).
Figure 1. Educational technology interconnected constructive model of TPCLX

(T.Q. Cuong et all, 2020)
PLM (Personalized Learning Model)

The model PLM has been proposed by Karampiperis & Sampson (2005) [8] and Nguyen Viet
Anh (2009) [1]. The personalized learning model PLM proposed reflection on TPCLX with learning
management system (LMS) framework and relationship within core constituents.
Figure 2: Model of relationships in adaptive teaching
Users’ module: We have proposed to use the model using probabilistic values to quantify the
knowledge level of learners, monitor and summarize data on student progress and convey it to the
instructor. The model also provides learner feedbacks and suggestions.
Module for managing the teaching process: We have proposed to add a set of tasks to model the
course content including a set of concepts and tasks. The tasks are the basis for the adaptive system to
give instructions to each learner on how to complete the task. Modeling course content through tasks
to solve classes of courses whose content not only provides pure concepts but also requires learners to
apply them to complete assignments.
Module adapting functions: We build the learning process to meet many goals and needs of each
learner at the same time instead of meeting each goal separately. Our model, in addition to giving concepts
learners need to learn, also suggests steps on how to complete tasks that learners have not completed.
Support module and technical infrastructure: contains content, learning resources, support
software and information-related description (metadata). Learning resources such as lectures, tests,
examples, and exercises are often stored as hypertext and hypermedia as HTML files.
Table 1. Specifications of VAR/ML support for PLM modules
Model
Component VAR/ML support integration
TPCL-LEARNING Apps focusing on:

MODULE - immersive learning and seamless learning
(including PL, CL) - individual knowledge
- high-level cognitive objectives
- knowledge construction of community collaboration; and
- diversity of learning methods
- learner sensitivity
TCXL - USER Apps providing:
MODULE - context sensitivity (spatial context switch)
(including CL, XL) - deliver on-demand resources
- seamless connection or automatic
- personal independent selection resources
TPXL -MEDIA Apps integrating:
SPACE - Contextualized learning space, personalized experience
MODULE - instant reflection, feedback, and task support
(including PL, XL)
- tools with all-in-one functions, systematized and specialized tools.
- learners judge the technology, the learning scenarios and environment.
- automatically sensing technology
- adaptive evaluation of learning; personalized learning
TPCXL Apps engaging:
(ADAPTIVE - Adapt to individual needs, conditions, learning facilities of the traditional
MODULE) classroom
- automatically sensing technology environment
- combination with the mobile interconnected real community to communicate
anytime and anywhere
- learning scenarios are automatically, personally recognized
METHODOLOGY
VAR and ML solutions must be designed and applied towards supporting the mechanism that
explores and develops the learning capacity of learners by utilizing mobile apps in the personalized
learning process with collaboration in real context.
The Student EdTech (VAR/MR and ML) perception, acceptance survey has been designed with
19-item Likert-type. Participants rated their agreement with each item on a 5-point Likert-type scale (5
= Totally agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Fairly agree, 2 = Confused, 1 = Disagree). The measure of PLM domains
used in this study represents participants’ evaluations of the use of VAR and ML in a number of learning
activities based on TPCLX model constituents. The assessment sample is evenly distributed among
students (N=144) from Educational Technology Management, Teacher Chemistry Education and ICT,
Computer Science.
The PLM model focuses on general consisting of modules using themes, content, apps or platforms
in mobile learning with VAR and has been used in this study because of its generic nature since the sample
consists of students of various areas of personalized and contextualized education attending different
study programs and courses. The original PLM inventory was written in English with Vietnamese
translation and was proof-read.
Data analysis and discussion

All 16 out of 19 statements were basically agreed by the respondents (average rating from 3,410
to 3,944). The research team also divided the respondents (N=144) into two groups by age: from 18-
20 years old and over 20 years old, these two groups correspond to two age groups with different
experiences, tools and learning styles.
Evaluation of PLM Teaching Support Technology (item SP.1 to SP.4): At least 72.2% of
respondents agree and completely agree with the statements given:
(SP1) New technologies in education now support personalized teaching (Mean = 3.94; Std. Deviation
= 0.800); (SP2) Technology to increase interactivity and connection in personalized teaching (Mean = 3.94;
Std. Deviation = 0.826); (SP3) Technology to support real-virtual space, supporting learning according to
individual learners’ plans, needs and abilities (Mean = 3.85; Std. Deviation = 0.895); and (SP4) Technology
that allows learners to learn in their own way (Mean = 3.85; Std. Deviation = 0.831).
With Sig value. = 0.039 < 0.05, the results show that there is a statistically significant difference
between the two groups of respondents for the statements SP1 (average difference: 0.248) and SP2
(average difference: 0.305). Subjects aged 18-20 years had higher rates of agreeing and completely
agreeing (SP1: 81.0%; SP2: 86.9%) for these statements than subjects aged 20 years and older (SP1:
81.0%; SP2: 86.9%) SP1: 63.3%; SP2: 66.7%).
Evaluation of the usefulness of VAR, ML (item PU1 to PU5): The percentage of respondents
agreeing and completely agreeing with the statements made for these contents is high, from 79.2% –
91.7%, specifically: (PU1) Using VAR, ML improved self-study efficiency – 87.5%; (PU2) Respondents
improved their experimental practice using VAR, ML – 79.2%; (PU3) Using VAR, ML helps connect
subject knowledge with life – 87.5%; (PU4) Respondents feel that using VAR, ML is very helpful in
experiential learning – 91.7%; and (PU5) the use of VAR, ML helps respondents improve their ability
to interact with teachers – 84.7%.
between the two groups of respondents for the assessment of PU3 (average difference of evaluation:
0.407) and PU4 (difference of assessment mean: 0.407) price: 0.445). The group of subjects aged 18-
20 years had a higher percentage of agreeing and completely agreeing with these statements (PU3:
44.0%; PU4: 53.6%) than the group of subjects aged 20 years and older (PU3: 44.0%; PU4: 53.6%)
PU3: 26.7%; PU4: 35.0%). Besides, the percentage of people who answered Confused about these two
statements of both groups is high, over 40%.
Evaluation of use assessment of VAR, ML (item PEOU1 to PEOU5): the percentage of respondents
agreeing and completely agreeing with the statements made for these contents is on average, from 48.3
% – 51.7%, specifically: (PEOU1) I use VAR, flexible ML to study anytime – 50.0%; (PEOU2) I easily
handle problems that arise when using VAR, ML – 48.3%; (PEOU3) I feel that the operation using
VAR, ML is very simple – 48.3%; (PEOU4) I feel VAR, ML is very easy to use – 48.3%; and (PEOU5)
I interact easily with learning content using VAR, ML – 51.7%. Besides, the percentage of people who
answered Confused about these two statements of both groups is high, over 31.7%.
Evaluation of Intent, ability to use next VAR, ML (item PL1 to PL5):
between the two groups of respondents for the statements PL2 (interval mean difference: 0.395) and
PL4 (average difference: 0.407). Subjects aged 18-20 years had higher rates of agreeing and completely
agreeing (PL2: 75.0%; PL4: 77.4%) for these statements than subjects aged 20 and older (PL2: 75.0%;
PL4: 77.4%) PL2: 48.3%; PL4: 50.0%).
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of students
Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Varian- Mean Difference
N Mean
Deviation ce Difference
Lower Upper
SP1. New technologies in education now support well

144 3.944 .800 .640 .248 -.025 .520
personalized/mobile teaching.
SP2. Supportive technology increases interactivity and
144 3.944 .826 .682 .305 .018 .591
connection in personalized/mobile teaching.
SP3. Technology to support real-virtual space, support learning
144 3.847 .895 .802 .167 -.144 .477
according to the individual learner’s plan, needs and abilities.
SP4. Technology allows learners to learn in their own way. 144 3.847 .831 .690 .138 -.148 .424
PU1. Using VAR, ML has effectively improved my self-study. 144 3.486 1.090 1.189 -.024 -.392 .344
PU2. I have improved my experimental practice using VAR, ML. 144 3.410 1.179 1.390 .017 -.379 .412
PU3. Using VAR, ML helps me connect subject knowledge

144 3.604 1.123 1.262 .407 .040 .775
with life.
PU4. I feel using VAR, ML is very useful in experiential learning. 144 3.826 1.124 1.263 .445 .076 .815
PU5. Using VAR, ML helps me improve my interaction with

144 3.500 1.134 1.287 .114 -.266 .494
teachers.
PEOU1. I use VAR, flexible ML to study at any time. 144 3.424 .979 .959 -.131 -.459 .197
PEOU2. I easily handle problems that arise when using

144 3.354 1.007 1.014 -.136 -.473 .201
VAR, ML.
PEOU3. I feel the operation using VAR, ML is very simple. 144 3.354 .935 .874 -.136 -.460 .189
PEOU4. I feel VAR, ML is very easy to use. 144 3.292 1.016 1.033 -.186 -.538 .167
PEOU5. I interact easily with learning content using VAR, ML. 144 3.521 .900 .811 -.021 -.335 .293
PL1. I am ready to continue exploiting VAR, ML tools for

144 3.708 .860 .740 .043 -.258 .344
personal learning.
PL2. I am ready to share my experience of using VAR, ML
144 3.764 .893 .797 .395 .088 .703
with you.
PL3. I believe that the use of VAR, MR will support the

144 3.819 .858 .736 .262 -.039 .563
development of individual learning capacity.
PL4. I believe that using VAR, MR will help develop other

144 3.854 .869 .755 .407 .108 .706
technology skills.
PL5. I believe that the use of VAR, MR will continue to

144 3.833 .861 .741 .286 -.012 .583
support motivation and enjoy in learning.
Table 3. The main score of students’ statistics

Serial Medium score Level of assessment and corresponding explanation
1 1.00 – 1.80 Strongly Disagree
2 1.81 – 2.60 Disagree
3 2.61 – 3.40 Neutral
4 3.41 – 4.20 Agree
5 4.21 – 5.00 Strongly Agree
To be able to effectively implement VAR/ML in learning context (i.e., smart environment) for
both teachers and learners, it is necessary to synchronize the relationships and conditions towards the
learning outcomes, objectives and policies. The relationship expressed between entities operating on the
psychological, academic and technological level (teachers, learners, managers, administrators, service
providers, etc.), compatibility and response of various PLM modules (tools for content construction and
development, learning activities and analytics, instructional management, assessment and feedback,
personalization and collaboration, etc.), and the adaptive principles.
Furthermore, at the micro level (teaching and learning segments), the following discussion may
be raised to acknowledge the presence of easiness and usefulness of friendly learning tools (VAR/ML)
that make the PLM model more popular and adaptable for different adaptive learning modes. It is also
important to suggest the framework, standards, or indicators of quality and effectiveness for apps using
different education levels, mobile and virtual learning formations, and social network of participants.
Last but not least, this conception also relates closely to how better understanding the learners’ behaviors
(flexibility, mobility, adaptability, etc.), the challenges of conducting smart, seamless and immersive,
technology-enriched learning activities.
In sum, a smart learning environment that is contextualized with technology must be designed
in a way that supports the discovery and development of learners’ learning capabilities using mobile
applications. virtual reality technology in the learning process with personalization.
CONCLUSION
The smart learning environment is both a characteristic and an indispensable result of digital
transformation in education. The conception of smart learning proposed widely using VAR/ML toward
personalization in learning process.
Based on TPCLX framework the MPL model presents a new perspective on digital transformation
in education through the adaptive solutions and VAR-Mobile personalization (mobile tools, content,
context with VAR environment etc.).
Next, the mobile personalization with VAR tools requires synchronization and systemization
concerning the following aspects: shifting technology from Hybrid (Blended, Flipped) to Hyflex
(Seamless, Immersive, Adaptive), digital content design and development, and digital pedagogy for
teachers and students etc. to meet the needs of personalized learning, and to satisfy the “smart index”
of the academic environment of learning organizations. By using VAR and ML for contextualization
and personalization in learning, the institutions should promote the idea of digital-first mindset amongst
students, teachers, imperative digital-centric approaches through new technologies designed to extend
and enrich the learning activities, experience, resources, and critical digital pedagogy of constructivism.
REFERENCE
1. Nguyễn Việt Anh (2009). Một mô hình tạo khóa học thích nghi trong đào tạo điện tử. Luận án
Tiến sĩ. Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
2. Benjamin Bloom, All Our Children Learning, 1981, New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Elliot W. Eisner, Benjamin Bloom, Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education,
(Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXX, no. 3, September 2000.
4. B. S. Bloom. The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective
as One-to-One Tutoring. Educational Researcher, Vol.13, No.6 (Jun-Jul 1984), pp.4-16.
5. B.C. Ministry of Education (2011). Personalized learning in BC. Interactive discussion guide.
British Columbia. http://www.personalizedlearningbc.ca (Accessed 1 June 2012), pp. 9, 10, 28.
6. Calgary board of Education (CBE) (2009). Three-Year Education Plan 2009–2012, p. 5.
7. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) Great Britain (2006-2020) Vision: Report of the
Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group. Notti ngham, DfES Publicati ons, p. 6.
8. Karampiperis P. and Sampson D (2005). Automatic Learning Object Selection and Sequencing in
Web-Based Intelligent Learning Systems using Learning Technology Specifications. In Zongmin
Ma (Editor), Web-Based Intelligent e-Learning Systems: Technologies and Applications, Idea
Group Inc, January 2005.
9. Personalized Learning Foundation (PLF) (2012). What Is Personalized Learning? http://
personalizedlearningfoundation.org/id3.html (Accessed 1 June 2012)
LECTURERS’ SATISFACTION WITH SHORT COURSES
TO IMPROVE THEIR PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
Lai Vu Kieu Trang
Nguyen Thanh Tam
(Hanoi University of Culture)
Abstract: It cannot be denied that the development of a university is largely contributed by the quality of
the teaching staff. With the rapid development of society nowadays, lecturers need to improve their own capacity
in professional knowledge, skills, expertise, etc. to meet the dramatic changes in education. There are some ways
lecturers often use to improve their professional competence, one of which is participating in short courses which
usually take place in a short time. The aim of these courses is to help them improve their knowledge and skills,
which is hoped to bring great effect in teaching. However, how is the satisfaction of lecturers after short courses?
The research was conducted on 15 lecturers from 15 different universities, who had attended at least one short
course inside or outside their universities on fostering professional competence. The method of in-depth interview
was used to clarify their satisfaction in terms of (1) teachers’ style, (2) learning content, (3) teaching method, (4)
examinations and assessments. Results showed that the majority of lecturers were satisfied with the courses they had
attended. Nevertheless, satisfaction varied among courses, of which outside-university courses got higher judgment.
Learning content was the aspect that lectures are the most satisfied with in their courses.
Keywords: satisfaction, improve professional competence, university lecturers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Competition is the general trend of development in society. Higher education has been engaged
in and tends to increase competition in the process (Del-Castillo-Feito, Blanco-González, & González-
Vázquez, 2019). As global competition becomes more intense, universities strive to enhance or maintain
their images and reputations compared to those in the country and in the world. In many countries,
competition is also improved by the regulations on university rankings, such as World University
Rankings of Times Higher Education Supplement, Berlin principles of ranking higher education
institutions, World Rankings of Times Higher Education provided by Thomson Reuters. The competition
creates a race to improve the quality of universities around the world.
Lecturers are one of the important factors which determine the quality of education at universities
(Asmawi, 2019). Education and professional qualifications of lecturers have a positive influence on
the teaching quality at universities (Adedokun, Adedeji, & Adedeji, 2017). Some universities already
had certain criteria to evaluate the quality of lecturers every year, including assessment of education,
research, community service activities (Saifulloh, Pamungkas, & Lenawati, 2019). Therefore, improving
the quality of lecturers creates efficiency for universities (Nadeak & Naibaho, 2019).
Many professional learning communities for teachers (PLC) appear to provide environments which
encourage exchange for professional development, collaboration and innovation (Brown, Horn, & King,
2018). There are many lecturers who actively improve their own capacity. Besides, short courses are also
a good choice to develop lecturers’ capacity because it takes them less time and lecturers can arrange
to attend them more conveniently. Short courses on improving lecturers’ professional competence are
held inside or outside their universities.Satisfaction of participating in these courses will be a base to
promote their participation in the next courses. It is also a motivation for lecturers to change themselves
in a positive direction.
Previous studies often focused on studying lecturers’ satisfaction of the work they are doing, with
little attention being paid to their satisfaction of improving knowledge, skills and experience in their
work. The purpose of this study is to find out lecturers’ satisfaction with short courses in terms of (1)
teachers’ style, (2) learning content, (3) teaching method, (4) examinations and assessments.
Job satisfaction
Studies on satisfaction appeared early. In 1935, job satisfaction was mentioned in R. Hoppock’s
study (Hoppock, 1935). The study has shown that job satisfaction is related to many different factors,
such as religion, social status, age and some other factors. In 1951, a scale of the job satisfaction index of
Brayfield, AH and his partners from the collaboration of Hurstone and Likert method was used to study
female officers (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951). In 1969, Edwin A Locke also studied job satisfaction through
Rand’s emotional theory, then discussed concepts like satisfaction, dissatisfaction, values, emotion,
and evaluation (Locke, 1969). In 1986, David Pincus tested 9 aspects of satisfaction presented in the
communication process, then gave theories on relationships between satisfaction and work performance
(Pincus, 1986).
Recently, job satisfaction has continued to be studied. These researches show that job satisfaction
has numerous positive relationships to the quality of work and the efficiency of the work people are
doing. In 2017, the study of Silvia De Simone and his partners (De Simone, Planta, & Cicotto, 2018)
indicated that job satisfaction of nurses decreased their intention to quit the job and increased the
satisfaction of patients to the health service of nurses in Italy. In 2021, the study of Farah Azaliney Binti
Mohd Amin, et. Al. (Amin, 2021) on theories of satisfaction claimed that job satisfaction brings a great
number of values which make people feel more confident and more enthusiastic about the tasks which
they are assigned.
Satisfaction in learning
There are various factors affecting learning efficiency. Satisfaction in learning is the factor which
has a big impact on the learning process. Satisfaction in learning has been mentioned much in the
previous studies.
Lecturers’ style is the factor which has an influence on students’ satisfaction. The study of Jackson,
Jones, & Rodriguez (Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010) showed that lecturers’ behaviours impacted
students’ satisfaction with online courses. Some studies also indicated that students’ satisfaction is
closely related to lecturers (Endres, Chowdhury, Frye, & Hurtubis, 2009) or lecturers’ sympathy in
classes (Parahoo, Santally, Rajabalee, & Harvey, 2016). Communicative behaviours between lecturers
and students is also the factor which creates students’ satisfaction of learning. (Kulkarni, Afshan, &
Motwani, 2018). A study of Rose Sebastianelli and his partners (Sebastianelli, Swift, & Tamimi, 2015)
indicated the connection between the 6 -element model and learning satisfaction and showed that the
interaction between lecturers and students is related to learning satisfaction as well as students’ learning
efficiency. In courses, lecturers play an important role in the support process for students. This study
considered support as an element which constitutes lecturers’ teaching style. The study of supporting
learners of Tompkins and his partners (Tompkins, Brecht, Tucker, Neander, & Swift, 2016) proved that the
support of lecturers has a significant meaning in postgraduate students’ life and learning.
Some studies showed that learning content is the most important element which constitutes learners’
satisfaction (Sebastianelli et al., 2015). Besides, the course’s content is also related to the effectiveness
of the learning process (Parayitam, Desai, & Phelps, 2007) (Zhao, Wang, & Liu, 2021). In Vietnam, a
study done by a group of authors in the process of language teaching (Pham & Nguyen, 2021) showed
that the interaction between learners and learning content is a factor of high satisfaction in a language
learning course. It is also effective in the process of learning the listening and reading comprehension.
Teaching method is also a factor which is considered in relation to learning effectiveness and learners’
satisfaction (SNOPCE & ALIJA, 2018). Positive methods have increased learners’ satisfaction (Hyun,
Ediger, & Lee, 2017). For example, simulated training of students in nursing vocational programmes
help students improve their own knowledge, thus improve their self-confidence and show their learning
satisfaction (Warren, Luctkar-Flude, Godfrey, & Lukewich, 2016) or project- based learning is also
one of the positive methods leading to high learning satisfaction (Garnjost & Lawter, 2019). Along with
the development of science and technology, the use of lecturers’ devices to support the learning process has
appeared for a long time, and is also a factor affecting learners’ satisfaction (Bloom & Hough, 2003).
Examinations and assessments are also important factors in the learning process. Examinations and
assessments can be carried out in different ways, such as theory examinations, practice examinations
or Kurucay and Inan (Kurucay & Inan, 2017) suggested peer assessment – mutual assessment among
learners of the same class or the same course.
This study considered lecturers who had participated in short courses to improve their professional
competence as learners. Although there were some sociological characteristics of the lecturers that
were different from other levels of education, they also played roles as learners. Therefore, the aspects
which we carried out analysing lecturers’ satisfaction with short courses to improve their professional
competence in this study had to follow the four aspects mentioned above.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
The data used for analysis in this study is a qualitative sample of 15 lecturers from 15 different
universities in the country.
Sample selection criteria: Select lecturers who had attended at least 1 short course on improving
professional competence in the academic year 2019-2020. Besides, for comparison, we selected the
number of lecturers in state universities and private universities with the same ratio. Due to the epidemic
situation, the method used was the in-depth interview method. Before that, we had contacted interviewees
to schedule appointments which were suitable to their time. Then, in-depth interviews were conducted
according to registered schedules. The duration for each interview lasted from 45 minutes to 90 minutes.
Means for interviews were online interactive platforms, such as Zalo or Zoom. Interviews were recorded
and taken note for processing.
Table 1 provides the most basic information about the interviewees. The oldest age is 50 years
old, the youngest age is 27 years old, the biggest number of working years is 27 years and the smallest
number of working years is 4 years. The male/ female ratio is 7/8.
Table 1: Description of participants
Sociological factors Number Percentage
Gender
Male 7 53%
Female 8 47%
Number of working years
Less than 5 years 3 20%
From 5 to 10 years 3 20%
From 10 to 20 years 6 40%
More than 20 years 3 20%
Education
Master 8 53%
Doctor 6 40%
Associate Professor 1 7%
Marital status
Married 12 80%
Unmarried 3 20%
University
State 9 60%
Private 6 40%
To ensure research ethics, researchers had mentioned the issue of information security to
interviewees and were agreed to accept the principles of information security and privacy. Interviewees’
names were changed.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Main topics of short courses and motivations for participating in short courses
Topics of short-term courses on fostering and improving professional competence for lecturers are
various. Statistics obtained are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Main topics of short courses which lecturers took to improve their professional competence
and their motivations for participating in them
Mode of
Participants Topics of courses Purpose of learning
learning
1 Senior lecturer of X university Offline Serving his own job

1.Improving international cooperation Offline

capacity
Serving and supplementing lecturers, in addition
2
to the main task of teaching
2.Training inspectors on education Offline
quality
Vocational skills training on hotels

3 Offline Sent to study by the university
and restaurants
Training examiners to mark the oral

4 Offline Sent to study by the university
and written VSTEP examinations
Improving level, awareness on politics theory;
5 Intermediate politics theory Offline
Serving his own job
6 Children’s rights Offline Sent to study by the faculty; learn to know
7 Scientific Research Methods Offline Follow friends’ suggestions
8 Learn to write media post Offline Necessary for the personal development
1.Design Thinking Free course
Online
9 2. Microsoft’s course Free course
3. Admission course Course required by the university
10 Scientific Research Methods Online Learn to improve knowledge
11 Intermediate politics theory Offline Learn to get a higher promotion
12 English course Online Learn to study abroad in a short time
13 Happy school course Offline Serving her own job
14 Scientific Research Methods Online Develop research skills
Change herself, want to challenge herself and

15 Positive teaching methods Offline
apply new and good things
As can be seen from the interview results, one lecturer participated in 1,29 courses in an academic
year on average. Lecturers participated in a variety of training courses to improve their professional
competence. At the time of the interviews (the academic year 2019-2020), the majority of the courses
were offline ones.
However, participants also showed two types of motivations for participating in courses. Extrinsic
motivations prevailed over intrinsic motivations. Extrinsic motivations were mentioned by participants
such as the case of Mr. L (35 years old) ‘I knew that my friends took part in the course, so I followed
them’ or the case of Ms. O (37 years old) ‘I have worked for many years, thus I hesitate to take part in
this course. Moreover, I am not so young and have to take over the responsibilities related to household
chores and childcare. However, participating in this course is the condition for me to get a higher
promotion’. The case of Ms. O is the same as the case of Mr. N who is 38 years old. He is an associate
professor at a university. He has also worked for 15 years and has fully met the conditions to become a
senior lecturer. Therefore, he took this course as the certificate of senior lecturer training is a prerequisite
for a senior lecturer. Ms. F said ‘Admission to universities is the compulsory programme for lecturers
at my university. For private universities, admission activity is very important, everyone is involved in
the process. I learnt many useful things in this course to serve my job.’ At first, Ms. F participated in the
course as required by the university, therefore although she found it useful to take part in the course, it
was still considered as an extrinsic motivation.
The reasons for choosing the courses given by the participants can be mentioned as ‘online courses
are much more convenient for me’ or ‘I stay at home with 2 young children, so when I joined Microsoft’s
course, I felt comfortable as I could learn at any time’. At the time of the interview with Ms. F (37 years
old), Vietnam continued to fall into the second wave of the covid 19 pandemic, Ms. F had to stay at
home to take care of her children and work online at the same time. She took advantage of studying at
the time when her children were asleep. A common feature of the participants taking the survey is that
they were so busy. Therefore, they chose to study short courses to suit themselves. One participant said
‘For me, short courses are more suitable as I do not have enough patience to join long courses. I am
very busy with my job’.
From this number, it can be seen that lecturers’ participation in short courses to improve their
professional competence was not really active. This is because each lecturer only attended 1.29 courses
in an academic year, which was a very small number. Today, along with the development of science
and technology, there are more and more short courses, many of which can help lecturers improve
their professional competence. The fact that a lecturer only attended 1.29 courses on average in an
academic year shows that lecturers did not really appreciate the importance of improving their own
professional competence. Additionally, lecturers’ motivations to participate in short courses to improve
their professional competence were mostly extrinsic ones. This clearly proved that the perception of
lecturers with learning to improve their qualification was not so good.
4.2 Lecturers’ satisfaction with short courses to improve their professional competence
4.2.1 Satisfaction with teachers’ style
Among the 15 participants who took part in the study, the satisfaction with teachers’ style was
presented clearly. Some participants were interested in the teachers’ style. Satisfaction was expressed
by expressions such as ‘like’ or ‘like very much’ or gave some positive evaluations about teachers’
behaviour. Most of the participants said that they were satisfied with the teachers’ style.
Specifically, in terms of fashion style, punctuality and the proximity in interactions. Ms.Y (29 years
old) said ‘I really like the style of the lecturer, he’s always on time’ or Mr. N (38 years old) said ‘The trainer
is very serious about the course’ or ‘I found the teacher friendly’. Besides, friendly communication
and empathy created by the courses’ teachers was also one of the factors that brought participants’
satisfaction. Ms. U (30 years old) said that she took a course on scientific research methods as she
wanted to approach a new way of research and to improve the quality of her own research. Therefore,
she voluntarily enrolled in a course on social science research. In the later part of the interview, she
talked about the trainer of the class which she attended. She said ‘At break time, the whole class talked
to the lecturer about the research quality. The lecturer shared his thoughts honestly when he told us that
he sometimes felt lonely while doing research, which made me feel sorry for him and sympathize with
the hard time which he had gone through’. On the contrary, some participants were not satisfied with the
teachers’ behaviour. Ms. M (51 years old), who had 27 working years said ‘One day, the lecturer wore
a short tight skirt, which made me feel embarrassed’ or Mr. V, who had 20 working years said ‘We also
need to be respected, so I felt uncomfortable when he was late. He should have informed us before, even
only 10 minutes late’.
However, some participants did not pay much attention to the teachers’ behaviour. Mr. L (35 years
old) said ‘I don’t care much about the lecturer’s behaviour’ or Ms. F (37 years old) looked for information
about free online courses. She said ‘I had read information about the speakers which was public on the
Web before. I have never taken any courses like these, so I did not have any expectations. However, in
these courses, they recorded the course in advance, so I didn’t have high requirements for the lecturers’.
In the interviews, only 2 out of 15 participants were not satisfied with the teachers’ behaviour. These
participants had a larger number of working years than the others. Besides, there were 2 participants
who did not care about the teachers’ behaviour. All of the remaining participants were satisfied with the
teachers’ behaviour in short courses which they took part in to improve their professional competence.
It can be seen that trainers’ style is an important element in the process of training to improve
lecturers’ professional competence. For university lecturers who have certain teaching methods, their
requirements for trainers are very high. This study showed the generational differences in the assessment
of short-course trainers’ style. It could be clearly shown that older lecturers had stricter view points than
younger ones. The reason for this came from psychological characteristics of age. In Vietnam, it is clear
that older people have a severer assessment and outlook than younger people. For some young lecturers,
they do not care much about trainers’ style because what they need most about the courses is knowledge
and skills they have gathered, not other elements.
4.2.2. Satisfaction with teaching content

The teaching content was the factor which the participants felt the most satisfied in short courses
to improve their qualifications. All of the 15 participants said that they were satisfied with the teaching
content, from ‘satisfied’, ‘quite satisfied’ to ‘very satisfied’. Satisfaction was presented in their attitude
when joining the interviews. Besides, the positive verbal evaluations to recognize the benefits of the
courses’ content to themselves were also proof of satisfaction.
Some participants said that the shared knowledge was in-depth academic, which they could apply
later to their job. Ms. Y said ‘I have never approached the knowledge about scientific research methods
which the teacher provided. It was new to me and very helpful. So, I may consider taking related courses
to get more intensive knowledge’.
Ms. F said ‘The design thinking course was quite interesting. Its content was extremely brief. Do
you know animation-style cartoons? The courses were designed into short animated films of about 3-5
minutes, so when watching, you have to pay special attention to remember the phrases and main ideas.
It was quite interesting and quite easy to understand. I was extremely satisfied with this approach’.
Ms. F is a lecturer at a private university. She said that her colleagues were very good and her working
environment was very competitive, thus if the lecturers did not try their best, they would be sacked.
It was the reason why she often found courses to attend and learnt anytime, anywhere to improve her
professional competence. Additionally, her requirements for the courses’ content were high. Therefore,
when the course met her requirements, she was really into it.
‘I was quite satisfied with the course’s content which was intensive and academic, but in order to
apply it, I had to take more time to study’ Mr. L said. Even short courses on politics were also highly
appreciated for their contents. ‘Same content but the way he gave examples and approached was very
close and easy to understand’ Ms. I (35 years old) said.
In order to clarify lecturers’ satisfaction with the courses inside or outside their universities, we
especially focused on the lecturers who participated in the courses organized by their universities or sent
to study by their universities with the courses offered by other institutions. The result showed that the
courses organized by other institutions get higher appreciation. For example, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 11th
participants (table 2) are ones who took courses organized by their universities or sent to study by their
universities. The results showed that the frequency of keywords of positive comments for the courses
organized by their universities was less than that for the courses organized by other institutions.
Ms. A (50 years old) said ‘For the courses I have to pay the tuition fee, I have studied well about
it before to see whether it suits my needs or not, whether I can arrange time to take it or not. There
are lots of things to consider, so when I find a suitable course, it means that the course gets 70% of my
satisfaction’. On the contrary, she was not satisfied with the course organized by her university. She said
‘Although it was quite useful to me, I could apply it to my job’.
When lecturers enrolled in short courses, extrinsic motivations were dominant ones. However,
when they directly participated in the learning process, their satisfaction with the learning content was
clearly expressed, which showed that the content of these courses was closely related to the intellectual
needs of lecturers. This was a good sign that short courses were organized with an investment in teaching
content and attention to learners’ needs, interests and preferences. This is also a basis for organizers of
short courses to have more confidence and organize more courses in the future.
4.2.3. Satisfaction with the teaching methods
There were 2 trends in trainers’ teaching methods. Firstly, the teachers used unattractive teaching
methods, which made participants feel dissatisfied and uninterested. Ms. V said ‘You know, in such
a long course, teachers only gave presentations. I tried my best to concentrate in their lessons but I
couldn’t. How could I concentrate for 4 or 5 hours’. Mr. H and Ms. O had the same opinions when they
said that the lecturers only gave presentations or raised questions and waited for answers during the
course, which made them feel uncomfortable. The participants themselves are lecturers; therefore, the
requirements of teaching methods and the attraction in teaching are their concern.
In terms of the presentation method, however, Ms. U said that her teacher in the course also
gave presentations during the 10 lessons, but everyone seemed to listen to him without losing a word
because of his rich experience and he used the experience itself to turn into a story, which made us feel
much more accessible. She also said that the teacher was the first person who did not make her tired
from listening.
Besides, some teachers used active methods in teaching which made participants happy. Ms. T who
took a course on active teaching methods said ‘I used to talk a lot. I sometimes talked non-stop during
my lessons. But after the course, I realized it was my mistake. My friend and I were the only 2 learners
from other institutions. The rest of the learners were lecturers from X University. They taught many
new techniques and they applied them to their lessons. Teachers didn’t talk much but organized various
activities for us to join. I saw that I needed to learn much from them. In short, I was quite satisfied with
their teaching methods. If there was a 10-point scale, I would give 11/10 points’. Ms. T is a lecturer who
has worked for 15 years. She did not attend a pedagogical university but studied from another university,
then she studied pedagogical skills and worked as a lecturer. She is very active in changing herself to
get out of the traditional teaching method. Therefore, she took a course on active teaching methods. Her
satisfaction was clearly shown through her words and her excitement when she talked with us.
The percentage of participants who were satisfied with the teaching methods of the courses which
they had attended was 60%. The percentage of those who were not satisfied was 26.7%. The number of
participants who did not want to mention the teaching methods was 2 people.
4.2.4. Satisfaction with examinations and assessments of the courses
There were no mid-course or end-of-course examinations and assessments in some courses.
Specifically, some courses only issued certificates when learners had completed all of the lessons.
Ms. H said ‘The training course to update knowledge and skills of international cooperation did not
have examinations and assessments. The lecturer discussed it and at the end of the course we got a
certificate.’ For two courses on scientific research methods, the participants said that they did not have
to take examinations. Therefore, we could not collect data from these 2 cases.
The participants who expressed their dissatisfaction indicated numerous reasons. Ms. P (31 years
old) said ‘In terms of examination and assessment methods, there are 2 forms: theory and practice.
Examinations on theory were about the grading scale which was relatively detailed and hard for learners
to remember. I don’t like this approach’. Ms. U said ‘At the end of the course, we were required to write
an essay. Then we waited for the result. Finally, we got the marks for our essays but we did not know
why we got the mark; which parts of the essay we did correctly or incorrectly, or which parts we should
have supplementary. I was not satisfied with the assessment of this course’.
Satisfaction judgement of participants to examinations and assessments of the courses was not
really effective because of less data collected from participants. Besides, there were no examinations
and assessments in most of the courses. We hope that we can make it more prominent in the next studies.
This study presented lecturers’ satisfaction with short courses to improve their professional
competence on four aspects. Results showed that the lecturers actively took many courses on various
topics. A lecturer took 1.29 courses in an academic year on average. External motivations for lecturers to
study are higher than internal motivations. Results also showed that the lecturers were the most satisfied
with the courses’ content. Lecturers’ satisfaction with the courses’ examinations and assessments was
hard to indicate as there were no examinations and assessments in some courses which only issued
certificates for learners who had attended the required number of lessons. Courses registered by lecturers
themselves had a higher level of satisfaction than courses organized or required by their universities.
The study suggests that universities should pay more attention to improving their lecturers’ professional
competence. This can be done by allowing lecturers themselves to make their own plans and set out
specific plans for implementation under the universities’ supervision to improve the universities’ quality
and bring satisfaction to its own lecturers as well.
REFERENCES
1. Adedokun, M., Adedeji, S., & Adedeji, E.A. (2017). Lecturer qualifications as determinants of
quality of instruction in public colleges of education in oyo and osun states, Nigeria. African
journal of educational management, 18(02), 121-141.
2. Amin, F.A.B.M. (2021). A Review Of The Job Satisfaction Theory For Special Education
Perspective. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT), 12(11),
5224-5228.
3. Asmawi, M.R. (2019). Lecturer Quality Empowerment Strategy in Realizing National Education
Objectives. Perpektif: Jurnal Ilmu Administrasi, 1(2).
4. Bloom, K.C., & Hough, M. C. (2003). Student Satisfaction With Technology-enhanced Learning.
CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing, 21(5). Retrieved fromhttps://journals.lww.com/cinjournal/
Fulltext/2003/09000/Student_Satisfaction_With_Technology_enhanced.11.aspx
5. Brayfield, A.H., & Rothe, H.F. (1951). An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 35(5), 307-311. doi:10.1037/h0055617
6. Brown, B.D., Horn, R.S., & King, G. (2018). The effective implementation of professional
learning communities. Alabama Journal of Educational Leadership, 5, 53-59.
7. De Simone, S., Planta, A., & Cicotto, G. (2018). The role of job satisfaction, work engagement,
self-efficacy and agentic capacities on nurses’ turnover intention and patient satisfaction. Applied
Nursing Research, 39, 130-140. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2017.11.004
8. Del-Castillo-Feito, C., Blanco-González, A., & González-Vázquez, E. (2019). The relationship
between image and reputation in the Spanish public university. European Research on
Management and Business Economics, 25(2), 87-92.
9. Endres, M.L., Chowdhury, S., Frye, C., & Hurtubis, C. A. (2009). The Multifaceted Nature of
Online MBA Student Satisfaction and Impacts on Behavioral Intentions. Journal of Education
for Business, 84(5), 304-312. doi:10.3200/JOEB.84.5.304-312
10. Garnjost, P., & Lawter, L. (2019). Undergraduates’ satisfaction and perceptions of learning
outcomes across teacher- and learner-focused pedagogies. The International Journal of
Management Education, 17(2), 267-275. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.03.004
11. Hoppock, R. (1935). Job satisfaction. Oxford, England: Harper.
12. Hyun, J., Ediger, R., & Lee, D. (2017). Students’ Satisfaction on Their Learning Process in
Active Learning and Traditional Classrooms. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in
Higher Education, 29(1), 108-118.
13. Jackson, L.C., Jones, S.J., & Rodriguez, R. C. (2010). Faculty actions that result in student
satisfaction in online courses. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 14(4), 78-96.
14. Kulkarni, S., Afshan, N., & Motwani, J. (2018). The impact of faculty member’s communication
behaviours on student satisfaction: the role of cognitive and affective learning and student’s
motivation. International Journal of Productivity and Quality Management, 25(4), 444-458.
15. Kurucay, M., & Inan, F.A. (2017). Examining the effects of learner-learner interactions on
satisfaction and learning in an online undergraduate course. Computers & Education, 115, 20-
37. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.010
16. Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,
4(4), 309-336. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(69)90013-0
17. Nadeak, B., & Naibaho, L. (2019). Managing Lecturers’ Competence Development at Universitas
Kristen Indonesia.
18. Parahoo, S.K., Santally, M.I., Rajabalee, Y., & Harvey, H. L. (2016). Designing a predictive
model of student satisfaction in online learning. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
26(1), 1-19. doi:10.1080/08841241.2015.1083511
19. Parayitam, S., Desai, K., & Phelps, L.D. (2007). The effect of teacher communication and course
content on student satisfaction and effectiveness. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal,
11(3), 91.
20. Pham, T.N., & Nguyen, G.H. (2021). An Investigation of Student Satisfaction in an Online
Language Learning Course. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching
Technologies (IJWLTT), 16(5), 121-136.
21. Pincus, J. D. (1986). Communication satisfaction, job satisfaction, and job performance. Human
communication research, 12(3), 395-419.
22. Saifulloh, S., Pamungkas, R., & Lenawati, M. (2019). Decision support system with TOPSIS
method for lecturer appraisal in Universitas PGRI Madiun. Paper presented at the Journal of
Physics: Conference Series.
23. Sebastianelli, R., Swift, C., & Tamimi, N. (2015). Factors Affecting Perceived Learning,
Satisfaction, and Quality in the Online MBA: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach.
Journal of Education for Business, 90(6), 296-305. doi:10.1080/08832323.2015.1038979
24. SNOPCE, H., & ALIJA, S. (2018). Student Satisfaction, Needs, Learning Outcome and
Motivation: A Case Study Approach at A See-University. The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational
and Social Sciences, 10, 197-202.
25. Tompkins, K.A., Brecht, K., Tucker, B., Neander, L.L., & Swift, J.K. (2016). Who matters most?
The contribution of faculty, student-peers, and outside support in predicting graduate student
satisfaction. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 10(2), 102-108. doi:10.1037/
tep0000115
26. Warren, J.N., Luctkar-Flude, M., Godfrey, C., & Lukewich, J. (2016). A systematic review
of the effectiveness of simulation-based education on satisfaction and learning outcomes in
nurse practitioner programs. Nurse Education Today, 46, 99-108. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
nedt.2016.08.023
27. Zhao, Q., Wang, J.-L., & Liu, S.-H. (2021). A new type of remedial course for improving
university students’ learning satisfaction and achievement. Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, 1-13. doi:10.1080/14703297.2021.1948886
THE USE OF SMARTPHONES DURING PHILOLOGY CLASS
IN SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS AND THE MATTER OF PHILOLOGY
TEACHER TRAINING IN THE DIGITAL AGE IN VIETNAM
Pham Thi Thanh Phuong
(Faculty of Pedagogy, VNU University of Education )
Abstract: Clause 4, Article 37, Circular No. 32/2020/TT-BGDĐT of the Ministry of Education and Training,
which was issued on September 15, 2020, has allowed secondary and high school students to use mobile phones
in the classroom for learning purposes, under the permission and control of the teacher. This has triggered many
conflicting debates in the media. We conducted a survey on the current situation of using smartphones during
Philology class at some high schools in Hanoi city, thereby we propose measures to use smartphones the most
effectively in teaching Philology. From this matter, the article will outlines the directions in Philology teacher training
to meet the requirements of the digital age.
Keywords: Smartphone, teaching philology, philology teacher training.
1. INTRODUCTION
Over the past 10 years, in the context of the industrial revolution 4.0 with the strong growth of
information technology, BYOD or BYOT (Bring your own device/Bring your own tool) is becoming a
pretty popular teaching trend in the world. Clause 4, Article 37, Circular No. 32/2020/TT-BGDĐT of
the Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, which was issued on September 15, 2020, has allowed
secondary and high school students to use mobile phones in the classroom for learning purposes, under
the permission and control of the teacher (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2020). This
has triggered many conflicting debates in the media. Philology subject has always been limited in the
application of modern technology to teaching, now before this Circular, Philology teachers also have
mixed views of students’ smartphone use in the class.
We conducted a survey on the current situation of using smartphones during Philology class at
some high schools in Hanoi city, thereby we propose measures to use smartphones the most effectively
in teaching Philology. From this matter, we realized that the ICT competence of Philology teachers
has not yet met the current development of teaching technology. Therefore, the article will outlines the
directions in Philology teacher training to meet the requirements of the digital age.
2. RESEARCH CONTENT
2.1. The smartphone use during Philology class in secondary and high schools in Vietnam
2.1.1. A brief introduction to smartphones and their impacts on teaching
The concept of “smartphone”:
Smartphone is a term to refer to a phone that integrates a mobile operating system platform with
many advanced supporting features in computing and connectivity based on the basic foundation of a
normal mobile phone (Ganlari, Deka, & Dutta, 2016). They are distinguished from regular phones by
more powerful hardware capabilities and expanded mobile operating systems, enabling broader software,
the Internet (including mobile broadband browsing) and multimedia functions (including music, video,
camera and gaming). The most popular smartphones today are based on Google’s Android or Apple’s
iOS operating system. Although there is no standard definition of a smartphone and it is continuously
improved over time, but now smartphone is distinguished from mobile phone by the following main
features (Chau Giang, 2011):
- Operating system: A smart phone is based on an operating system that allows it to run applications.
- Applications (Apps): beside some available types of software, smartphones can download many
other applications.
- Web access: today smart phones can access the web at high speed thanks to the development of
3G and 4G as well as wi-fi.
- QWERTY keyboard: the keys are arranged similarly to a computer keyboard in the form of a
physical/hard keyboard or a virtual keyboard.
The impact of smartphones on teaching and learning activities:
Talking about the effects of smart phones, Dr. Ton Quang Cuong affirmed: “With today’s prevailing
digital technologies, the smartphone can be considered as an “effective assistant” for teaching, educating,
searching information, developing digital competence” (Hieu Nguyen, 2020). This is shown specifically
through the connection function to search, share, retrieve information, using mobile applications installed
on the phone to organize connection activities on the digital platform, expanding the interactive space
in learning.
Besides, the use of smart phones in teaching also has many disadvantages. For students, smart
phones can distract the focus on learning tasks because it contains many other attractive entertainment
functions and websites that do not match the learning requirements and content. For teachers, it is
difficult and waste time to manage and control students’ smartphones use for the right purposes, which
can affect the duration and efficiency of class time (Truong Nguyen Thanh, 2020; Kim Thoa, 2020).
2.1.2. The current situation of the smartphone use during Philology class in secondary and high
schools in Vietnam
In the 2020-2021 school year, we conducted a survey on the current situation of using smartphones
during Philology class at some high schools in Hanoi city, including both public and private (inter-level)
schools: High School of Education Science (HES), Tay Ho High School, Newton School, Tran Phu High
School, and Viet Duc High School. We distributed questionnaires to 300 students randomly from 10th,
11th, 121h grades, and interviewed 10 Philology teachers of 10th, 11th and 12th grade who belong to three
age groups: under 30, 30-40 and over 40. The survey content is related to the issues of implementation
conditions, perceptions, attitudes, methods and practical effectiveness of using smartphones during
Philology class. We obtained the following results:
* Teacher survey results:
- 80% completely agree with the policy in Clause 4, Article 37, Circular No. 32/2020/TT-BGDĐT
and think that the smartphone use during Philology class is very necessary for appropriate lessons. The
remaining 20% ( teachers are over the age of 40) are concerned with this policy and think that the use of
smartphones during Philology class is not very necessary, because the implementation conditions are not
guaranteed (equipment, Internet network, information technology level, management methods, ...). At the
same time, this number of teachers also replied that they have never allowed students to use smartphones
in the class; the level of readiness for this is not yet ready and they feel difficult.
- Continuing in-depth interviews with 80% of teachers agreeing with the policy of the Education
and Training Ministry, we obtained the following results: Only 50% of them sometimes allow students
to use smartphones during Philology class if this is appropriate, but 100% agree with the statement that
the effect of smart phones in teaching is to help students become more interested, access to rich and
creative learning resources, and be more active in learning. .
- When we asked the teachers who have allowed students to use smartphones in the class, 100%
chose the purpose of using smart phones to look up information; for the purpose of interacting with
useful teaching software or taking online quizzes, only 20% have options.
- 100% of them confirmed that the most difficult thing when implementing learning activities of students
with smartphones is the management of students in using smartphone for the right learning purposes.
* Student survey results:
- Regarding implementation conditions: the majority of students (90%) were equipped with
smartphones by their parents when they went to school, 50% answered that the class was equipped with
a wife network that was not stable, so they had to use 3G , 4G.
- Regarding the awareness and attitude: 90% think that using smartphones during Philology class is
very necessary for appropriate lessons and 100% chose the level of readiness for it in the future because
this is a progressive trend.
- For the purpose of using smartphones in learning: 100% of the options were used to look up
information, only 30% chose the purpose for interacting with useful teaching software or taking
online quizzes.
- About the limitations: 50% think that students can use phones not for learning purposes, 30%
think that this will distract students’ attention from the lesson, the rest consider smartphones is affecting
their health and have some other limitations.
From the above survey results, we draw some following conclusions:
- Regarding implementation conditions: Although they are not yet ideal, but basically, when the
majority of students were equipped with smart phones that connected to internet, teachers can fully deploy
the use of smartphones during Philology class (students can work in pairs/groups).
- Regarding the awareness and attitude: There is still a part of teachers and students who are still
wondering about the need and effect of smartphones in Philology class, but no one negated the meaning
completely them or had an extreme attitude towards them.
- About the purpose of the smartphone use: Most people chose smart phones function for looking
up information - this was a requirement that was used frequently and accounts for a large proportion in
Philology lessons. However, other purposes (interacting with teaching software, testing and evaluating,
...) were only implemented by a few.
- Regarding the difficulties and limitations: The majority of teachers and students think that effectively
managing smartphone use in learning is the biggest challenge, which affects the quality of teaching.
From the above situation, we propose a number of measures to improve the effectiveness of using
smartphones in Philology class.
2.1.3. Some suggestions to improve the efficiency of using smartphones in Philology class
a) The process of using smartphones in Philology class
- Step 1: Analyze the content and characteristics of the lesson to decide the necessity of using
smartphones in teaching. Not all Philology lessons need to use smartphones to support teaching. Carefully
analyzing the content and characteristics of the lesson will help teachers make the right decision about
whether to use smartphones in the class or not. When the lessons really need the support of smartphones,
teachers should allow students to use it in class to achieve optimal learning efficiency. For example, in
the current 11th grade Philology curriculum, the Vietnamese lesson of “Practice on idioms and classics”
contains knowledge about many idioms and cases that it is impossible to understand without references
such as dictionaries. This feature of the lesson is a reasonable basis for teachers to decide to allow
students to use smartphones during class time for information lookup.
- Step 2: Design learning activities using smartphones in class. Once the right decision has been
made on the choice of lessons that will allow students to use smartphones in class, teachers must design
in great detail how to implement learning activities using smartphones of students. Normally, a Philology
lesson will have 5 main activities: Warm-up - Forming new knowledge - Practice - Practical contact -
Assessing. Based on the teaching plan and the characteristics of the lesson content, teachers will choose
teaching activities to design specifically about requirements, implementation, time and expected results
when students use smartphones to learn in class.
- Step 3: Deploy the lesson plan in class. When implementing teaching activities that allow students to
use smartphones, teachers need to follow a strict sequence: + State rules in using smartphones (purposes,
time, how to use smart phones, penalties for violations, etc.); + Organize learning activities using
smartphones according to the designed plan; + Regularly supervise and manage students’ smartphone
use activities in learning; Students report the results; + Check and evaluate the work results of students.
- Step 4: Get feedback from learners to improve for later lessons. This is a very important step
because the feedback of learners will help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of learners’ using
smartphones to make timely and appropriate adjustments.
b) Some measures to use smartphones in Philology class

- Used to collect learner information: Currently, there are many ways to start a Philology lesson
- one of them is to evoke the experience of learners through KWL(H) technique or textual content
prediction strategy in teaching reading comprehension. Instead of handing out ballots and then teachers
have to manually gather and make statistics, there are now many technology tools that can be used on
smartphones to help teachers collect, make statistics, and classify information from learners quickly,
comprehensively and accurately (e.g. Google form tool). Through the data collected from students’
answer on smartphone, teachers will have a scientific basis to deploy lessons to meet the needs and
interests of students. This will make Literature lessons really useful and meaningful for learners.
- Used to look up lesson information: Depending on the characteristics of each lesson, using
smartphones to look up information from the Internet will bring great effects to learning. For example,
according to the Philology curriculum 2018 (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018), in addition to
literary texts and argumentative texts, students will learn a type of text that is not available in the current
curriculum- it’s informational text. With the characteristic of providing information in many areas of
life, there will certainly be many details in the text that make students difficult to understand, because
of limitations in knowledge, experience, cultural background, etc. Using smartphones to look up more
information, expand understanding, supplement missing knowledge... will help students’ learning
activities become more active, dynamic and meaningful.
- Used to organize interactive activities: Currently, many softwares can help teachers and students
to create very useful digital learning materials that can be directly interacted online on the product.
For example, the Thinglink helps create interactive images, learners can manually add information to
a multimodal text, or the online mind mapping tool on the website coggle.it can helps learning groups
work together to create a mind map of the lesson... In addition, using smartphones, learners also have
the opportunity to experience AR and VR technologies such as participating in a virtual tour, a virtual
gallery... - This can be a good form of experience for students to create explanatory text about objects,
scenic spots, historical relics.
- Used to evaluate: With the trend of gamification in teaching, there are now a lot of software
(such as Kahoot, Quizizz...) designed to test and evaluate students through the form of game shows
that are very interesting, attractive to learners. They enhance stimulating thinking, creating a learning
atmosphere that is exciting, comfortable but full of challenges. Using smartphones to answer questions,
students can participate in the process of testing and assessing knowledge in class, but with an excitement
and comfort like attending a game show. It makes learning through playing and playing through learning
becomes effective. This will break the quiet atmosphere that often exists in Philology class.
2.2. The matter of Philology teacher training in the digital age in Vietnam
From the current situation of using smartphones in Philology class, we see that the Philology
teachers’ awareness and level of using information technology have not yet met the current development
of teaching technology. While using smartphones can organize many rich and active learning activities,
the majority of Philology teachers just stop at exploiting the information search feature of this tool. To
be able to effectively use smartphones in teaching, it is necessary to improve ICT /digital competences
in the process of Philology teachers training.
2.2.1. Requirements for teachers in the digital age
“In a digital age, we are surrounded, indeed, immersed, in technology. (…) Technology is
leading to massive changes in the economy, in the way we communicate and relate to each other, and
increasingly in the way we learn” (Bates, 2015). One of the necessary skills in the current industry 4.0
era is the digital skill- it is embedded within the knowledge domain in which the activity takes place.
The training of citizens in the digital age with digital competences is one of the key goals of developed
education systems in the world. (the European Commission built the DigComp Framework (Kluzer, S.
& Laia, P.P, 2018), UNICEF want to implement digital literacy policy (Nascimbeni, F & Steven Vosloo,
S., 2019)). To achieve that goal, teachers play a very important role, and they must also have certain
digital competences to be able to train and educate digital citizens in the future. There have been many
descriptions of teachers’ ICT/digital competences built by prestigious organizations in the world such
as European Commission (Redecker, C., 2017), UNESCO (UNESCO, 2018). However, according to
Starkey (2020), they can be grouped into three implicit orientations of teachers’ digital competence:
- Generic digital competence: Competence in the generic use of computers, including skills that are
not specific to teaching or the professional work of a teacher.
- Digital teaching competence: The ability to integrate digital technology into teaching practice,
including three aspects: integrate digital tools into existing pedagogical practice, to consider decisions
critically, and to teach students who are using technologies for learning.
- Professional digital competence: including all aspects of being a teacher in schooling contexts
and education systems where digital technologies are embedded.
Depending on the physical conditions, human characteristics, and specialized characteristics, each
region and country should choose a standard framework of ICT competences and the achieved level of
teachers in the digital age.
2.2.2. Requirements for students’ ICT competence in the Philology curriculum 2018 and the output
standards of ICT competence of Philology pedagogical students
In the General education curriculum (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2018), computer
literacy is identified as one of the core competencies that need to be formed and developed for students.
However, the requirement for that competency is mainly implemented in Informatics, and is not mentioned
in the Philology curriculum. Thus, the contribution to the formation of students’ ICT competences is not
described in the Philology curriculum 2018, which also means that Philology teachers are not required to
integrate ICT in teaching process in order to form and develop this competence of students.
To survey the output standards of ICT competence of Philology pedagogical students, we have
studied the output standards in the Philology Teacher Education curriculum of five typical universities:
Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi Pedagogical University 2, VNU University of Education,
Da Nang University of Science and Education, HCMC University of Education. The survey results are:
- Two universities (Hanoi National University of Education and Da Nang University of Science)
did not mention this competence.
- Two universities (Hanoi Pedagogical University 2 and HCMC University of Education) have a
line describing in a general way this competence: “have basic computer knowledge and skills”.
- Particularly, the VNU University of Education has a specific description of the output standards of
IT knowledge and skills associated with specific subjects related to this content, but it did not mention ICT
competence in desciption of the competences.
Thus, looking at the output standards of Philology pedagogical students’ competences and the
requirements for students’ ICT competence in Philology subject, we see that there is no motivation as
well as a mandatory requirement to ensure that Philology teachers need meet ICT competency standards
when practicing in the future.
2.2.3. Proposing some measures to develop the ICT competence in Philology teacher training
The improvement of ICT competence can be done by students’ self-study efforts, but if it is
integrated in the curriculum, the training process of the university, the effect will be much higher. These
are some measures we propose to develop ICT competence of Philology pedagogical students to meet
the requirements of the digital age:
a) Set standards of ICT competence

In the output standard of the Philology Teacher Education curriculum, ICT competence should
be developed as a mandatory criterion with specific descriptions of the knowledge, skills and attitudes
that associated with Philology teaching skills. Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training should also
develop an ICT competence framework for Vietnamese teachers, to use it as a standard for reference of
teacher training curriculums. Only when there is a standard of ICT competence framework for teachers,
the ICT competence of Philology teachers in particular and teachers in general be trained oriented
and methodically.
b) Supplementing and updating subjects/knowledge of applying ICT in teaching
In the curriculum frameworks of universities that train Philology teachers that we have surveyed,
ICT-related subjects are mainly Basic Informatics subjects in the General knowledge block. They
provides the main knowledge and skills about office computing, not much associated with teaching.
With the development of teaching technology, the universities should add subjects that update the latest
knowledge about the achievements of the 4.0 revolution in teaching and develop teaching practical
skills integrated with the use of ICT. For example, the Philology teacher education curriculum 2019 of
VNU University of Education has added the subjects “Introduction of Educational Technology” and
“Application of ICT in Education” to the Field knowledge block; or the curriculum of HCMC University
of Education has added the subject “Application of information and communication technology in
teaching Philology “ to the group of specialized vocational term. In addition, ICT knowledge should
be embedded in specialized subjects during training, practice, and assessment. Only in this way we can
create an environment that encourages and develops ICT integration skills in Philology teaching of
future teachers.
c) Strengthening ICT integration in Philology student teachers’ professional practice
Currently, the internship environment of pedagogical students is high schools, where it may not
be mandatory or eligible for teachers to apply ICT in teaching. Therefore, Philology teacher training
institutions should have close links with the high schools in order to agree on requirements as well
as create the most favorable environment for students to apply ICT in professional practice. This is
extremely important in improving the awareness, skills and attitudes of Philology student teachers about
integrating ICT into teaching in a high school.
d) Integrating ICT applications into building teaching plans in students’ graduation thesis
Currently, the implementation of the graduation thesis of the Philology pedagogical students is not
required to apply ICT. It mainly focuses on detecting the problem and proposing effective teaching methods
for that research problem in the Philology curriculum. However, if the thesis evaluation criteria has a bonus
point to encourage students to integrate ICT in the process of proposing teaching methods and developing
teaching plans, it will promote students’ consciousness and actions in use of ICT to teach Philology. These
scientific studies will be valuable luggage for them to be able to widely apply after graduation.
There may be many other measures to develop ICT competence of Philology pedagogical students
such as organizing clubs, seminars, short-term training courses on ICT application in teaching, etc.
However, within the framework of this writing, we want to focus on proposing measures associated with
the long-term, regular and methodical training process for them, through which learners are immersed in
an environment that encourages ICT integration. into teaching, from which ICT competence is naturally
enhanced, as an inevitable consequence.
3. CONCLUSION
The era of Industrial Revolution 4.0 has opened up opportunities and challenges for all fields,
including education, requiring teachers to be prepared and ready to absorb progress and change to fit in
the times. One of them is the application of technology in teaching, especially the use of smartphones
in teaching. To be able to promote the positive side of the application of smartphones in the Philology
classes, teachers need to constantly improve their professional and ICT competences. In order to do that,
Philology teacher training institutions has a great importance role. Only when there is a synchronous
development of the goals, curriculums and policies of educational managers, the training of Philology
teachers meet the requirements of the digital age.
REFERENCES
1. Bates, A.W. (2015), Teaching in a Digital Age, Tony Bates Associates Ltd.
2. Châu Giang (2011), “What makes a smartphone smart?”, https://vnreview.vn/tu-van-di-dong/-/
view_content/content/51687/%C4%91ieu-gi-lam-%C4%91ien-thoai-thong-minh-smartphone-
thong-minh
3. Ganlari, D., Deka, P.K, & Dutta, C. (2016), “A study on consumer buying behavior of mobile
phones”, Journal of Management in Practice, 1(1), 1-26.
4. Hanoi National University of Education (2019), “Curriculum frame of Philology Teacher
Education”, https://tuyensinh.hnue.edu.vn/khung-chuong-trinh/p/khung-chuong-trinh-chuyen-
nganh-su-pham-ngu-van---k64-111
5. Hanoi Pedagogical University 2 (2019), ), “Curriculum frame of Philology Teacher Education”,
https://quanly.hpu2.edu.vn/center_data/hpu2.edu.vn/ps_cms_articles/file/CTDT/6.SP_NGU_
VAN_2020.pdf
6. HCMC University of Education (2019), “Curriculum frame of Philology Teacher Education”,
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ph1c5zD3RBJusx1grk_VC7Ts7L6I0X_p/view
7. Kim Thoa (2020), “Letting students use cell phones in class: A serious of many countries”,
https://tuoitre.vn/cho-hoc-sinh-dung-dien-thoai-trong-lop-chuyen-dau-dau-o-nhieu-
nuoc-20200922205941435.htm
8. Kluzer, S. & Laia, P.P (2018), DigComp into Action: Get inspired, make it happen, Publications
Office of the European Union.
9. Nascimbeni, F, & Steven Vosloo, S. (2019), Digital literacy for children: Exploring definitions
and frameworks, UNICEF Office of Global Insight and Policy.
10. Nguyễn Hiếu (2020), “Using mobile phones for learning creates new thinking about the
organization of the teaching process”, https://etep.moet.gov.vn/tintuc/chitiet?Id=1428
11. Redecker, C. (2017), European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
12. Starkey, L. (2020), “A systematic review of research exploring teacher preparation for the Digital
Age”, Cambridge Journal of Education, 50:1, 37-56.
13. The University of Da Nang, University of Science and Education (2021), “Curriculum frame of
Philology Teacher Education”, http://daotao.ued.udn.vn/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/317-SP-
Ngu-van.pdf
14. Trương Nguyện Thành (2020), “Letting students use cell phones in class: 3 benefits and 3 risks”, https://
tuoitre.vn/cho-hoc-sinh-dung-dien-thoai-trong-lop-ba-loi-ich-va-ba-nguy-co-20200925202935225.htm.
15. UNESCO (2018), UNESCO ICT Competency Framework for Teachers, https://www.open.
edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/306820/mod_resource/content/2/UNESCO%20ICT%20
Competency%20Framework%20V3.pdf
16. Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training (2020), Circular No. 32/2020/TT-BGDDT about
the Charter of secondary schools, high schools and high schools with many levels of education
17. Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training (2018), General education curriculum.
18. Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training (2018), Philology curriculum.
19. VNU University of Education (2019), “Curriculum frame of Philology Teacher Education”,
http://education.vnu.edu.vn.
MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION
FOR PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS AT VNU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
Vu Phuong Lien, Do Thuy Linh
Abstract: This study aims to get insights into development of professional ethics for pre-service teachers at
VNU University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam. A survey was conducted on 270 students in the first and the second
year to evaluate the reliability and correlation among 18 designed KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) in each
different groups. These KPIs were arranged to four groups of ethical training for individual teacher: political
awareness, life style, professional expertise, and relationship with other objects. We also referred Battistoni’s
model of civically-oriented service learning program that include three essential components as intellectual
understanding, civic skills and attitudes, and direct actions in schools and communities. The results find that KPIs
in the same group have a good correlation coefficient and measuring the same content, and the arrangement of
KPIs to different groups satisfied the reliability requirements. 72.6% investigated students agreed to implement
the subject of Professional Ethics for Educators during the students’ 04 academic years (08 semesters) and are
organized in the form of blended learning with the flipped classroom model. These results provide valuable
information for efficient development of professional ethics for educators.
Keywords: professional ethics, pre-service teachers, key performance indicator.
1. INTRODUCTION
Education, both historically and contemporarily, is believed to be the key to improve the lives
and success of people. Every student deserves to have a quality education and excellent teachers in
their classroom. An essential component that constructs an admirable teacher is professional ethics.
Every profession needs to exist with a professional ethics to orientate the conduct of its members.
Professional ethics refers to the ethical standards that apply to members of a certain profession, such as
doctors, nurses, attorneys, teachers, and social workers. The important thing to remember is that these
professions have their own set of service ideals and scientific training (Airaksinen, 2012).
Teaching is a unique among professions because of its moral nature. Values are implied in the
curriculum, the school environment, the educational activities and the teachers’ action. These values
may be displayed consciously or unintentionally when teachers do their educational practices, and have
profound impact on the development of students’ identity (Sanger & Osguthorpe, 2013; Veugelers,
2010). Moral education plays a critical role in developing students’ virtues and personal worldviews and
makes them contributive and responsible citizens in a modern complicated society. Moral education is
implemented within or outside the classroom explicitly or implicitly (Lien, 2021). Therefore, teaching
and training for pre-service teachers is decisively important to develop their own and their future
students’ strong moral character. However, professional ethics courses are notably lacking from teacher
education curricula, requiring them to go for research in other fields to help them with this aspect of
teacher education practice (Warnick & Silverman, 2011).
There are a lot of controversies about how to perform ethics education for teachers, especially for
pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers can receive moral education by stand-alone courses dedicated
specifically to professional ethics for teachers focusing on discussion-based of real-world cases (Warnick
& Silverman, 2011). Discussion might be took place based on hypothetical moral dilemmas (Rest, 1992)
or realistic ethical dilemmas (K.A. Strike, 1993). To discuss the importance of ethical dilemmas, Soltis
(1986) stated:
Realistic vignettes depicting classroom situations in which ethical dilemmas arise can be used to
sensitize future teachers to ethical issues found in the class regarding such concepts and principles as
fairness, respect for persons, intellectual freedom, the rights of individuals, due process, and punishment
(Soltis, 1986), p. 3.
Others have argued that ethics education should involve formal professional codes of ethics, such
as the one established by the National Education Association (NEA) (Campbell, 2000; NEA, 2020;
Rich, 1984).
The educator recognizes the magnitude of the responsibility inherent in the teaching process. The
desire for the respect and confidence of one’s colleagues, of students, of parents, and of the members
of the community provides the incentive to attain and maintain the highest possible degree of
ethical conduct. The Code of Ethics of the Education Profession indicates the aspiration of all
educators and provides standards by which to judge conduct (NEA, 2020).
On the other hand, professional ethics education may also be viewed as an opportunity to learn
about philosophical conceptions of ethics, which is a popular viewpoint among traditional philosophers.
The students are taught one or more ethical theories, and then taught to apply these theories to enlighten
and resolve ethical dilemmas (Soltis, 1986).
Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages. When facing the real situations,
students need to include components of “moral dilemma discussion, case studies, personal reflection, or
analytic journals in professional training program” (Schrader & practice, 1993). This mixed approach
is also supported by Strike and Soltis to combine flexibly ethical theory, case analysis, and the code
of ethics to build an ethical foundation, deliberative abilities, and analytic skills to make qualified and
ethically decision (K. Strike & Soltis, 2015). In this article, we used the combined approach to develop
professional ethics of educators comprehensively for our pre-service teachers. Furthermore, we used
the terms of “ethics” and “moral” interchangeably as ethics refer to the codes of ethics and other rules/
regulation provided by an external source while morals refer to an individual’s own cognitive thinking,
principles regarding right or wrong, and values.
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) is a measuring tool that helps an organization establish and
track progress toward its goals and objectives (Kamarudin & Sarkawi, 2019). KPI have been using
to a great extent in order to investigate domains of the excellent teachers (Amzat, 2017) or set up a
preliminary framework in basic education (Wu & Chen, 2012). KPIs should be related to the University’s
core values, reasonable, and consistent. It should be based on a broad strategic value that includes both
tangible and intangible components, and it should be in harmony with the code of ethics (Kamarudin &
Sarkawi, 2019). In this research, we use KPI to investigate students’ activities according the standards
of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
2. METHODS
The content in the Professional Ethics in Education
The content and scope are included in the Professional Ethics in Education so that they can be
applied to not only teachers but also individuals working in the field of educaton, our research has
studied, systematized and compared the contents given in the Teachers’ Code of Ethics (Moet,2008);
in the Teachers’ Code of Ethics and Practice (Ministry of Education and Employment, Malta 2012), in
the Ethical standards for teacher (Van Buren School District, USA) and in the Ethical standards for the
teaching profession (Ontario of College of Teachers, Canada).
VNU University of Education is the first university in Vietnam that has been implementing a
separate subject of Professional Ethics in Education for pre-service teachers. The academic year of 2020
– 2021 is also the first year of students learning about a whole new approach. In this subject, the output
standards are concretized into 18 KPIs and are categorized into 04 groups of ethical training field for
each individual educator:
(1) Group of senses of compliance with rules, regulations, and participate in socio-political activities
and union activities: KPI 1, 2, 3, 4
KPI 1: Complete a quiz on documents and laws related to professional ethics
KPI 2: Participating in a political learning session
KPI 3: Participate in 02 activities organized by the delegation of the University of Education/

Vietnam National University; collective consciousness, striving for the common good.
KPI 4: Participate in at least 01 of the following activities: social activities, volunteer activities,
volunteering, clubs inside and outside the school.
(2) Group of learning awareness and learning results: KPI 13,14,15,16,17,18
KPI 13: Participating fully and responsibly in the activities of the course classes, certified by the
lecturer in charge of the course classes, is eligible for the final exam; participating fully and responsibly
in faculty activities: pedagogical skills training, online and face-to-face teaching, etc.
KPI 14: Strictly and fully implementing rules in exams and tests
KPI 15: Achieve the prescribed academic average and number of credits without academic warning
KPI 16: Attend at least 02 sessions of support, advice and guidance at the internship/educational
institution
KPI 17: Write a summary report: record the experiences and values received after each semester;
develop and implement a plan to practice personal values, show the will to overcome difficulties in the
next year
KPI 18: Write a summary report: gather the products in eight semesters and develop the next plan
to practice professional ethics
(3) Group of lifestyles: KPI 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
KPI 8: On duty of cleaning for at least 3 sessions/semester: Classroom/laboratory, school campus,…
KPI 9: Perform at least 01 activity to improve the environment: At least plant 01 tree or decorate
the classroom/shared campus space,...
KPI 10: Costumes and jewelry when performing tasks must be neat, polite, suitable for the
educational environment, not offensive and distract the attention of learners.
KPI 11: Participate in at least 01 activity to propagate the manifestations of a civilized lifestyle and
criticize the manifestations of a backward and selfish lifestyle.
KPI 12: Have a healthy lifestyle, do not use stimulants, and do not have bad talk; use social media
for a positive purpose
(4) Group of relationships with relevant objects: KPI 5, 6, 7
KPI 5: Watch, read and share your feelings about inspirational stories and movies with the value
of love, respect, tolerance, sharing, helping people
KPI 6: Play the role of handling at least 01 real-life situation relating to teacher’s works, based on
the principle of ensuring fairness and not offending learners
KPI 7: Completing a training course on emotion management skills when encountering conflict situations
Ethical training model using Battistoni’s hypothesis

There were six moral education models which are complimentary in helping students develop their
morality comprehensively as Rationale building Model, Consideration Model, Value Clarification Model,
Value Analysis Model, Social Action Model, and Cognitive Moral Development Model (Hersh, 1980).
The Rationale building Model (Shaver & Strong, 1982) concentrates on defining and judging values as
well as developing critical reflection while the Consideration Model (McPhail, 1975) emphasizes on
people life-style of living for self and others. The Value Clarification Model (Raths, 1966) encourages
students to raise self-awareness and self-caring rather than solving moral problems. The Value Analysis
Model (Hersh, 1980) helps students promote a highly systematic step-by-step process of making moral
decisions. The Social Action Model (Newmann, 1975) aims to effect the desired social change by
actively engaging in various citizen concern programs. The overarching goal of the Cognitive Moral
Development Model (Kohlberg, 1975) is to assist students in thinking more clearly and comprehensively
about moral issues.
In short, in order to develop efficiently ethics awareness of teachers in general and pre-service
teachers in particular, we see a similarity between above-mentioned models and Battistoni’s model of
civically-oriented service learning program (Battistoni, 1997). Service-learning is increasingly being
utilized to train pre-service teachers in United States. However, the ethical foundations of service vary
widely, and service–learning poses a range of challenges for new instructors, showing the moral and
political character of teaching and service. Service-learning provides delivers to teachers real dilemmas
to provide them opportunity to recognize teaching as a political and moral endeavor that is not without
conflict (Donahue, 1999).
There are three essential components in democratic civic education as: intellectual understanding,
civic skills and attitudes, and direct action in schools and communities (Battistoni, 1997). We suggest
assigning six above-mentioned moral models to three fields:
Besides, we have assigned 18 KPIs of ethical education for pre-service educators to fulfill three
crucial components in Ethical training model using Battistoni’s hypothesis
The objective of our study is analyzing the correlation between KPIs determined to evaluate the
ability to implement the professional ethical standards of educators in different groups. We use the
Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient on SPSS 22.0 software through self-assessment of the need to
implement the KPIs for developing Professional Ethics in Education on 270 students in the first and
second years of the University of Education, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam.
3. RESULTS
Intellectual understanding
The main purpose of education is “to train the mind” and develop cognitive thinking. A “thinking
citizen” is able to apply variety of methods, theories, and models to the real word and evaluate the
facts. By confronting concepts and theories with the actual realities in the world around them, students’
capacity to evaluate critically is strengthened.
KPI 1, 2, 5, 17, 18 were designed to encourage students to learn and master the value system,
culture, and professional ethics in the field of education by watching valuable movies or reading classic
works of poetry and literature relating to teacher’s responsibilities. They are also strictly required to
study about system of laws/codes of ethics, standards, and guidelines which are relevant to educators
(teachers, educational management, educational supervision, and educational researchers). Students
need to master the codes of ethics for Vietnamese educators established by Vietnamese Ministry of
Education and Training. Instructors would guide and provide documents, stories, movies, etc., while
students take research and discuss in pairs/in groups/for the whole class and actively complete KPIs
during the learning and practice process. Students need to take a quiz about laws/codes of ethics,
standards, and guidelines related to educators’ professional ethics.
Table 1. Reliability value of KPIs in intellectual understanding field
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s
Alpha N of Items
.807 5
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean Scale
Corrected Item- Cronbach’s Alpha
if Item Variance if
Total Correlation if Item Deleted
Deleted Item Deleted
KPI1 16.94 7.56 .56 .79
KPI2 17.27 7.26 .46 .81
KPI5 17.43 6.56 .57 .78
KPI17 17.46 5.82 .70 .73
KPI18 17.44 6.03 .70 .73
Civic skills and attitudes

The NEA code (NEA, 2020), like most codes of ethics, is a list of do’s and don’ts (mostly don’ts)
with no intellectual basis for the code’s fundamental ethical principles. It is conceivable that the
knowledge gained will be difficult to use in reality (Soltis, 1986). Students need to embed these codes
of ethics in community activities. They need to show a positive attitude towards process of learning and
exams as well as maintaining healthy lifestyle and habits (KPI 10, 12, 13, 14, 15). At VNU University of
Education, each student must join a training course on emotion management skills when encountering
conflict situation (KPI 7). After that, they need to discuss in groups and propose solutions for at least
one real-life ethical dilemmas based on the principle of obeying the law and ensuring fairness and not
offending learners (KPI 6). The practical experience students gain through discuss activities allows
students to define and reset their standard of judgment, as well as alter their political judgments in
response to the reality they see and interact with (Battistoni, 1997).
Table 2. Reliability value of KPIs in civic skills and attitudes
Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
.823 7
Scale Mean if Scale Variance Corrected Item-Total Cronbach’s Alpha if

Item Deleted if Item Deleted Correlation Item Deleted
KPI6 28.13 7.15 .46 .84

KPI7 27.79 7.87 .49 .81
KPI10 27.63 7.9 .58 .8
KPI12 27.54 8.07 .59 .8
KPI13 27.64 7.78 .67 .79
KPI14 27.52 7.99 .70 .79
KPI15 27.68 7.51 .66 .79
Direct action in schools and communities

Providing pre-service students opportunity to experience at the field facility is quite challenging
because it may be tempting due to constraints on time, energy and funds. However, direct involvement
provides the best potential of encouraging students to participate in their communities constantly while
also increasing their enthusiasm in studying academic skills and material. The ethical learning programs
must develop comprehensively the cognitive, civic attitudes and skills of the pre-service teachers as
well as providing them chance to take action, both individually and together with members of one’s
community (Battistoni, 1997). We have designed KPI 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 16 to require students at VNU
University of Education to actively participate in tasks/projects/campaigns in the learning environment,
in the practice environment, and in the community and social environment, especially; pre-service
teachers would have a practicum period of 2 – 3 years in schools from kindergarten to high schools.
Table 3. Reliability value of KPIs in direct action in schools and communities
Cronbach’s
N of Items
Alpha
.850 6
Scale Mean if Item Scale Variance Corrected Item- Cronbach’s Alpha if

Deleted if Item Deleted Total Correlation Item Deleted
KPI3 21.5 10.64 .55 .84
KPI4 21.58 10.16 .57 .84
KPI8 21.84 9.32 .67 .82
KPI9 21.78 9.12 .74 .80
LPI11 21.73 9.80 .66 .82
KPI16 21.77 9.62 .62 .83
In summary, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is over 0.8 indicates that KPIs in the same group have
a good correlation coefficient and measuring the same content. The results show that the arrangement
of KPIs in three groups as: the intellectual understanding field, the civic skills and attitudes field, the
direct action in schools and communities, has a great reliability. In all KPIs, the correlation with the total
variable is greater than 0.3, and none the KPIs reduce the reliability of the assessment results.
Professional ethics education in the fields of ethics training
Based on analysis of abundant of documents related to professional ethics of Vietnamese educators
published by the authority, we believe that the professional ethics of educators is expressed through 04
areas: political awareness, life style, professional expertise, and relationship with other objects.
Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient analyses of all 04 KPIs groups are in the range of 0.733 to 0.845 and
satisfy the reliability requirements.
Table 4. Reliability value of KPIs in 04 fields of ethics training

Group KPIs in each Cronbach’s
KPI group Alpha
Senses of compliance with rules, regulations,

and participate in socio-political activities and KPI 1,2,3,4 0.74
union activities
Learning awareness and learning results KPI 8,9,10,11,12 0.80
Lifestyles KPI 13,14,15,16,17,18 0.85
Relationships with relevant objects KPI 5,6,7 0.73
Implementation of subject of professional ethics for educators at VNU University of Education

Development of professional ethics for pre-service teachers is indispensably crucial. During training
period at university, with the experience of the KPIs of professional ethics for educators through either
hypothetical or real ethical situation, pre-service teachers would have great opportunity to practice,
orient their career, strengthen their faith and love for the profession.
The model of professional ethics for educator training at VNU University of Education is organized
during the bachelor’s program. This model is a combination of learning activities, quality training
activities with pedagogical practice and professional skills training in university and in high school
environments. Especially, there was the participation and orientation of collective activities of the Youth
Union, the Student Political Affairs Department of VNU University of Education.
In the academic year 2019 – 2020, the subject of Professional Ethics for Educators in integrated
into the bachelor’s degree program. Through the module, students will understand and master the
value systems, culture, and professional ethics in the field of education; systematize legal documents,
standards and guidelines related to professional ethics for educators (teachers, educational administrators,
educational consultants and researchers); practice to handle real or hypothetical situations in different
conditions in professional activities. From there, pre-service teachers – future educators – would always
love, respect, and be happy with their career; show responsibility and tolerance for learners; be honest
and cooperative with colleagues, students’ parents.
72.6% students agree to implement the subject of Professional Ethics for Educators during the
students’ 04 academic years (08 semesters) and are organized in the form of blended learning, with
the flipped classroom model. It is managed on Learning Management System (LMS) platform of the
University of Education. In each semester, students would actively plan and implement, complete certain
KPIs which correspond to cognitive characteristics and learning programs. Students have the opportunity
to practice a number of values and life skills towards forming the standard qualities of educators. On the
other hands, the instructors need to organize a face-to-face or online meeting with students in the class
at least 03 sessions in week 1, week 7, and week 24/25. Instructors also would set up learning modules
and interactive groups on LMS platform and other channels such as Zalo, Facebook,…
IV. CONCLUSION
Education about moral qualities in general and moral qualities for educators in particular is an
urgent task in pedagogical training that meets the context and requirements of comprehensive and
fundamental innovation of education according to Resolution 29. The effectiveness of this work depends
on two important factors: the education and training work of the University and the self-education and
self-training activities of the students. In which, self-education and self-training are internal forces that
play a decisive role. The rigorous training of morality, knowledge, health, aesthetics and professional
knowledge today will be a factor in forming and fostering personality, quality and capacity for teachers
in the future.
REFERENCES
1. Airaksinen, T. (2012). Professional ethics. In Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics, vol. 3 (pp. 612-
623): Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co.
2. Amzat, I. H. (2017). Key performance indicators for excellent teachers in Malaysia: A measure-
ment model for excellent teaching practices. International Journal of Productivity Performance
Management.
3. Battistoni, R. M. (1997). Service learning and democratic citizenship. Theory into practice,
36(3), 150-156.
4. Campbell, E. (2000). Professional ethics in teaching: Towards the development of a code of
practice. Cambridge journal of education, 30(2), 203-221.
5. Donahue, D. M. (1999). Service–learning for preservice teachers: Ethical dilemmas for practice.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(6), 685-695.
6. Hersh, R. H. (1980). Models of Moral Education: An Appraisal.
7. Kamarudin, Z., & Sarkawi, A. A. (2019). Teaching Workload and Working Time Of Aad Lectur-
ers And Their Pursuit Of Key Performance Indicators within A Code Of Ethics.
8. Kohlberg, L. (1975). The cognitive-developmental approach to moral education. The Phi Delta
Kappan, 56(10), 670-677.
9. Lien, T. N. (2021). Teachers’ Feelings of Safeness in School-Family-Community Partnerships:
Motivations for Sustainable Development in Moral Education. International Journal of Evalua-
tion Research in Education, 10(1), 97-107.
10. McPhail, P. (1975). Learning to care: Rationale and method of the lifeline program: Argus
Communications.
11. Code of Ethics for Educators, (2020).
12. Newmann, F. M. (1975). Education for citizen action: Challenge for secondary curriculum.
13. Raths, L. E. H., Merrill (1966). Values and teaching: Working with values in the classroom.
Merrills international education series.
14. Rest, J. R. (1992). Development in judging moral issues: U of Minnesota Press.
15. Rich, J. M. (1984). Professional ethics in education: ERIC.

16. Sanger, M. N., & Osguthorpe, R. D. (2013). Modeling as moral education: Documenting, ana-
lyzing, and addressing a central belief of preservice teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education,
29, 167-176.
17. Schrader, D. E., & practice. (1993). Lawrence Kohlberg’s approach and the moral education of
education professionals. Ethics for professionals in education: Perspectives for preparation, 4.
18. Shaver, J. P., & Strong, W. (1982). Facing value decisions: Rationale-building for teachers.
19. Soltis, J. F. (1986). Teaching professional ethics. Journal of Teacher Education, 37(3), 2-4.
20. Strike, K., & Soltis, J. F. (2015). The ethics of teaching: Teachers College Press.
21. Strike, K. A. (1993). Teaching ethical reasoning using cases. Ethics for professionals in educa-
tion: Perspectives for preparation and practice, 102-116.
22. Veugelers, W. (2010). Moral values in teacher education.
23. Warnick, B. R., & Silverman, S. K. (2011). A framework for professional ethics courses in teach-
er education. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(3), 273-285.
24. Wu, C.-S., & Chen, R. (2012). A study on key performance indicators (KPIs) for basic education
in Taiwan. Paper presented at the International Conference: Innovative Research in a Changing
and Challenging World.
DESIGNING AND USING E-BOOK IN TEACHING 10th GRADE HISTORY
TOPICS: ISSUES AND APPLICATION
Doan Nguyet Linh, Tran Thi Hoai Thu
Abstract: History has been evaluated as a tedious and arid subject for many reasons, such as former textbooks
and teaching in line with traditional methods, which does not develop the maximum capabilities of students.…
Along with advanced science and technology, Vietnamese education also takes steps in order to innovate the
education program through its 2018 general education program, changing from accessing content to student
competence. E-books are emerging as a new and productive learning tool, attracting both teachers and students
who are interested in innovative teaching-learning methods. Recognizing the problems in teaching and learning
history today, as well as the outstanding characteristics of e-books, this study will propose possibilities for designing
and using E-books in teaching the 10 grade History topic according to the 2018 general education program which
will be piloted in the school years 2022-2023. The designing and implementation of an e-book on History 10 topics
under the new general education curriculum will assist teachers in innovating history instructional techniques in
high schools as well as help students ameliorating their high self-study competence.
Keywords: Advanced science and technology, general education program, student competence, innovating
history instructional techniques, Bookcreator.
1. INTRODUCTION
E-books have become a popular tool in industrialized countries all around the world, and Vietnam is
incorporating them into the educational process as well. Learners have improved their level of acquisition
and awareness in the learning process by using E-books in conjunction with a teaching model supported
by computers and mobile devices, making learning more fun, more efficient and pleasurable. Many
people assume that history textbooks are still monotonous and dreary, and that they haven’t concentrated
on utilizing other types of media except visuals and words. Students’ approaches to historical science
will no longer be as tedious and dry if history textbooks are constructed in the form of e-books.
To begin with, when students read historical data in a traditional textbook, there are many difficult
concepts that need high inference, thus in e-books, designers frequently provide a link to a website. A
new page has been added with full explanations. This will save students time and effort while researching
historical phrases and events. Second, traditional textbooks are written in black and white and include a
great deal of information and data; images are generally minimal and do not ignite students’ interest in
learning. Current e-books can entirely transcend those limits thanks to the benefits of using science and
technology. E-books allow students to actively learn history through vivid visualization using a massive
data base of vibrant, color photos and videos; even 3D and 4D pictures allow students to explore history
as though they are watching a Pixar film. The guarantee of e-books supply is that when photos and
videos are also included in the book, they will be censored and properly annotated. In this study, we
discovered that using an e-book to teach history is critical. Teachers’ teaching quality will be improved
by historical e-books with vivid illustrations and sophisticated and accurate video clips. At the same time,
adopting e-books to teach history will boost students’ interest and attentiveness to learning.
2. METHODOLOGY
This research included 156 grade 10 students and 07 history instructors from three Hanoi high
schools: High School of Educational Sciences, Kim Lien High School, and Phan Dinh Phung High
School. The study team performed a brief poll using the Google Form application before allowing
students and instructors to sample the History e-book for research reasons. Teachers and learners will
respond to content-related questions such as the idea of e-books and the extent to which books are
utilized in teaching and learning topics in general, and history in particular, interest in using e-books
in high school history teaching and learning; pros and drawbacks of utilizing e-books in high school
history teaching and learning. After examining the demands of students and instructors, as well as their
levels of interest and usage, the research team generated an e-book titled “10 Grade History Topics
according to 2018 General Education Program”. Within four weeks, educators and students will be
provided a link to the book to experince. In addition to the traditional textbook, students utilize this
e-book as a reference book. In the process of using the supplied e-books, the research team works with
the instructor to manage time, frequency of usage, and evaluate students’ learning processes; support
teachers in connecting with students through this e-book. The study team can quickly collect data and
compare it with the survey thanks to this management process. While teachers and students interact
with e-books, the research team watches, observes, and makes video recordings of selected historical
sessions. After four weeks, students and instructors were given a questionnaire on their individual
experiences with our e-book.
This study activity’s data comprises observational notes, survey questionnaires after reading
e-books with historical content on new themes, and samples of student work completed during the
procedure in collaboration with teachers.
The term “e-book” is defined a lot in the literature about e-book. E-book is an abbreviation for
“electronic book” which is defined as “an electronic book which can be read on a small personal computer”
(meaning: a type of book that can be read on a computer). [According to “Cambridge Business English
Dictionary”]. In contrast to e-texts published in hypertext markup language and accessible on a computer,
Morgan (1999) defines e-books as the hardware/software combination particularly built for reading.
Balas (2000) also warns users not to mix up e-texts with e-books, emphasizing that e-books must be
viewed on an e-book reader or with specific software. Hawkins (2000) extends the e-book definition by
four distinct means: a downloaded, devoted e-book, a dedicated e-book reader, a web accessible e-book,
or the print-on-demand book, to cover material in any book made available electronically. The evolving
e-book definition might be ascribed to market changes throughout the years. While multipurpose the first
e-book readers, they grew more popular and more single-functional gadgets. The definition of Hawkins
(2000) is the complete opposite of (David Kudler, 2015). E-books are equivalent to Microsoft Word in
that they both allow users to modify documents, insert photos, and link hyperlinks. However, unlike a
Word document, an e-book is supplied for commercial purposes to ensure the author’s ownership, and
users who want to share an e-book by any author must first obtain permission (David Kudler, 2015). It is
not possible to equate all texts or versions of regular paper books displayed on mobile devices or reading
applications as e-books. Similar to Kudler, Jordan Wahl (2018) stated that e-book is a non-editable book
that can be converted into a digital format for display on any digital device platform such as a computer
screen or mobile device.
The function of E-books
In order to provide the history teaching process for teachers, the study will investigate in a precise,
clear and comprehensive way the usage of an electronic book, which helps create interest for students
in the process of learning history at schools. The study also suggests the application of information
technology (Book Creator Software) for the e-book, enabling students to get an additional self studies
document at home as well as provide teachers with an instruction document. The e-book is “10th grade
history topics according to the 2018 general education program”. Most e-books are currently paper book
electronic equivalents. Many electronic versions of contemporary textbooks are online for both students
and teachers. Teachers also use technology in the history of learning. Students are reduced to bring a
ton of books to the school, only require a tablet, and under the guidance of teachers students are able to
access a large amount of knowledge for classroom learning. E-books are also appreciated in schools,
because in the present explosive of 4.0 era, it improves the ability of pupils to use technology. Students
today are not only strong in theory, but must also approach science and technology rapidly and make
them available for their learning needs. The use of e-books in schools also means that pupils are able to
manipulate and improve learning effectiveness by having basic computer capabilities.
In addition to convenience, reading e-books is highly affordable, appropriate for students and
teachers. For example, a teacher wants to share a wonderful library and wants to enable all pupils in the
class to read it. If the usual printed books are used, teachers must create multiple copies, resulting in
color deterioration and a loss of some material. But teachers only need to share and email e-books, so
students obtain books full of substance and vibrant pictures, which encourage their interest. This helps
teachers to save time and money in copying books. E-book has been strongly spreading by the significant
development of the digital handheld gadgets. Currently, students may use technological devices during
school hours under the direction of teachers in accordance with the rules of the Education and Training
Ministry. The usage of e-books is becoming increasingly common in teaching. Products: smartphones,
tablets of Apple, Samsung, Sony, LG... are all installed with E-book reader software, there is even a free
e-book store, which connecting with E-book suppliers for users to choose. Not only students simply
conserve and save for a long period without losing quality via Internet and memory formats with reading
books with specialized equipment. Students can save up to one thousand books in a software copy, utilize
them at any time without having to prepare books or take massive loads with a tablet or a computer.
Today, using the Internet, e-books are interactive so that students and teachers can read the contents
of the book, but also share and exchange knowledge with each other or even with social networks and
the community. Each e-book displays the features of electronic items by integrating animation, music,
video, external links to supplement information for the book’s content, etc. In addition, the assignment
of exercises on e-book also help teachers control as well as directly monitor the progress of students’
homework.
Due to the reasons above, e-books are becoming more prevalent and used extensively in education
and learning. Vietnam is a country with a young population structure, most of them love technology, are
eager to learn and have the need to update new trends. E-book is the appropriate application to choose a
modern style of reading for young people.
Using Bookcreator sofware to generate the E-book.
Today, websites and tools to produce e-books are increasingly rich and diverse in response to the
popularity of e-books (free and payable). E-book designers can use a multitude of tools to develop an
E-book that suits their ideas and supports the creative process. Book Creator is the 1st e-Book Design
application in more than 60 countries worldwide for iPad tablets and desktops. Book Creator offers its
users the quickest option to make and directly use their own magnificent e-books. The book can then
be read straight in the IBooks app, shared with friends and families instantaneously, or posted in the
iBook Store for everyone to enjoy and comment on. Book Creator is the ideal design tool for children’s
picture books, comic books, art books, illustrated cookbooks, manuals, printed books, lists and other
types of printed books. Book Creator permits users to add text, pictures, videos, background music
and explanations to E-books. Furthermore, Book Creator enables the user to posts on Face-book and
Twitter individual pages in a book and show people how they work. Users can post books in the iBook
Store of Apple. With books created according to the international ePub 3 standard, users can read them
now and in the future. The majority of pupils adore this application. They believe this is a simple tool
to use; even if they launch the application for the first time, they can quickly figure out how to use it.
Book Creator is intended to be small, uncomplicated, and effortless to use. Users can use Book Creator
to generate their own e-books or other e-book readers from across the world.
4. FINDINGS
The study team achieved the following results after 4 weeks of students and instructors experiencing
our e-book:
Table 1: Teachers’ comment about our e-book
Level
Overall
Criteria for evaluation
average
1 2 3 4 5
Reviews of CONTENT
- Full of necessary information 0 0 0 5 2 4.29
- Diverse 0 0 0 4 3 4.43
- Accurate, scientific knowledge 0 0 0 6 1 4.14

Reviews of FORM
- Scientific 0 0 3 3 1 4.0
- Presentation coherence 0 0 2 4 1 3.85
- Wonderful and appealing interface 0 0 2 3 2 4.0
- Friendly 0 0 0 6 1 4.14
Reviews of FEASIBILITY
- Easy to use 0 0 0 6 1 4.14
- Suitable for students’ learning level 0 0 1 4 1 3.43
- Suitable for practical conditions (students have computers, 0 3 3 1 0 2.71

smartphones)
- Suitable for students’ self-study time at home 0 0 2 4 1 3.85

The impact of utilizing E-books
- Assists them in swiftly understanding and absorbing the 0 0 2 4 1 3.85

lesson 0 0 1 4 1 3.43
- Increases enthusiasm in studying 0 0 3 4 0 3.57
- Improves self-study capacity 0 0 1 5 1 4.0
- Contributes to the innovation of teaching methods.
According to the survey findings, most educators believe that the book’s content completely satisfies
the learning goals of 10th graders, such as: being full of important information (4.29) (key content);
having rich knowledge material (4.43) via videos and graphics. Scientific and precise information is
at an advanced level, which may be expanded at higher levels of schooling. The organization of the
book’s parts is extremely scientific in terms of form. History teachers emphasize a beautiful, appealing
layout as well as user-friendly functionality (4.0). Because the information of History 10 topics varies
so much from the world to the area to Vietnam, presentation consistency is limited to a moderately high
level (3.85). In terms of feasibility, the majority of teachers consider that this e-book is straightforward
to use, with simple tasks like changing text, inserting photos and videos, and generating online exams..
(4.14). However, many teachers indicate that e-books only stop at a level that is appropriate for students’
learning levels and home self-study time (3.43 and 3.85). Indeed, this reflects the fact that each student’s
computer literacy differs throughout all classes. As a consequence, the usage of e-books in the classroom
necessitates collaboration between Informatics teachers and History teachers in schools. Despite the
fact that 4.0 technology is becoming increasingly popular in education, not many students can afford
to acquire a personal electronic gadget for learning purposes due to the significant expense. A personal
computer, tablet, or smartphone can cost from around 5 to 10 millions VND. The data table reflects
that e-books are not truly appropriate for actual life (2.71). Looking at the data table above, we can
obviously see that teachers have given e-books a bunch of good comments for helping students improve
their performance and assimilate rapidly (3.85), boosting their enthusiasm in learning (3.43), enhancing
students’ capacity to self-study (3.57), and contributing to the revival of History teaching techniques in
modern high schools (4.0).
Table 2: Students’ comment about our e-book
Level
Overall
Criteria for evaluation
1 2 3 4 5 average
Reviews of CONTENT
- Full of necessary information 3 6 27 53 67 4.12
- Diverse 1 9 45 54 47 3.88
- Accurate, scientific knowledge 1 2 12 41 100 4.52
Reviews of FORM
- Scientific 1 8 32 57 58 4.04
- Presentation coherence 4 14 35 46 57 3.88
- Wonderful and appealing interface 3 14 35 37 67 3.97
- Friendly 6 21 36 40 53 3.72
Reviews of FEASIBILITY
- Easy to use 9 27 30 39 51 3.62
- Suitable for students’ learning level 1 9 31 48 67 4.10
- Suitable for practical conditions (students have computers, 9 26 37 47 37 3.49

smartphones)
- Suitable for students’ self-study time at home 10 25 44 39 38 3.35
The impact of utilizing e-books

5 10 55 40 46 3.72
- Assists them in swiftly understanding and absorbing the lesson
3 9 30 52 62 4.03
- Increases enthusiasm in studying
2 12 36 60 46 3.87
- Improves self-study capacity
4 2 21 44 85 4.31
- Contributes to the innovation of teaching methods.
Evaluating according to levels: 1 - bad, 2 - weak, 3 - medium, 4 – pretty, 5 – good
Overall, most students appreciate the of using e-books in learning History at school as well as at
home. To begin with, the E-book has all necessary information (4.12), extensive content (3.88), and the
knowledge provided on the E-book is precise and scientific (4.52). Second, in terms of form, E-book
satisfies science (4.04), presentation consistency (3.88), and the interface is wonderfully designed,
appealing (3.97), and user-friendly (3.72). Third, in terms of feasibility, all students can simply access
an E-book (3.62); it is appropriate for students’ learning levels (4.10); and it is appropriate for students’
self-study time (4.10). (3.87). The aforementioned findings demonstrate the efficacy of using E-books
on students; using E-books in the process of self-study at home allows them to effortlessly acquire and
absorb the lesson (3.72). E-book also offers students with numerous pictures and appealing movies in
order to increase students’ enthusiasm in learning History (4.03) and boost students’ self-study ability
(3.87). Furthermore, the majority of students think that studying through E-books improves the quality
of class time and contributes to the development of new teaching techniques (4.31). However, it is
still insufficient for current student conditions: Many students do not afford laptops or cellphones for
learning purposes (3.49).
5. DISCUSSION
After putting the E-book “10 History topics according to the 2018 General Education Program”
into pedagogical experiments, along with survey data, the research team found that E-books helped to
improve Historical learning and teaching methods in particular and other subjects in general. First of all,
the E-book helps teachers to implement “Flipped Classroom” teaching method very effectively. This is a
reference book, used in combination with the main book; so that before class, students can both read and
study at home. With every lesson, teachers can prepare the content, notes and instruction for students right
on the e-book provided by the research team in advance, which the teacher will mention in upcoming
lessons. During class time, teachers can establish debates, discussion and even do Q&A about previously
studied issues. Thus, the way organized classes with the support of our E-book helps students save time
and improve their learning autonomy. In addition, this E-book is an excellent assistant for teachers if
teachers eager to adapt the “Project Based Learning” method. Project-Based Learning requires a wide
range of competence of students, particularly autonomy capacity. Teachers can even use the historical
topics offered in our E-book for each learning project.
Figure 1: The topic 3 - Some World Civilizations in the Ancient - Medieval Period in the opening E-book’s interface
In addition, the materials on images, videos, and hyperlinks corresponding to each topic are
carefully selected by the research team, meeting the criteria of science, accuracy, and suitable for students’
cognitive level. Students can utilies this e-book to integrate material into their learning products as a
rich and diverse collection. Teachers and students would feel perfectly comfortable in the teaching and
learning of these materials.
Figure 2: A one-page book interface that integrates e-book image and video features
This e-book could also assist teachers to apply other advancing methods of teaching, such as
Gamification, Competence-Based Learning, etc. Besides helping to innovate and adapt new teaching
methods into teaching History in high schools, our e-book focus on creating a tool for learning that
increases students’ passion for History, generating an environment in which students can experience
History as watching a film of Pixar and Disney. As for the convenience of this e-book, most students said
that learning history was easier for them. It is effortless to do this by simply clicking on a new term in the
e-book - a difficult term, when students do not need to look up Google or any website, and the book will
immediately show them the most precise explanations. Or, if you want to learn about historical characters’
biography, activities or stories, all the information will be displayed by a single click. Students will save
a lot of time looking up external information because our e-book ensure accuracy and historical science.
This e-book not only helps students to review their knowledge, but also to do internet exercises in the
process of learning. Interestingly, after doing the online exercises, our e-book provides students with
immediate feedbacks from teachers for their guidances, suggestions. Students can use the e-book as
digital software to communicate with the teachers via the links to learn and ask regarding of the lessons.
Figure 3: Quick derivation to another book page without searching for e-books
Why not an E-book for school, children, teachers, and parents? In sending the code to students as
well as parents, the teachers were guided. Parents who want to track the learning procedure of their child
simply need to enter the book code and the e-book will notify parents about their child’s time reading,
the number of tests done... Parents can also communicate with teachers via links in the book concerning
the academic results of their children and coordinate with teachers to manage and help them in their
home learning process.
Figure 4: E-book codes allow teachers to share faster and more conveniently
In short, e-books play a crucial role in current high schools’ teaching and learning process. E-books
enhance students’ self-study, stimulate and encourage them to approach knowledge actively through
a visual material system. E-books help teachers to save time in class, focus on material preparation,
innovation, and the implementation of advanced and modern learning methods before each lesson.
E-books also connect teachers and parents in the role of learner management and support.
6. CONCLUSION
The use of e-books in teaching satisfies an urgent requirement for students to be interested in
history in the age of technology. Using e-books with diverse knowledge-based methodologies helps
students connect with materials personally, generate historical perspectives and questions, engage in
creative thinking, and learn how history is produced. The research team in the study investigated the
tendencies of innovation in techniques of education and the change in techniques of learning with help of
information technology. The group also consulted about electronic textbooks and Book creator software.
As a result, the e-book meets the design requirements, students have access to hundreds of historical
graphics, a lot of historical videos with clear provenace.
7. REFERENCES
This research was supported by the University of Education (Vietnam National University).
We would like to express our gratitude for this support. We would also like to thank all the high
school teachers and student in Hanoi who participated in this study for their contributions.
1. Nguyen Quang Lac, Le Cong Triem (1992), A number of points on the theoretical teaching basis
of electronic computers use, Educational Research.
2. Tô Xuân Giáp (1997), Teaching equipment, Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
3. Morgan, E. L. (1999). Electronic books and related technologies. Computers in Libraries,

19(10), 36–39.
4. Balas, J. (2000). Developing library collections for a wired world. Computers in Libraries, 20, 61–63.
5. Hawkins, D. T. (2000). Electronic books: a major publishing revolution: Part one: General
considerations and issues. Online, 24, 14–28.
6. Norshuhada Shiratuddin, Monica Landoni, Forbes Gibb và Shahizan Hassan (2003), E-book
technology and its potential applications in distance education, Digital Information Journal-
Texas Digital Library, volume 3, issue April 2003.
7. Herb Miller (2013), The future of E-books in the classroom, Southeast education network
magazine, issue on December 18, 2013.
8. Mohsin Hamid, Anna Holmes (2013), How do E-books change the reading experience?, The
NewYork Time.
9. David Kudler (2015), “What is an E-book?”, The book designer: practical advice to help built
better books.
10. Ministry of Education and Training, History general education program” (Draft dated January 19, 2018)
11. Jordan Walh (2018), “What is an e-book? Understanding Why they work and How to make your own?”.
12. Nguyen Thi Thach (2009), Designing History lesson 12, volume 1,2, Thu Dau 1 University,
Hanoi Publishing House.
13. Doan Nguyet Linh (2018), Digital text as a comprehensive interactive learning environment – a
case study in History, University of Education - VNU.
SECTION 2
EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT
OF DIGITAL TRANFORMATION
AUN-QA BASED CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT
OF THE PRIMARY EDUCATION SECTOR
AT QUANG BINH UNIVERSITY
Vuong Kim Thanh
(Quang Binh University)
Abstract: In the current trend of general education innovation and international integration, management
of curriculum must be paid attention by pedagogical higher educational institutes due to its recognition of being
the first element to ensure the quality of higher education. Managing the ASEAN University Network – Quality
Assurance (AUN – QA) based curriculum which is used for teaching students majoring in Primary Education
at higher education institutions in Vietnam plays a significant role when primary education is considered as a
“foundation” for general education. The article, therefore, focuses on the theoretical issues and the current situation
of the AUN-QA based curriculum management of the Primary Education sector at Quang Binh University. On
that basis, the article proposes the measures to improve and renovate the quality of the AUN-QA based curriculum
management of Primary Education sector at Quang Binh University, gradually achieving international standards,
being at par with advanced curriculum in the same field in Southeast Asia, contributing to improving the quality
of primary school teachers in the future.
Keywords: AUN-QA based, curriculum, curriculum management, primary education.
1. INTRODUCTION
Curriculum management is the first element to ensure the quality of higher education, especially
in the current trend. Therefore, renovating the curriculum management to find suitable measures, in the
new context of regional and international integration, is an urgent mission.
The AUN-QA based curriculum management of teacher education is the goal that a variety of higher
education institutions in Vietnam and Southeast Asia need to aim for development of human resources.
Applying AUN -QA criteria in the management of teacher education curriculum not only benefits
institutions, students but also employers. The results of curriculum accreditation are the basis to develop
a training program meeting international standards, affirming the quality of output products. However,
the management of teacher education curriculum still remains inadequate and limited and needs to be
innovated by the institutions.
Quang Binh University (QBU) was established under Decision No.237/QD-TTg dated October 24,
2006 by the Prime Minister on the basis of Quang Binh Pedagogical College, formerly known as Quang
Binh Pedagogical Intermediate School, was established from 1959. Quang Binh University is the only
institutions, offering multi-disciplinary, multi-level and multi-field training with more than 60 years of
establishment and development. Its primary education sector is the sector throughout the periods.
Being a public University, Quang Binh University tasks with training high-quality human resources,
carries out scientific research and technology transfer, serving the cause of socio-economic development
of Quang Binh province and the whole country. In 2017, Quang Binh University was recognized as an
institution which meets the educational quality standards under the Decision No.75/QD-CEA.UD dated
May 25, 2018 issued by the Center for Education Accreditation – The University of DaNang. In order
to implement the mission and continue to prove its position and quality in the integration trend, Quang
Binh University needs to effectively implement measures to manage AUN-QA based curriculum.
International studies and domestic studies on the UN-QA based curriculum management:
There are a variety of international studies on the UN-QA based curriculum management such
as “Quality Assurance in Teacher Education in Europe and Network” and “Education Systems and
Policies in Europe” by Eurydice (2006). These studies concern the evaluations on the teacher education
institutions and the curricula of primary education and high education in 30 European countries. The
current regulations related to the assessment of primary education teachers and the procedures with
criteria governing internal and external assessment are also presented in the studies. Besides, the studies
address the institutions that are responsible for training primary teachers and methods to evaluate
results. In addition, it is needed to mention other related articles that are «Écart entre l’autoévaluation
et l’évaluation externe Del’ Association des universités des pays d’Asie du Sud-Est (AUN): le cas
des critères liés aux TIC dans les programmes vietnamiens» by Tan, N. & Marquet, P. (2014) and La
Francophonie universitaire en question (p. 141-157). Montréal, Canada : RIFEFF by T. Karsenti, et
al. The article analyzed, made statistics and compared the evaluation results of the four curriculums in
Vietnam in the years 2009 and 2011.
The domestic studies includes “The management of secondary school teacher training programme
in the approach of AUN-QA” by Phan Hung Thu, 2019, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, “Quality
management of high-quality curriculum in the AUN-QA approach at the University of Social Sciences
and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City” by Cao Thi Chau Thuy, “Reality
of Curriculum Development at University of Foreign Language – Da Nang University, meeting the
quality assurance under AUN-QA” by Le Minh Hiep, “Quality management of high-quality curriculum
according to the AUN-QA approach at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam
National University, Ho Chi Minh City” by Bui Ngoc Quang, etc.
The management of higher education curriculum is considered a key task of the process of
comprehensive renovation of education and training. During study, the author found that the management
of the AUN-QA based curriculum of primary education is a quite new area for further studies.
The paper presents its study on the theoretical basis of the AUN-QA based curriculum management
of primary education and shows the current status of the AUN-QA based curriculum management of
primary education at QBU. Accordingly, the paper proposes the measures to renovate AUN-QA based
curriculum management of the primary education at Quang Binh University in the coming time.
The paper analyzed the data and the information collected during the study process, presenting
the achievements and addressing the shortcomings, then proposing the measures to renovate AUN-QA
based curriculum management of the primary education at Quang Binh University.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Related definitions and study overview
a. Related definitions
- Curriculum: According to Frank Bobbitt (2007), he said “Curriculum can be defined as a system
of activities to detect ability or improve learners”, under the strong impact of society on education,
section 2: education and educational management in the context... 231
learners receive more social experience not only from school. Accordingly, the curriculum is expanded
rather than a study plan or plan to provide chances to study to learners for a fixed educational goal.
Figure 1. Map of definition on curriculum by Hollis and Doak Campbell (1935)
According to (Good, 1946), teacher education is defined as “all formal and informal activities aim
at equipping individuals to undertake the responsibilities of a member who is working in education field
or help individuals fulfill their responsibilities more effectively.” Talking about models and development
directions of teacher training in Finland, the author (Kansanen, 2003) affirms that the basic goal of
all teacher training programs must be “Training of competent teachers and developing the necessary
professional qualities is to ensure their career of education”.
Tim Wentling (1993) defines: “The curriculum is the overall blueprint for a training activity. It
can be a course over several hours, a day, a week or a few years. The overall design reflects the content
of the training, specifying what to expect the learner after finishing the course, it outlines the process
of implementing the training content, it also shows the training methods and how to evaluate learning
results. All the issues of this design are arranged according to a strict schedule”.
According to Nguyen Duc Chinh, “The curriculum is a master plan, the entire system of educational
activities in university. It includes educational goals, objectives and outcomes, educational content (with
the width and depth matching with the output standard), educational methods and forms of educational
institutions (with the method and means, appropriate teaching tool), evaluation methods of educational
outcomes (in comparison with the outcome standard of the curriculum)”.
The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), 1998 has defined a teacher education
programme as a programme of education, research and training of persons to teach from pre-primary to
higher education level. The goal of teacher training programs is to qualify a person to be a teacher as an
instrument for a social change. These training programs are designed specifically for each grade level
with focusing on improving the quality of education in schools.
- Management of curriculum: Management of curriculum is a key activity of all higher education
institutions which performs the function of higher education development for the development needs of
society. The objective of the curriculum management is to achieve the prescribed training goal which
will be reached by teachers, students and pedagogical units throughout their performance of training
plans and curriculum (Nguyen Tri Duc, 2010).
- Curriculum management of the primary education: Curriculum management of the primary
education is the activities of organizing and monitoring all the resources of the training institution in
order to equip students with the appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes to become primary teachers.
2.2. AUN (ASEAN University Network)

- ASEAN University Network (AUN) and ASEAN University Network - Quality Assurance (AUN-
QA) model: ASEAN University Network (AUN)-QA is established as the ASEAN quality assurance
network in higher education with the responsibility to promote quality assurance in higher education
institutions, raise the quality of higher education, and collaborate with both regional and international
bodies for the benefit of the ASEAN community.
The 3rd version of the AUN-QA model for programme level encompasses the following 11 criteria:
1. Expected Learning Outcomes; 2. Programme Specification; 3. Programme Structure and Content; 4.
Teaching and Learning Approach; 5. Student Assessment; 6. Academic Staff Quality; 7. Support Staff
Quality; 8. Student Quality and Support; 9. Facilities and Infrastructure; 10. Quality Enhancement; and
11. Output.
AUN-QA based curriculum management of the primary education in this paper is the impacting
process of QBU (headed by the Rector) on the curriculum management activities, curriculum contents
of the primary education under the Pedagogy Faculty, and Departments as well as other related units in
order to achieve the objectives of the primary education.
Figure 2. The map of AUN-QA based curriculum management of primary education sector
According to AUN-QA, the AUN-QA Model for programme level focuses on quality of educational
activities with regard to the following dimensions: Quality of input; Quality of process; Quality of output.
Thus, AUN-QA based curriculum management of primary education sector at QBU comprises the 3
following dimensions:
- Quality of input: Academic and support staff; student quality and support; and facilities and
infrastructure.
- Quality of process: Curriculum design and development of primary education, teaching and
learning, student assessment, quality of support services and facilities, and stakeholders’ feedback.
- Quality of output: The quality of the graduates (Pass rates and dropout rates, the average time to
graduate, employability of the graduates, etc.), research activities and stakeholders’ satisfaction.
Study model: The AUN-QA Model for programme level
In order to analyze and evaluate the current status of AUN-QA based curriculum management
of primary education sector at QBU, we have made study according to the AUN - QA model on
those 3 following dimensions above: Management of Input quality, Management of Process quality,
Management of Output quality.
Responses are recorded on a 5- response level: 1/ Far below requirement. 2/ Does not meet
requirements, needs quality improvement. 3/ Does not meet requirements, needs a small improvement.
4/ Meet requirements as expected. 5/ Above requirements.
Study subject and study site
Study subject: The management of the primary education curriculum at Quang Binh University
In the academic year 2015 - 2021 at Quang Binh University and local 10 primary schools in Quang
Binh province 10.
2.3. Used methods
Survey method: 45 questionnaires were used for teachers and staff of the Pedagogy Faculty and
managers of Quang Binh University. 120 questionnaires for undergraduates at QBU and alumni who are
working at local 10 primary schools in Quang Binh province were also conducted. The questionnaires
aim at collecting their opinions and ideas on the status of curriculum and AUN-QA based curriculum
management in primary education at Quang Binh University.
- Mathematical statistical methods: During the implementation of the study, the descriptive and
inferential statistics were used to analyze the survey results and calculate the reliability of the results.
Sampling: + For the managers and lecturers of the primary education sector: fully providing
+ For the alumni and students: 120 questionnaires, of which 80 ones are for 80 students (20 students
per class taken at random) and 40 ones for 40 alumni of 10 schools (40 alumni per school taken at random).
Processing method: Data entry and result statistics (%)
3. RESULTS
3.1. Analyzing the current status of AUN-QA based curriculum management of primary education
sector at Quang Binh University
* Management of Input quality (Academic and support staff; student quality and support;
and facilities and infrastructure)
We have collected data and surveys on the management of input quality in terms of the lecturer and
staff quality of Faculty, facilities and infrastructure for teaching and learning. The results are shown in
the tables below.
Table 1. Lecturers and staffs’ profession improvement and research activities of the Primary Education Faculty over years
Academic year
2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2019- 2020-
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Items
Total number of lecturers and staffs 22 20 21 18 18 18
Numbers teachers studying for further education (MA

2 2 6 6 1 1
and PhD)
Numbers teachers participated in national and

18 20 24 25 20 15
international workshops
Numbers of research work (publications, consulting
26 29 35 25 24 20
work, projects)
* Source: Yearly report of Primary Education Faculty - Period 2015-2021

The table 1 shows that the number of teachers and staff who had improved their qualification and
profession as well as their research activities accounts for a low proportion in spite of the fact that there
have been many innovations of education and curriculums in the period 2015 - 2021.
Table 2. Management of facilities and infrastructure
Results (%)
Contents
1 2 3 4 5
Monitoring and evaluation of the teaching and learning facilities and equipment are
0 0 11 67 22
frequently implemented to update and support education and research.
Monitoring and evaluation of the library and its resources are frequently implemented
to make them adequate with the curriculum and update to support education and 0 0 22 78 0
research.
Monitoring and evaluation of the laboratories and equipment are frequently

0 0 33 67 0
implemented to update and support education and research.
Providing lecturers, staffs and students with the IT facilities to support education
0 0 44 56 0
and research
The table 2 shows that management of facilities and infrastructure still remains limited such as
providing lecturers, staff and students with the IT facilities to support education and research (44% at level
3), monitoring and evaluation of the laboratories and equipment (33% at level 3).
* Management of Process quality (Curriculum design and development of primary education,
teaching and learning, student assessment, quality of support services and facilities, and stakeholders’
feedback)
Table 3. Management of curriculum’s goal
Results (%)
Contents
1 2 3 4 5
Expected learning outcomes have been clearly developed, serving as a basis for
0 0 20 78 2
evaluation of output standards.
The expected learning outcomes have been aligned with the vision and mission of
0 0 0 67 33
the university
The expected learning outcomes clearly reflect the learners’s demand and
0 0 0 80 20
requirements of the employers.
Each course and lesson have been designed clearly to achieve its expected learning
0 0 0 67 33
outcomes.
The student intake policy and the admission criteria are clearly defined, communicated,
0 0 22 67 11
published, and up-to-date.
The methods and criteria for the selection of students are determined and evaluated 0 0 33 67 0
The table 3 presents that QBU has focused on the training quality management. The expected
learning outcomes are aligned with the vision and mission of the university, clearly reflecting the learner’s
demand and requirements of the employers. However, the student intake policy and the admission
criteria, the methods and criteria for the selection of students are limited, need to be clearly defined,
evaluated, published, and up-to-date.
Table 4. Evaluation on curriculum of primary education at QBU

(Gradually increasing from 1 to 5)
Response level % (Teacher/Student)

TT Contents evaluated
1 2 3 4 5
The curriculum reflects the university’s vision, mission, and

1 0/0 0/0 0/5 40/35 60/60
training goals
Students are equipped with basic skills to meet the standard
2 0/0 0/0 0/0 55/50 45/50
requirements of knowledge, skills and training qualifications.
There is a reasonable distribution between theory and
3 0/0 0/0 0/0 55/55 45/45
practice in the curriculum
The curriculum is structured so that it is flexible enough to

4 enable students to make meaningful choices in terms of 0/0 0/0 20/30 50/50 30/20
subject content, programme routes, duration of study, etc.
5 Soft skills for students are also designed in the curriculum. 0/0 0/0 20/35 50/50 30/15
The table 4 shows that the curriculum has reflected the vision, mission and training goals of
the University. However, the flexibility of curriculum and soft skills for students received a low
satisfaction from teachers and students (at response level 3).
Table 5. Evaluation on management of curriculum, teaching – learning activities, and student assessment of
primary education at QBU (Gradually increasing from 1 to 5)
Result (%)
İtem Contents
1 2 3 4 5
1.1. The detailed information about the programme and course
specifications have been given by the University to the learners. 0 0 0 78 22
1. Manage
curriculum 1.2. Manage and evaluate the design and development process
content and 0 0 0 78 22
of curriculum
structure
1.3. Manage and evaluate processing feedback from lecturers and
0 0 0 89 11
students to support curriculum development
2.1. Develop a process and plan to teaching-learning activities to

0 0 22 78 0
enable learners to obtain knowledge
2.2. Check and evaluate the use of teaching methods and selected
0 0 0 89 11
student assessment methods
2. Manage
teaching 2.3. Applying the teaching and learning methods to the curriculum
0 0 22 78 0
– learning is congruent with students and promote their learning
activities
2.4. The teaching and learning process, student assessment are
0 0 33 67 0
regularly monitored and evaluated
2.5. Monitor and evaluate the implementation of educational goal,
0 0 33 67 0
the role of teachers and learners.
2.6. Designing and implementation of curriculum are applied in a
0 0 11 67 22
consistent manner.
Result (%)
İtem Contents
1 2 3 4 5
3.1. The student assessments including timelines, methods, etc
0 0 11 67 22
are explicit and communicated to teachers and students timely
3.2. The implementation of the complaint process of testing and

0 0 22 78 0
student assessment results is periodically monitored and evaluated.
3. Manage
student 3.3. A variety of assessment methods is congruent with the
0 0 44 56 0
assessment expected learning outcomes
3.4. The form and method of assessment for each module are
0 0 33 67 0
closely monitored
3.5. Providing a highly accessible computer and network infrastructure
that enables lecturers, staffs and students to fully exploit information 0 0 44 56 0
technology for teaching, research, and administration
The table 5 shows that the University has conducted its management about the curriculum, teaching
and learning activities and student assessment in a constructive way to achieve the expected learning
outcomes. The University gives detailed information about the course specifications to the learners and
teachers. The teaching and learning methods, student assessment methods have been regularly monitored
and evaluated. Besides, the table presents the limitations in the form and methods of assessment as well
as the IT facilities to support education and research.
* Management of Output quality (Pass rates and dropout rates, the average time to graduate,
employability of the graduates of primary education, research activities and stakeholders’ satisfaction)
According to the AUN-QA model, it is also very important to carry out the management of output
quality. In recent years (the period of 2015-2020), the collection of information on the students and the
graduates has been implemented by QBU in many ways such as surveys, mail, phone, etc.
Table 6: Pass rates and dropout rates, the average time to graduate,
employability of the graduates of primary education over years
2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2019-

Academic year
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Pass rates (%) 90 90 86,7 91,4 91,4
Dropout rates (%) 10 10 13,3 8,6 8,6
Graduating on time (%) 90 90 86,66 91,42 91,42
Employability of the graduates (%) (find a full-time job in their

67 40 27 28 21
chosen profession)
The table 6 presents that the pass rates by students and number of students graduating on time are at
high rates. Yet, the number of graduates who find full-time jobs in their chosen profession is decreasing
over years. It means that there is an inadequacy between labor demand and the training scale of primary
education students offered by higher education institutions.
Also, to get feedback from employers on the graduate quality, a survey about alumni’ professional
capacity meeting the professional standards for primary teachers according to Circular 20/2018/TT-GDDT
dated 22 August 2018 was conducted on 20 managers of 10 local primary schools in Quang Binh province.
The result is reflected in the table 7 below.
Table 7. Employers’ evaluation on alumni’ professional capacity meeting the professional standards
Results (%)
Contents Capacities and skills
1 2 3 4 5
Ethics and professional responsibility 0 0 10 80 10
Qualities of a Ability to share experiences 0 0 50 40 10

teacher
Ability to support colleagues in building teacher moral 0 0 60 40 0
Working style 0 0 40 50 10
Expertise and professional competence 0 0 35 45 20
Ability to update and improve professional capacity meeting

0 0 15 70 15
educational innovation requirements
Ability to develop personal expertise 0 0 20 65 15

Professional
development Ability to develop learner-based educational plans 0 0 20 60 20
Ability to apply learner-centered teaching methods to teaching 0 0 30 45 20
Ability to evaluate learners 0 0 25 50 25
Ability to get further education 0 0 25 60 15
Ability to build a school culture 0 0 20 50 30

Developing
educational Ability to exercise democracy in schools 0 0 25 50 25
environment Ability to build a safe school, preventing school violence 0 0 35 40 25
Ability to solve problems 0 0 60 40 0
Ability to form partnerships with parents, guardians, and other

Creating 0 0 60 35 5
stakeholders
society -
family -school Ability to make coordination between schools, families, and
relationships 0 0 40 40 20
society for better teaching activities
Ability to make coordination between schools, families, and

0 0 35 40 25
society for better moral education
Using foreign Ability to use foreign languages or ethnic languages 0 0 20 70 10

languages
or ethnic
Ability to apply IT and technology in teaching 0 0 25 65 10
languages,
applying IT
and technology Ability to fulfill the tasks well 0 0 35 50 15
in teaching
Table 7 shows that alumni received high satisfaction from the employers in terms of
their teacher qualities, abilities to develop their profession. Yet, they still lack adaptive skills as reflected
in the table. They fail to communicate well or solve problems, especially creating family-school-
community partnerships which are essential for students’ comprehensive development.
3.2. Overview evaluation in AUN-QA based curriculum management of the primary education
sector at QBU Achievements
Although being as a local university, in recent years, Quang Binh University has performed
its systematic management of curriculum over the three dimensions: Input quality, process quality,
and output quality. At each dimension, the criteria have been evaluated and managed quite fully in
comparison with the AUN-QA model. The mmanagement of facilities and infrastructure has been
implemented well in terms of the teaching and learning facilities, equipment and library to support
education and research as well. The management of curriculum design and development has been
paid attention. The expected learning outcomes have been aligned with the vision and mission of the
University. The expected learning outcomes clearly reflect the learner’s demand and requirements of
the employers. Besides, the curriculum, teaching and learning activities and student assessment have
been monitored and evaluated in a constructive way to achieve the expected learning outcomes. Also,
regarding output quality, the graduates quality and stakeholders feedback have been evaluated for
improvement of curriculum. Alumni received high satisfaction from the employers for their teacher
qualities and their abilities to develop their profession. To manage the output quality, a variety
of methods had been conducted such as surveys, questionnaires, tracer study, focus group discussions,
dialogues, etc.
Shortcomings: Besides those achievements above, the AUN-QA based curriculum management of
primary education still remains the following shortcomings:
Firstly, the input management has not been effective, such as the management of lecturer and
support staff quality, and their research activities. The laboratories and equipment have not been adequate
and updated yet to support education and research.
Secondly, the student intake policy, the admission criteria, and the methods for the selection of
students are limited, and need to be clearly defined, evaluated, published, and up-to-date. Soft skills for
students have not been focused when designing and developing curriculum. Thus, the graduates still
lack adaptive skills in practice such as problem-solving skill, cooperation skill which are essential for
students’ comprehensive development. In addition, the form and method of student assessment for each
module are not closely monitored and evaluated. The results of the evaluation of teaching activities and
student assessment have not been fully used to adjust and update the curriculum.
Finally, the management of output quality in recent years still remains limited. The University
hasn’t had a mechanism to periodically evaluate the output quality such as the quality of graduates, their
employability and the satisfaction of employers.
3.3. Proposed measures to renovate the quality of AUN-QA based curriculum management of
primary education
a. Enhance organizational management and professional development for teachers and the support staff
The quality of an institution not only depends on the quality of the curriculum but also the quality
of the academic staff and support staff. They are lecturers and the support staff members who manage
the libraries, laboratories, computer facilities and student services. Thus, the University should have a
human resource policy in which training and development needs for academic staff and support staff
are systematically identified. Besides, the types and quantity of research activities by academic staff are
established, monitored and benchmarked for improvement.
b. Promulgate regulations on inspection, evaluation on the quality of AUN-QA based primary education
curriculum for making improvements to the curriculum
Thanks to the assessment and accreditation of curriculum quality at QBU which was conducted in
2017, the University has drawn a lot of experience and got lessons learned in performing the inspection,
evaluation and getting response from the the stakeholders who are teachers, students, graduates and
employers. To ensure a systematic and regular evaluation of the curriculums, the University should issue
regulations of inspection, evaluation on the quality of AUN-QA based primary education curriculum
for making improvements to the curriculum. The curriculum design and development process must be
established and it must be periodically reviewed and evaluated so that the curriculum is up-to-date. In
addition, it is necessary to develop a set of evaluating tools of the AUN-QA based curriculum of the primary
education for the three dimensions that are input quality, progress quality, and output quality.
c. Establish a feedback mechanism to gather stakeholders ’feedback for making improvements to the
programme, quality practices and quality assurance system.
The stakeholders consist of staff, students, alumni, employers, etc. In assessing the quality assurance
system, institutions not only have to evaluate the quality of the process, but also the quality of output
and its graduates. To evaluate the quality of the graduates, institutions have to monitor the achievement
of the expected learning outcomes, pass rates and dropout rates, the average time to graduation and
the employability of graduates. Therefore, a feedback mechanism should be systematically established
to collect and measure stakeholders’ satisfaction. The information collected then has to be analyzed
and benchmarked. The Department of Student’s Affair, Department of Education Quality Assurance,
Department of Information and Communication, Department of Scientific Management and International
Cooperation and other relevant Department and Faculty of QBU are responsible for establishment of the
mechanism and maintain it.
d. Increase investment in facilities and infrastructure, especially information technology systems, serving
as the physical resources for learning – teaching activities, research and administration
Learning resources in the library have to be frequently updated such as textbooks, reference books,
databases on scientific research. The library and its resources should be adequate and added to support
education and research. Also, the laboratories and equipment which are very necessary for research
activities must be regularly evaluated and updated. Information technology systems are set up to meet
the needs of staff and students.
4. CONCLUSION
The management of the AUN-QA based curriculum of the primary education at Quang Binh
University is a key factor that contributes to the quality of training and affirms the position of the University.
The study results have partly provided the relatively comprehensive and detailed information on the
current status of the management of the AUN-QA based curriculum of primary education at Quang Binh
University. Also, the paper has addressed the shortcomings in the management of the primary education
curriculum at Quang Binh University. The article, then, has proposed the appropriate measures to
improve and renovate the quality of AUN-QA based curriculum management of the primary education
at QBU, contributing to improving the quality of academic staffs who are considered as a decisive factor
for a fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training in our country today and in
line with the University’s mission and vision which is to develop a professional – oriented institution.
REFERENCES
1. ASEAN University Network (2015. Guide to AUN-QA Assessment at programme level, Version 3.0
2. Bodil Svendsen. (2016). Teachers ’experience from a school-based collaborative teacher
professional development program: reported impact on professional development. Teacher
Development, 20 (3), 313-328. weight: 10.1080/13664530.2016.1149512
3. Che Thi Hai Linh (2017). The framework of teachers at primary school in the new context.
Journal of Education No. 412.
4. Greenberg, Julie, Arthur McKee, & and Kate Walsh. (Two thousand and thirteen). Teacher prep
review: A review of the nation’s teacher preparation programs
5. Ha My Hanh (2015). Developing primary teachers’ curriculum based on social activity
competencies. Workshop on “Assessing primary school students based on competency-based
approach”, Thai Nguyen University Press.
6. Le Minh Hiep (2018). Reality of Curriculum Development at University of Foreign Language –
Da Nang University, meeting the quality assurance under AUN-QA. Education Journal, No. 435
(Term 1- 8/2018)
7. Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam (2018), Circular 20/2018/TT-GDDT dated
22 August 2018, Provisions of Professional Standards of teachers at general education
institutions.
8. Phan Huy Hung (2005). Managing the basic training program to ensure the autonomy mechanism
and the quality of higher education. Journal of Scientific Research, 2005.
9. Phan Hung Thu (2019). Managing high school teacher curriculum based on AUN-QA approach.
Doctoral thesis in educational science. Hanoi, 2019.
10. Rick Sullivan, Noel McIntosh (1996). The competency- based Approach to training. Vol 5, No
2, April- June 1996.
11. Tran Thi Thu Trang (2017). Developing competency-based curriculum at the People’s Police
University. Journal of Education, No. 410, 2017.
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CURRENT STATE OF TECHNOLOGICAL
APPLICATION AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SMART PEDAGOGIES
IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Bui Thi Thuy Hang
(School of Engineering Pedagogy - Hanoi University of Science and Technology)
Nguyen Hoai Nam
(Faculty of Technology Education - Hanoi National University of Education)
Abstract: In the last decade, the rapid development in educational technology has created exciting opportunities
for both teachers and learners. Smart pedagogy can be considered as an innovative technology-based teaching and
learning strategies aiming to understand learners’ characteristics and help them achieve their learning goals. The
purpose of this study is to understand the current state of smart university oriented technological application, to
look into the smart pedagogy strategies used and their performance methods and examine the relationship between
the use frequency and quality of advanced technologies and the degree of adoption of popular smart pedagogies in
higher education. A survey was conducted on 1157 students in engineering disciplines, inquiring about the current
situation of advanced technological application and the utility of the most common smart pedagogies in university
teaching. The results of statistical analysis will offer an overview of the current state of smart university oriented
technological application including analyses and comparisons on the relationship between smart technological
application and the implementation of smart pedagogies. Conclusions and discussions will provide the useful
information to guide and encourage the use of smart pedagogies to cultivate human resources that would meet the
requirements of modern technology society.
Keywords: technology use, smart pedagogies, smart university, advanced technology.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is the recent advance in smart technology and modern equipment as well as hardware/software
system that have granted educational organizations the chance to initiate new teaching approaches, provide
smart services, establish high technology amphitheaters, classrooms and laboratories like never before.
Across the globe, many countries have participated in smart education projects: Malaysia, Singapore,
Korea, Australia, America (New York) and United Arab Emirates (UAE). The goal of these projects
is to improve the education system in a way that focuses on learners using scientific and educational
achievements as well as advanced technology to encourage learners develop creativity, analytical and
innovative thinking. Thanks to this, learners can actively participate in the learning process, foster self-
oriented study skills in an interactive, advantageous and engaging learning environment.
Introduced in recent years, smart university and several related concepts such as smart learning
environment, smart campus, smart education, smart pedagogies, smart learners, and smart classrooms
have become a widely attractive topic of discussion for world educational researchers as well as their
counterpart in Vietnam (Uskov et al., 2018, 2019; Karkazis et al., 2019; Nguyen Huu Duc et al., 2020).
On basis of research and systemizing concepts and characteristics of smart education, smart
university and smart pedagogy, this research focuses on answering the following questions: (1) The
current state of technology orienting the construction of smart universities, (2) smart pedagogy applied
in schools and its performance methods, (3) the correlation between using advanced technology and
actualizing smart pedagogies in university teaching.
2. AN OVERVIEW OF SMART UNIVERSITY
Smart education
Recently, Smart education has received considerable attention and has been addressed in many
research (Uskov et al., 2018, 2019; Karkazis et al., 2019; Nguyen Huu Duc et al., 2020)… Smart
education was defined by IBM as [1]: “A smart, multi-disciplinary student-centric education system –
linked across schools, tertiary institutions and workforce training, using: 1) adaptive learning programs
and learning portfolios for students, 2) collaborative technologies and digital learning resources for
teachers and students, 3) computerized administration, monitoring and reporting to keep teachers in the
classroom, 4) better information on our learners, 5) online learning resources for students everywhere”.
The core of Smart education is creating a smart environment by using advanced technology, allowing
smart pedagogies to provide personalized learning services and task learners with the responsibility of
fostering value orientation, thinking capacity and soft skills (Zhu and He, 2012).
Smart education relates directly to the innovation of teaching quality, researching and
commercialization of knowledge and other university activities (Nguyen Huu Duc et al., 2020). In a
model categorized by function, smart education can be described as the upper layer, displaying the
results of many lower layers – IT infrastructure, transportation, data storage and distribution, knowledge
sharing, energy management, social interaction, administration and courses management, well-being
(safety and health) (Coccoli et al., 2014).
Smart university (SU)
Smart university, according to Tikhomirov and partners (2015), involves a thorough innovation of
all educational processes. A distinct trait of smart university is the significant support of smart technology
and devices (especially smart phones), the Next Generation Network and high interaction application
software (Coccoli et al., 2014).
On the basis of compiling and analyzing concepts of smart city, smart education, the mission
and characteristics of smart university, Nguyen Huu Duc et al., (2020) offered a definition for smart
universities: “Smart university is a digitalized creativity-oriented educational institution, using digital
infrastructure (digital law, digital human resources, digital data, digital tools and application) to provide
personalized educational services for learners across generations, internationally and globally thus
fulfilling the need for life-long education and the steady growth of individuals as well as countries”.
In its core, building Smart University is the process of digitalization with an aim to change
traditional educational methods into educational methods based on digitalized versions of entities and
their interconnection in a digital space (Ho Tu Bao, 2020), fulfilling the need of life-long education and
personal goals achievement therefore adding value to the educational process.
Distinctive Features of SU
According to Uskov et al., (2016), SU should display considerable maturity at many different
“smartness” levels or smart features as below:
- Adaptation: Smart University can automatically reengineer teaching and learning strategies,
administrative, safety, physical, behavioral, etc. to improve its original business functions
performance (teaching, learning, safety, management, maintenance, control, etc.)
- Sensing: SU can use a plethora of sensors to identify, recognize, comprehend and/or register
events, phenomena, etc. that can impact SU’s operation, infrastructure, or the well-being of its
components (students, faculty, resources, properties, etc.)
- Inferring (the ability to convert information into digital data bases): SU can automatically
form conclusions from raw data, processed information, observations, evidence, hypotheticals
and logical reasoning.
- Self-learning: SU can automatically absorb, invent or transform knowledge, experience or
present behaviors to improve its efficiency.
- Anticipation: SU can automatically deduce or reason to predict future events, phenomena and
possible solutions.
- Self-optimization or re-structuring: SU can automatically revamp its internal structure,
deliberately reinvent and maintain itself in appropriate conditions without external influences.
These characteristics are also the six levels of smartness ranked from lowest to highest of Smart
University (Nguyen Huu Duc et al., 2020)
Main components of smart university
Aside from inheriting elements of traditional universities, Smart University includes additional
elements to carry out and maintain the aforementioned 6 functions. Based on opinions and distinct
characteristics of SU, Uskov et al., (2016) identified the fundamental elements of next generation
university – Smart University, as software systems, hardware/devices, smart educational programs,
smart teachers and learners, smart pedagogy and smart classrooms.
Evidently, equipment, technology, hardware/software and Smart Pedagogy are the basic components
of smart schools.
The Smart University V-SMARTH model
Based on Korean’s Smart University K-SMART model, Nguyen Huu Duc et al., (2020) built
Vietnam’s version of Smart University model – V-SMARTH, including 6 components: (1) S – digital
resources, (2) M – open access learning materials, (3) A – virtual learning environment, (4) R –
personalized learning needs, (5) T – interactive teaching methods and (6) H – digital infrastructure.
These 6 components can be categorized into 2 groups based on their characteristics which are: new
technology (S – digital resources, M – open access learning material, H – digital infrastructure) and
teaching methods (A – virtual education applied in all teaching and evaluation processes including online
and blended teaching models, R – personalized learning needs and T – interactive teaching method)
On basis of the analysis on characteristics and components of Smart University in Uskov et al.,’s
perspective (2016) and components in the Vietnam’s Smart University model- V-SMARTH (Nguyen Huu
Duc et al., 2020), it can be observed that between them exists a dialectic relationship. New technology
is regarded as a premise on which smart learning environment is created. Smart pedagogy, however,
relates to teaching and learning methods and assessment forms which educate people into smart learners
– the master of knowledge and skills of the 21st century, with the ability adapt to the constantly changing
nature of the digital era. The relationship between the components of Smart University can be modelized
as below (Zhu et al., 2016):
Figure 1: Relationship between the components of Smart University
3. SMART PEDAGOGY WITH THE SUPPORT OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

Smart pedagogy is defined as a collection of teaching strategies that instructors use to recognize
learner profiles and set up favorable learning environment to assist students in reaching their goal
(Uskov et al., 2019). This subject of pedagogy is found on the active use of “smartness” features of
Smart Education (SmE) consisting of (1) suitability, (2) sensing, (3) deducing, (4) self-learning, (5)
anticipation and (6) self-organization (Uskov et al., 2019).
To provide a list of the most popular teaching strategies and learning styles that are focused on an
active use of advanced technology, Uskov et al., (2018) analyzed more than 40 innovative recent strategies
during the period of 2010-2017. The obtained student feedback indicated the 6 smart pedagogies being
interesting for students that will be presented in following section.
Flipped classroom
FC is a concept regularly used to describe teaching methods combining traditional face-to-face
learning activities with online learning experiences (Garrison & Heather, 2004). Eventually, different
terms such as “hybrid” and “blended” are employed to indicate the same concept. FC teaching and
learning consists of two phases: (1) direct instruction is taken out of the school and put online, and (2)
interactive face-to-face discussion is organized in the classroom. In the first phase, students learn at home
through shorts videos, textbooks, software or other resources. In the second phase, some teachers adopt
peer teaching approach in which students teach each other, others use group projects to apply the concepts
learned at home and engage creatively in the subject matter. As a result, FC-based learning approach
assists students in their evolution of: (1) creativity; (2) communication; (3) teamwork; (4) leadership; (5)
collaboration; (6) initiatives; and (7) problem solving (Uskov et al., 2018).
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative Learning (CL) is simply formulated as a teaching and learning strategy in which
teams of two or more student work together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product
(Gradel & Edson, 2010). Practically, the term CL involves learning activities that the instructor designs
especially for small groups. Therefore, these activities must be designed to promote interaction within
the group and make learners become active member in accomplishing the task (Karkazis et al., 2019).
Nowadays, with the increasing use of innovative technologies in higher education, teachers commonly
integrate online tools to help students to collaborate with teachers and other students to solve learning
problem while maintaining individual accountability. This educational approach aims to improve
student’s social and communication skills through discussions and debates, better their critical thinking
to attain a deeper learning. This social interaction is important because it`s a basic skill for all types of
collaboration.
Game-based Learning
In most situations, the integration of technology in the learning process is not necessary to increase
student’s motivation and engagement, especially the younger ones today are mostly digital natives who have
been immersed in the world of smart mobile devices and digital resources for communication, learning and
entertainment in daily life (Bennett et al.2008). The introduction of computer games in education is one
tactic to engage students in learning activities. By creating a familiar virtual environment, a game-based
learning strategy allows learners to make mistakes without any risk, experiment on things and acquire new
skills properly (Karkazis et al., 2019).
Learning Analytics
The Society for Learning Analytics Research introduces a definition of learning analytics as: “… the
measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of
understanding and optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs” (Arroway et al., 2016).
Analytics enable visualization and recommendations designed to influence student behavior while a
course is in progress. LA can be used to identify students who are disconnected and are, therefore, at
risk. This provides the chance to pick out key information brokers within a class and to find potentially
high- and low-performing students so teachers can better plan interventions.
Adaptive learning
Adaptive learning, also known as adaptive teaching, is a teaching method that uses computers
and corresponding software tools to help instructors adapt classroom activities to student’s specific
learning performance and requirements. This teaching method is created based on the concept that an
individualized method can facilitate comprehension and retention of the learner (Karkazis et al., 2019).
Nowadays, with the rapid evolution of innovative computer technology, adaptive learning platforms
use data mining, artificial intelligence to provide customized resources and learning activities for each
student. The platform can describe the profile of each learner by observing his/her behaviors, following
his involvement and detecting his preferences, needs and background to adjust the learning paths to
deliver appropriate content that this learner requires (Paramythis & Loidl-Reisinger, 2004). A modern
adaptive learning platform allows teachers not only to recognize the current comprehension level of
each learner but also outline the tasks, the process and the method necessary to maximize student`s
learning outcome.
Learning by doing
Learning by doing can be understood as learning from the direct consequences of one’s actions
rather than learning from watching other people’s performance or reading and listening to other people’s
directions or descriptions. Bates (2015) regards experiential learning as an umbrella term covering
many different instances of learning by doing which includes: laboratory experimentation, workshop
or studio work; case-based learning; project-based learning; problem-based learning. According to
the Experiential Learning theory, learning is “the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984). In the experiential learning model, Kolb illustrates two
dialectically related modes of obtaining experience - Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization,
and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience - Reflective Observation and Active
Experimentation (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). With special regards to the use of technology, the model
focuses on some methods whereby experiential learning can be designed and taught to accommodate
the development of the knowledge and skills required in a digital era. Many universities are adopting
experiential learning as a mainstream teaching method.
A common characteristic of these smart pedagogical models is that they are learner-centric
approaches aiming to help improve student`s skills such as communication and collaboration skills,
teamwork, leadership, critical thinking, creativity, self-evaluation, and problem-solving capabilities
(Uskov et al., 2018; Pesare et al., 2016). Moreover, smart learning models integrate online tools
and platforms to reinforce students-students and students-teachers interactions to increase student’s
motivation and engagement.
4. METHODOLOGY
As stated, advanced technology is a prerequisite to create smart learning environment so as to

actualize smart pedagogy strategies which aim to create smart learners equipped with knowledge
and skills needed to adapt to the demands of the 21st century. Therefore, the first and foremost aim of
this article is to look into the current state of smart university orientational technology, infrastructure
equipped with technology, the equipment used in smart classrooms/function room, the digital learning
material used in schools, utility frequency and quality of these technology in teaching and researching.
Common characteristic of smart pedagogy strategies is the learner-centric approach in teaching and
learning strategy, the integration of interaction-assistive technology and the goal to identify learners’
characteristics in order to help learners achieve their study goals and perfect skills such as communication,
team-work, critical thinking, creativity and problem-solving. Thus, the next goal is to look into smart
pedagogy used in schools and their performance methods. The third aim of the article is to analyze the
correlation between using advanced technology and the implementation of smart pedagogy strategies in
university teaching.
Participants
Respondents of the survey are 1157 students ranging from first-years to sixth-years, from various
majors in Hanoi University of Science and Technology (HUST). The student distribution according to
school year status is illustrated in the table below:
Table 1: Distribution of the survey sample by school year
Number Proportion
First-years 145 12.5
Second-years 211 18.2
Third-years 490 42.4

Fourth-years 242 20.9
Fifth-years 61 5.3
Sixth-years 8 0.7
Survey lnstrument
The survey includes 2 parts:
A. Survey on the current situation of using advanced technologies including 3 questions
Question 1: Inquiring about infrastructure, smart technology equipped in schools, including 5

categories of infrastructures, 9 categories of technology infrastructure, 6 categories of equipment in
smart classrooms/function rooms and 3 categories of digital learning material.
Students are to select the categories equipped in the school. Selected categories are encoded as 1,
those not selected are 0.
Question 2: Use frequency of equipment, infrastructure, technology application, study material

mentioned in question 1 during their learning experience at school.
Students are to select 4 options: Never (1), Sometimes (2), Often (3), All the time (4)
Unselected categories (encoded as 0 in question 1) will remain the same (stop receiving
evaluation results), therefore will still be encoded as 0 in the following questions.
Question 3: service quality of aforementioned infrastructure and equipment during their learning
experience at school.
Students are to select 4 options: Bad (1), Adequate (2), Good (3), Great (4)
B. Survey on the use of smart pedagogy strategies – 1 question
Students are asked whether they have experienced the 6 common smart pedagogy strategies. Have
not been experienced is encoded as 0, have been experienced is 1.
With every smart pedagogy they have experienced, students are to select the corresponding level
experience. Levels of experience selected by students are encoded as 1, those not selected are 0.
5.1. Status of advanced technology used in university

Table 2: Advanced technology equipped in university

Without With
Infrastructure
Quantity Proportion Quantity Proportion
1 System of smart classrooms 617 53.3 540 46.7
Learning materials for smart learning applications

2 388 33.5 769 66.5
development centers
Repositories of digital learning content and online
3 401 34.7 756 65.3
(Web) resources, learning portals
4 High-technology laboratories 413 35.7 744 64.3
5 Work offices equipped with smart devices 793 68.5 364 31.5
Smart card readers (or biometrics) to open amphitheaters,

6 computer rooms, smart classrooms and activate 609 52.6 548 47.4
software/hardware/features
7 Text-to-voice and speech-to-text synthesis systems 916 79.2 241 20.8
Facial, speech, gestures, … recognition systems to

8 access and process data on students, classrooms and 907 78.4 250 21.6
class activities, …
9 Learning and teaching analytics systems 806 69.7 351 30.3
10 Smart classroom in-class activities recording systems 917 79.3 240 20.7
Collaborative Web-based audio/video one-to-one and
11 many-to-many communication systems (for both local 688 59.5 469 40.5
and remote students)
12 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality technology 967 83.6 190 16.4
13 Computer gaming (serious gaming) technology 861 74.4 296 25.6
14 Cloud computing technology 414 35.8 743 64.2
15 Smart boards and/or interactive white boards 867 74.9 290 25.1
Ceiling-mounted projectors (in some cases, 3D

16 249 21.5 908 78.5
projectors)
17 Interconnected laptops or desktop computers 477 41.2 680 58.8
System of high-resolution IP camera system for
18 870 75.2 287 24.8
security system
High-resolution IP camera system recording classroom
19 951 82.2 206 17.8
activities
Hardware/software systems performing web-based
20 748 64.6 409 35.4
conferencing
Lessons/study materials developed by school faculty

21 152 13.1 1005 86.9
for online courses, blended learning
Open educational resources, massive open online

22 753 65.1 404 34.9
courseware from reliable sources (Coursera, MIT, edX)
Accessible international and global data base (books,

23 551 47.6 606 52.4
scientific articles)
Survey results on smart university development oriented technology shows technologies that are
rarely equipped in school are VR and AR technology applications (16.4%), system of IP cameras recording
in-class activities (17.8%). On the contrary, technologies that are most commonly used in school are study
material development centers for advanced learning applications (online, blended learning …) including
studios and professional post-production processing system (66.5%); Repositories of digital learning
content and online (Web) resources, learning portals (65.3%), high technology laboratories (64.3%); cloud
computing technology (Google Suite, Office 365) (64.2%); Ceiling-mounted projectors (78.5%); digital
lessons/study material developed by the university for online courses/blended learning (86.9%).
Although all of the survey respondents are HUST students, their answers differ from one
another regarding the infrastructure and technology used in the school. Taken into context, students’
answers depend on their personal, biased knowledge and experience on aforementioned technology.
If the students did not do their research or have not been introduced, have not had the chance to use
certain technologies in school, they would consequently assume that technology has not been installed.
Furthermore, characteristics of students’ majors, which year of college they are in, teachers’ teaching
styles and approaches also influence students’ chance of approaching advanced technology in school.
Furthermore, the survey concluded some of the technologies with the lowest use frequency are:
speech-to-text and text-to-voice synthesis system; facial, speech and gestures recognition system for
accessing and processing data on students and classrooms and in-class activities recording system. On
the other end of the scale, some of the most frequently used technologies are: Repositories of digital
learning content and online (Web) resources, learning portals; Ceiling-mounted projectors and digital
lessons/study material for online courses, blended learning.
According to survey, digital libraries providing digital study material, open educational resources,
digital data base for learning and research purposes; high technology laboratories; Ceiling-mounted
projectors are rated of best service quality. On the other hand, speech-to-text and text-to-voice synthesis
system; in-class activities recording system; High resolution internet camera system recording
classroom activities have the lowest service quality. This survey result resonates with the survey results
on equipping smart university oriented technology.
5.2. Use frequency of smart pedagogies
The survey result regarding the use frequency of 6 smart pedagogies is as shown in the table:
Table 3: Use frequency of smart pedagogies
Used Not used

Smart pedagogies
Quantity Proportion Quantity Proportion
Learning by doing 771 66.6 386 33.4
Flipped classroom 956 82.6 201 17.4
Collaborative learning 836 72.3 321 27.7
Game-based learning 687 59.4 470 40.6
Learning analysis 533 46.1 624 53.9
Adaptive learning 586 50.6 571 49.4

Of the surveyed smart pedagogy teaching strategies, Flipped classroom is the most frequently used,
followed by Collaborative learning, Learning by doing, Game-based learning. Contrastingly, Learning
analysis and Adaptive learning are the least frequently used teaching strategies.
With the Flipped classroom, the 3 most common experiences described by students are: (1) self-
studying through videos and presentations provided by teachers, (2) reading materials provided by the
learning management system in order to do exercises, (3) reading materials provided by the learning
management system in order to do group exercises. Providing short videos introducing the courses’
website is the least commonly used.
With Collaborative learning, the two most common experiences are: (1) doing subject-related group
exercises, (2) doing group exercises in class. On the other end, the two least experienced methods are: (1)
participating in discussions/forums created by teachers and groups, (2) participating in interdisciplinary
subject-related projects.
Relating to Learning by doing, doing exercises in class is used most frequently, followed by doing
homework exercises and doing group exercises in class. Discussing new topics are the least experienced
teaching strategies.
Game-based learning is the fourth most frequently used teaching strategy. Students report the most
common experiences are (1) participating in discussions with various topics, (2) the fastest problem-
solving exercises in class, (3) solving homework exercises and submitting them to teachers. Students
also report updating study results 2-3 times/semester is the least experienced.
Learning analysis is the least common teaching method in the school. The three least common
experiences according to students are (1) receiving result of any exercises at any given time, (2) receiving
overall result of any subject at any given time, (3) knowing their results and other student’s in the class
anonymously. Sending private warning emails when learning analysis system identify at-risk students
at the end of courses and predict final grades of all students in the class anonymously are the least
frequently used.
Adaptive teaching is the 5/6 strategies surveyed. The two most common methods are (1) adjusting
the sequence of lessons in teaching programs and related learning experiences, (2) providing students
with individual support. On the other hand, the least implemented methods are engaging students in with
lesson-based games and personalizing learning pace.
5.3. The correlation between using advanced technology and initiating smart pedagogies in
university teaching
The correlation between using advanced technology and smart pedagogies is measured by the
Pearson correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficients between Smart-school-oriented technology’s
equipment, use frequency and service quality and Smart pedagogies is illustrated in the table below:
Table 4: Correlation between using advanced technology and smart pedagogies
Smart technology Smart technology use Smart technology
equipment frequency service quality
Learning by doing .146** .180** .163**
Flipped classroom .072** ns ns
Collaborative learning .089** .104** .100**

Game-based learning .203** .260** .230**
Learning analysis .261** .297** .247**
Adaptive learning .273** .308** .271**
Ns: (not statistically significant) ** p<.01
The correlation coefficient shows smart technology equipement, their use frequency and service
quality are proportionally correlated to smart pedagogies. This means that the more smart technology
is equipped in school, the more common smart pedagogy is implemented. Similarly, the higher use
frequency of smart technology and the better service quality, the more smart pedagogies is used.
The results also show the least common smart pedagogies (learning analysis, adaptive learning and
game-based learning) have higher correlation coefficients with advanced technology, their use frequency
and service quality than those of the most frequently used pedagogies (flipped classrooms, collaborative
learning, and learning by doing). This can be explained by the fact that learning analysis, adaptive
learning and game-based learning can only be implemented when sufficiently supplied with necessary
advanced technology such as teaching/learning and big data analyzing system, AI and computer gaming
application serving learning and teaching purposes. However, flipped classroom, collaborative learning
and learning by doing are fundamentally traditional teaching methods that do not require advanced
technology application. For example, flipped classroom can be implemented with teachers providing
students with reading materials as homework and answer students’ questions and possible confusion as
well as hosting discussions about lesson-related topics in class. In conclusion, it can be observed that
although the survey focuses on HUST students’ experience with smart pedagogy and smart technology
application, it is, however, the outcome of the teachers’ experience in smart pedagogy teaching – those
who are carrying out the strategies. If the teachers get the chance to approach, experience and recognize
the benefit of advanced and smart technology, they will develop the habit of using them more and more,
hence students will have more positive evaluations. This conclusion coincides with that of a number of
research in the field of healthcare and medicine (Prasolova-Førland et al., 2018) as well as art education
(Papadopoulou, 2019).
6. CONCLUSION
The survey results on the application of advanced technology in HUST shows some advanced
technology have been relatively sufficiently equipped, especially digital lessons/ study materials
for online courses and blended learning; study materials development centers and cloud application
platforms. These technology and study materials have been successfully utilized and put to good use
by the university. Contrastingly, some technologies such as AR, VR, high resolution IP camera system,
speech to text and text to speech conversion system and facial, speech, gestures recognition system, …
have not been installed. Therefore, their use frequency and service quality have been rated negatively.
The rapid growth of advanced technology has facilitated the widespread implementation of
smart pedagogy in educational institutions, especially universities. The survey results on the 6 most
frequently used smart pedagogy strategies in HUST shows Flipped classroom is the most commonly
used strategy, followed by Collaborative learning, Learning by doing and Game-based learning. The two
least frequently implemented are Adaptive learning and Learning analysis. This result showcases some
similarities to Uskov et al., (2018)’s study which found Learning by doing is the most commonly used
strategy, followed by Flipped classroom and Collaborative learning and Game-based learning. Learning
analysis and Adaptive learning are also the two least frequently implemented strategies in Uskov and
partners’ study.
This survey result resonates with the reality of teaching at HUST. Flipped classrooms was
experimented and implemented in university teaching since 2017. The school’s scheme was to propel
the development of these teaching models, therefore by the second semester of 2020-2021 school year,
there are in total 218 courses taught in the Flipped classroom model. This shows that the school has a
significant concern about innovative teaching approaches that integrate advanced technology and centre
on learners. This change is especially significant in engineering education – what is regarded as the pillar
of the national economy but is witnessing a considerable failure rate, leading to dropouts and expulsions
from the very first semesters [10].
With each smart pedagogy strategy surveyed, use frequency is also addressed. This will be useful
for teachers’ orientation when implementing smart pedagogy in teaching which then fulfils the need of
training human resources to master knowledge and develop skills such as communication, team-work,
creative and analytical thinking, problem-solving skills in real life, fulfilling the demands and challenges
of the modern society.
The analysis on the correlation between the application of advanced technology and the application
of smart pedagogies shows there is a proportionate correlation between advanced technology/smart
equipment, their use frequency and service quality and the application of smart pedagogy strategies.
In part 2, we have given an overall introduction on the smart pedagogies using the most common
assistive technology in university teaching to date. The aim of these smart pedagogies is to increase the
interaction between learners and learners as well as teachers and learners, drawing learners into learning
activities, creating the motivation in learners to develop communication skills, team-working skills,
critical thinking skills and the creativity to solve problems. In order to carry out smart pedagogies, smart
technology equipment needs to be installed as it is crucial in building smart universities and actualize the
goal of training smart learners, who are capable of fulfilling the needs and demands of the 21st century
work force.
Acknowledgment:
This research was funded by the Ministry of Education and Training in Viet Nam under grant
Number: CT2020.02.BKA.07
REFERENCES
1. Arroway, Pam, Glenda Morgan, Molly O’Keefe, and Ronald Yanosky (2016). Learning Analytics
in Higher Education. Research report. Louisville, CO: ECAR, March 2016.
2. Bates, A. T. (2015). Teaching in a Digital Age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning
- 2nd Edition.
3. Bennett, S., Maton, K., Kervin, L. (2008). The ‘digital natives’ debate: a critical review of the
evidence. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 39(5), 775–786.
4. Coccoli, M., Guercio, A., Maresca, P., Stanganelli, L. (2014). Smarter Universities: A Vision for
the Fast Changing Digital Era. J. of Visual Languages & Computing, Vol. 25, pp. 1003–1011.
5. Ewell, P.T. (2013). The Changing Ecology of Higher Education and Its Impact on Accreditation.
Alameda, CA: Western Association of Schools and Colleges.
6. Garrisson, R. D., & Heather, K. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative
potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105.
7. Gradel, K. & Edson, A. (2010). Cooperative Learning: Smart Pedagogy and Tools for Online
and Hybrid Courses, Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 39 (2), 193-212.
8. Ho Tu Bao (2020), Basic concepts of the digital transformation. http://www.jaist.ac.jp/~bao/
talk/CauhoiveChuyendoiso.pdf?fbclid=IwAR0Cy01uJllYqn90Kw93IRVJYzYJOOc9VqzUym
5E3O7NKV-wJD1EYMgp4k/
9. Karkazis P. et al. (2019).Technologies Facilitating Smart Pedagogy. In: Daniela L. (eds) Didactics
of Smart Pedagogy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01551-0_22
10. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and Development,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, p. 38. Languages & Computing, Vol. 25, pp. 1003–1011.
11. Nguyen Huu Duc, Ha Quang Thuy, Pham Bao Son, Tran Trong Hieu, Ton Quang Cuong (2020).
Conceptual and Rating Model of the V-SMARTH Smart University, VNU Journal of Science:
Education Research, Vol. 36, No. 2 (2020) 1-16.
12. Papadopoulou, A. (2019). Art Didactics and Creative Technologies: No Borders to Reform and
Transform Education, in L. Daniela (ed.), Didactics of Smart Pedagogy.
13. Paramythis, A., & Loidl-Reisinger, S. (2004, March). Adaptive learning environments and
14. e- learning standards. In Second European conference on e-learning (pp. 369–379).
15. Pesare, E., Roselli, T., Corriero, N. et al. Game-based learning and Gamification to promote
engagement and motivation in medical learning contexts. Smart Learn. Environ. 3, 5 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-016-0028-0.
16. Prasolova-Førland, E., Steinsbekk, A., Fominykh, M. and Lindseth, M. (2018). Practicing
Interprofessional Team Communication and Collaboration in a Smart Virtual University Hospital,
in V.L. Uskov et al. (eds.), Smart Universities, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 70.
17. Smarter education with IBM. https://www-935.ibm.com/services/multimedia/Framework-
Smarter-Education-With-IBM.pdf/
18. Tikhomirov, V., Dneprovskaya, N., Yankovskaya, E. (2015). Three Dimensions of Smart Education.
In: Uskov et al (Eds.) Smart Education and Smart e-Learning, Springer International Publishing
Switzerland 2015, pp. 47-56, ISBN 978-3-319-19874-3.
19. Uskov V.L. et al. (2019) Learning Analytics Based Smart Pedagogy: Student Feedback. In:
Uskov V., Howlett R., Jain L., Vlacic L. (eds) Smart Education and e-Learning 2018. KES
SEEL-18 2018. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 99. Springer, Cham. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92363-5_11
20. Uskov V.L., Bakken J.P., Penumatsa A., Heinemann C., Rachakonda R. (2018) Smart Pedagogy
for Smart Universities. In: Uskov V., Howlett R., Jain L. (eds) Smart Education and e-Learning
2017. SEEL 2017. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 75. Springer, Cham. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59451-4_1
21. Uskov, V.L., Howlett, R.J., Jain, L.C. (2016). Smart Education and e-Learning 2016, Springer.
22. Zhu, Z.T., He, B. (2012). Smart Education: new frontier of educational informatization.
E-education Research, 12, 1–13.
TEACHER ASSESSMENT POLICIES AND REGULATIONS TOWARD
LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN CANADA AND VIETNAM
Ngo Ba Loi
Duong Thi Anh
(The Saigon International University)
Abstract: Learner-centered approach is an education methodology suitable in the present context of

renovative education, as students are in the centre places of those education activities and are considered both
subjects and purposes of those processes. This study aims at analysing the implementation of the learners centre
approach towards current education policies in assessment in high schools in Canada and Vietnam. The research
employs the desk research method to compare documents relating to assessment policies and regulations on
K12 education in Canada and Vietnam. The study shows a significant difference in the two nations in terms of
assessment. While Canada respects the authorisation according to the regional diversity and teachers, Vietnam
remains the agreement through the national system. Unlike Canada, assessment policies in Vietnam tend to
focus on evaluation and grade, without adequate support for those ideas of learners centre. It is because of
lacking the relevant documents or their contents without the necessary consent. The research also recommends
adjusting the assessment policies to support the learners centre approach in Vietnam.
Keywords: Assessment competence, teacher, student-centred, teacher-centred.
1. INTRODUCTION
The emergence of perspective as “learner-centred” in education is the inevitable consequence of
the development of science and technology, especially information and communications technology.
Under the impact of the 4th industrial revolution, it is a typical educational perspective in many countries,
including Vietnam and Canada. The deployment implementation point of view depends on many factors
such as the level of economic development of society, science and technology, scientific management
of education, etc.
In recent years, as assessed by prestigious educational ranking organisations globally such as U.S.
News & World Report and World Population Review, Canada is consistently ranked a developed and
top in high leading education systems worldwide. Meanwhile, a developing country like Vietnam lies
in countries with low educational quality index ranking. This study wants to clarify how and level of
realisation of perspective as “learner-centred” in Vietnam and Canada in terms of policy management.
The paper focuses on analysing and comparing the institutionalised views on the educational policies and
regulations, testing and assessing practices in general education (from primary school to high school) in
Vietnam and Canada. The study aims to find out the advantages and disadvantages and propose solutions
to improve quality suitable for Vietnam.
2. CONTENTS
2.1. Learners-centred approach in the education process
In each process of teaching and learning, it concerns the critical role of two main factors (teachers
and learners) who have a central role in affecting the quality of education. The fact shows two trends:
teacher-centred and learner-centred.
The traditional perspective «teacher-centred» takes the role of the teacher in controlling the
quality of teaching. The teaching activities as it usually takes place in the conditions and source of
information are limited. The content knowledge and skills are mainly due to teacher preparation, supply
and transmission loads, with educational methods specifically giving presentations and lectures. The
learners, accordingly, passively acquire knowledge. In addition, educational activities will increase
efficiency because many students quickly access knowledge sources in a course. Thus, learners can
quickly absorb a large amount of expertise within a fixed time will complete a program. However,
with the thinking education fond of transmitting content knowledge, students are limited in exploring,
widening, applying, creating, and solving problems. Moreover, practical skills are challenging to form
and develop.
In the context of information explosion, knowledge explosion, and the strong development of
science and technology, it raises new challenges. In a limited program or course, teachers can not
provide all knowledge and skills to learners can use all their life. Or what students learn from school may
soon be outdated. Graduates always had to face increasing requirements to quickly and creatively adapt
to diverse realities, self-study, and constantly develop and perfect themselves. The ability to connect
unlimited and conditions to study well has allowed learners to be more proactive in accessing sources of
knowledge and personalise the learning.
At that time, the educational concept of “teacher-centred teaching” could no longer meet the
requirements of the new era. Instead, the approach of “learner-centred” emerges and confirms the role
of learners in deciding in the teaching process. This approach characterises: The teacher plays the role of
organiser and controller, connecting and leading learning and assessment activities, helping learners to
progress and quickly achieve the educational goals of the program, as well as train and transform people.
The learner becomes a subject with needs, consciousness and activeness in learning activities, knowing
how to self-study to dominate science. And learners are active, proactive and creative in learning, taking
self-study as the main. Learners can personalise their education to actively participate in the learning
process, search, discover, create knowledge, and self-assess to maximise their degree. Learners should
be trained and accumulate skills and qualities to solve life’s problems independently and creatively.
Learners are regarded as the centre when identified they always fit the high target, both the subject of
the educational process.
Every educational process is related to the relationship between two subjects who teach and
learners, and the factors support and impact these factors on the institution. Therefore, at the system
level, perspective “learner-centred” is not just a point of view, a teaching method; it should be viewed as
a perspective, an idea and philosophy in education. Therefore, it will dominate the objectives, content,
practices, forms of teaching and student assessment and subject to the effects of perspective policies,
organisational and educational activities. Meanwhile, this view is considered “learner-centred” in
education with the characteristics described above.
2.2. The reasons that policies and regulations on assessment can realise the “learner-centred”
perspective in education
Many studies in education have confirmed the critical role of examination and assessment
toward the quality of education. It is viewed as one of the significant determinants of the success or
failure of education (American Federation of Teachers & Association, 1990; Tian & Sun, 2018; Zlatkin-
Troitschanskaia, Pant, Toepper, & Lautenbach, 2020). Assessment always has a role of orientation,
impact and adjusting the activities and relationships of stakeholders in teaching and learning practice in
every educational process. In reality, the viewpoint of “learner-centred” in the process of teaching and
education is a form of expression of the nature of the relationship between teachers and students in
certain conditions of the educational process. Therefore, policies and regulations on assessment will
contribute to adjusting implementing this point of view.
2.3. Policies and regulations on the perspective «learner-centred” in education in Vietnam and Canada
Both Vietnam and Canada have implemented the “learner-centred” view in education with different
ways of organising and implementing it.
In Vietnam, it is a whole system of ideas and viewpoints that are consistent, institutionalised and
implemented in practice. Originated from the leadership perspective of the Communist Party of Vietnam,
institutionalised in state regulations and implemented regulations in the education system. Specifically,
the Resolution 29 of the Communist Party of Vietnam, on a basic and comprehensive renovation of
education and training, has identified one of the solution tasks to consider “the learner as the central
subject of the educational process”(Central Executive Committee, 2013). Vietnam has concretised
this point of view into the 2019 Education Law, in Section 2, Article 7, which stipulates the fact that
“Education methods must be scientific; promote positivity, self-discipline, initiative, and creative
thinking of learners; foster learners’ ability to self-study and cooperation, ability to practice, passion
for learning and the will to grow”. For general education, there are also provisions in Section 3, Article
30 which specify that “General education methods promote the positivity, self-discipline, initiative
and creativity of students following the characteristics of each subject or class and characteristics of
students; foster self-study methods, interest in learning, cooperation skills, independent thinking ability;
comprehensively develop the qualities and capacities of learners” (National Assembly, 2019). Then, it
will be implemented in the learning activities of the education system at all levels of education (school
regulations for all levels) to design, develop and implement educational programs (in the promulgation
of educational programs and restrictions on assessment activities).
There is no national statement on implementing the “learner-centred” concept in education in
Canada, and it is impossible to institutionalise or implement this view nationally as in Vietnam. Because
this country has delegated the management of education to the provinces (Canada, 1999), this idea of
decentralisation aims to protect the interests of populations living in different regions with differences
and diversity of ethnicity and religion and at the same time ensure that every student has the right to enjoy
teachers fit themselves to become valuable citizens. This way of organising education has clearly shown
the tendency to implement the “student-centred” point of view in educational organisations compared to
the unified nationwide educational management organisation in Vietnam. This point of view is also widely
implemented and varied among provinces. On the other hand, all levels of documents in each province
have been prescribed and guided to implement the “student-centred” ideology in education flexibly.
At the national level, Canada has issued the set of “Principles for fair student assessment practices for
education in Canada”, with features of a “learner-oriented” perspective in education, thereby serving as

the basis for each province to build a system of policies and regulations on appropriate assessment. It is
specified in the rules on professional standards of high school teachers and the rules on assessment at the
high school level of the states, which will be analysed in detail in section 2.4.
2.4. Analyse the content of policies and regulations on assessment to implement the “student-
centred” educational perspective of Vietnam and Canada in general education
In Vietnam, the content of policies and regulations on examination and assessment related to the
realisation of the “student-centred” viewpoint in general education is most clearly expressed in school
regulations and rules governing evaluation.
In Article 22 of Circular 32 of the Ministry of Education and Training on the charter of junior high
schools, high schools and high schools with many levels of education, it is stated: “The examination
and evaluation of students should ensure comprehensiveness and fairness, honesty, objectivity, for the
progress of students; attach importance to motivating and encouraging students to progress; assessment
by various methods, forms, techniques and tools; does not compare one student to another and does not
put pressure on students, teachers and parents”. According to Circular 27 of the Ministry of Education and
Training on Regulations on assessing primary school students, there are detailed regulations on contents
that fully express the concept of “student-centred” in education. Typically, the purposes of testing and
evaluation activities for teachers, schools and families have been identified: “The highest aim is for the
progress of learners; improve the quality and efficiency of students’ learning and training activities;
contribute to the realisation of educational goals; help students attain the ability to self-review and
participate in comments; self-study, self-adjust learning style; communication and cooperation; Eager
to learn and practice to improve. Assessment requirements: Assess progress and for student progress;
attach great importance to motivating and encouraging students’ efforts in learning and training; helping
students to maximise their abilities and capacities; ensure timeliness, fairness and objectivity; do not
compare one student to another, do not put pressure on students, teachers and parents”. Regarding
the content of assessment: “Evaluate the learning process, progress and learning results; Assess the
formation and development of students’ qualities and abilities”. Regarding assessment methods, some
main techniques can be applied, but it is recommended to use a combination of different approaches
to increase the effectiveness of the assessment. There is a remarkable regulation regarding periodic
assessment: “The teacher corrects the test, commented on and returned to the student. Periodic test
scores are not intended to compare one student to another. Suppose the test results at the end of the first
semester and the school year are abnormal compared to the regular assessment. In that case, the teacher
proposes that students take another test to assess the student’s learning results properly”.
Some limitations in the regulations on testing and assessment to implement the “learner-centred”
view in general education in Vietnam include:
1- The document system for each school level is not complete and synchronous. Expressly, at the
lower and upper secondary levels, the charters of junior high schools and high schools have stated obvious
basic requirements for implementing the ideas of testing activities, is “student-centred”. However, at the
level of implementing documents, in the provisions of Circulars 58 and 26 (amended in 2020) of the
Ministry of Education and Training, regulations on public assessment and grading of students at middle
and high schools have not yet concretised and implemented the above point of view in testing and
evaluation. Moreover, because most of the regulations aim to assess and grade learners, little attention
has been paid to process assessment, student progress assessment, and assessment for student progress.
2- The specific content of the above circulars does not have guidelines, encouraging teachers to be
flexible and proactive in using various methods, different forms of testing and evaluation, and prioritising
methods, the structure of regular assessment in the classroom. In addition, these circulars also detail the
weight of the assessment tests by a group of subjects (by duration) in the subject scoring formula and
the corresponding assessment, grading method, with consequences of regular tests is always smaller
than the sum of the weights of periodic tests, which reduce the flexibility of teachers in teaching and
personalised assessment. On the other hand, while at the primary level, Circular 27 has been issued,
which is a complete guide on testing and assessment activities in the spirit of “student-centred” in
education; however, the Primary School Regulations do not contain any content in the section on re-
evaluation on this issue.
3- The content of the regulations on assessment for middle and high school teachers in Vietnam is
primarily complex and mandatory regulations for periodic and final assessment. An example includes
fixed rules on the types, methods and tools of assessment and evaluation.
4- The professional standards set of high school teachers also do not pay attention to the criteria
on the teacher’s ability to test and evaluate, and the needs of the standards are still low. There are no
professional standards for testing and evaluation capacity; While at the lower secondary and high school
levels, there are regulations on this capacity, but the range of competencies is still narrow and low.
Most of them have only two levels that require teachers to know how to apply and creatively apply
various forms and classroom assessment methods. This will limit the capacity and ability to conduct
classroom assessment activities, including implementing the “student-centred” ideology in education
and assessment.
5- The content of policies and regulations on examination and evaluation has not fully implemented
the characteristics of the “student-centred” perspective. For example, neither the Charters of Secondary
Schools and High Schools nor the current circulars on assessment have any specific regulations and
guidelines for students to participate in the evaluation and self-assessment of the learning process.
6- The quality of the content of educational policies and regulations to implement the “student-
centred” perspective is still limited. The regulation on the functions and duties of stakeholders in the
educational process (teachers and students) in the Charter of Middle School and High Schools has not
clearly shown the requirements for how active students are when participating in the teaching process.
For instance: Section 1, Article 34 (Students’ tasks) stipulates that students perform the task of studying
and practising according to the school’s plan and program.
In Canada, the national level has issued a set of principles for fair student assessment practices for
education in Canada (Rogers, 1993) with general (optional) regulations and guidelines (Rogers, 1993)
on ensuring equity in assessment activities in the Canadian educational context. It allows states, schools
and teachers to develop and apply flexibly in specific conditions, with the requirement to ensure the
highest principle of fairness for learners and the advancement of learners.
Some unique contents and guidelines related to the implementation of the “learner-centred” ideology
of this code consist of more than one assessment method should be used to ensure comprehensive and
consistent indications of student performance; Assessment methods should be suited to the backgrounds
and prior experiences of students; The directions provided to students should be clear, complete, and
appropriate for the ability, age, and grade level of the students; Comments formed as part of scoring
should be based on the responses made by the students and presented in a way that students can understand
and use them; An appeal process should be described to students at the beginning of each school year
or course of instruction that they may use to appeal a result; Interpretations of assessment results should
take account of the backgrounds and learning experiences of the students; The reporting system should
provide for conferences between teachers and parents/guardians. Whenever it is appropriate, students
should participate in these conferences. When appropriate, students with an opportunity to discuss
assessment procedures, clarify and elaborate their understanding of the assessment results, summary
comments and grades, and reports, and, where warranted, work with teachers to develop relevant follow-
up activities or action plans.
Since then, the provinces have developed policies and regulations on testing and assessment to
implement the “student-centred” ideology and attitude in general education differently and at different
levels. However, in terms of content and extent, there is an apparent tendency in guiding relevant
stakeholders, such as teachers and students, to implement the “learner-centred” ideology in education.
Some of the following provincial documents can be found in Education Acts or Regulations (The
Education Act or School Act), teachers’ professional standards and each state’s high school testing
regulations. For example:
In Quebec, the Education Act (The Government of Québec, 2021) teachers are given the initiative in
teaching and assessment as follows: Teacher’s rights are to select methods of instruction corresponding
to the requirements and objectives fixed for each group or each student benefits to his care; to select
the means of evaluating the progress of students to examine and assess continually and periodically
the needs and achievement of objectives of every student influences to his care. In the reference
framework for Professional Competencies For Teachers, six competencies are required to work with
and for students. There is the ability to test and evaluate with the requirements: Develop, choose and
use different methods for assessing knowledge acquisition and competency development; The aims are:
evaluation has two functions: to support learning and recognise competencies. These two functions are
complementary, and each one aims to facilitate learning; Evaluation also has an emotional aspect that
teachers must understand, especially concerning its impact on student motivation and engagement in
learning, and when communicating results to students and their parents; provides students with frequent
and constructive feedback that allows them to track their learning and supports their progress (Quebec
Ministry of Education, 2021b). The Policy on the Evaluation of Learning for Preschool and Secondary
Schools determined that the definition and purpose of evaluation are not an end in itself but rather a
process that supports student learning. Responsibility of the Student: The student has the responsibility
to become actively involved in the learning process, including participating in the setting of their learning
goals. In addition, the student will monitor their progress toward those goals; and evaluate their success
in meeting the goals. The student participates in the process of reporting the results of the evaluation.
Responsibility of the School Administration: The principal ensures collaboration within teacher teams
to evaluate student learning and the reporting to parents. Responsibility of the Teacher: The teacher
ensures that the learning and evaluation goals are aligned with the expectations of Ministry of Education
programs. The teacher supports learning by providing feedback regularly and at strategic times, such as
during and at the end of a unit of study. The teacher provides opportunities for students to participate in the
learning process, including evaluation. The teacher respects differences in learning whereby conditions
for evaluation may be adjusted for students and acknowledges achievement through recognition of
competency. The teacher, working in collaboration with colleagues, uses professional judgment to
interpret the assessment results in an evaluation process. The teacher reports these results, as required, to
the student, parent/guardian, school administration and school board using the accepted reporting tools
provided. Responsibility of the Parent/Guardian: The parent/guardian has the responsibility to be an
active participant in the student’s education and work in collaboration with the school on establishing a
home-school partnership. The parent/ guardian continuously supports their child’s progress in learning,
reviews the communication of evaluation results with the student and participates in parent-teacher
interviews. (Quebec Ministry of Education, 2021a). The guidelines for primary level say: Evaluation
serves to support learning whenever the goal of evaluation is to help the student acquire knowledge and
develop competencies. To fulfil this function, the evaluation must be integrated into the teaching and
learning process and monitor student learning and teaching practices (Québec minister of education, 2002).
In Ontario, the Education Act regulates that: Teacher is responsible for effective instruction,
training and evaluation of pupils’ progress in the subjects assigned to them (The Government of Ontario,
2021). There are five interdependent domains of the Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession,
including Professional Practice of Teacher with regulations: Members apply professional knowledge
and experience to promote student learning. They use appropriate pedagogy, assessment and evaluation,
resources and technology in planning for and responding to individual students and learning communities
(Ontario, 2021). Since September 2010, assessment, evaluation, and reporting for students in Grades 1
to 12 in Ontario schools have been based on the policies and practices described in Growing Success:
Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Oools – First Edition, Covering Grades 1 to 12 (Ontario,
2010). The general ideas of learner-centred approach in education are clearly described in this policy as in
the following: The Ontario governed to enabling all students to reach their potential and to succeed. Our
challenge is that every student is unique, and each must have opportunities to achieve success according
to their interests, abilities, and goals. We have defined high expectations and standards for graduation
while introducing a range of options that allow students to learn in ways that suit them best to earn their
diplomas. For Grades 1 to 12, two distinct but related aspects of student achievement are evaluated: (1)
the achievement of curriculum expectations and (2) the development of learning skills and work habits.
Some detailed and notable regulations tell us that: Assessment, evaluation, and reporting practices
and procedures must be fair, transparent, and equitable for all students. At the same time, students
and parents need to know that evaluations are based on evidence of student learning and that there is
consistency in the way grades are assigned across schools and boards throughout the province. With
this knowledge, students can have confidence in their information to make decisions about secondary
pathways and postsecondary opportunities. The policy outlined in this document is designed to move
us closer to fairness, transparency, as well as consistent practice. The Seven Fundamental Principles in
this document also expressed that: To ensure that assessment, evaluation, and reporting are valid and
reliable, and that they lead to the improvement of learning for all students, teachers use practices and
procedures that:are fair, transparent, and equitable for all students; Support all students, including those
with special education needs; Are carefully planned to relate to the curriculum expectations and learning
goals and, as much as possible, to the interests, learning styles and preferences, needs, and experiences
of all students; Are communicated clearly to students and parents at the beginning of the school year or
courseand at other appropriate points throughout the school year or course; Are ongoing, varied in nature,
and administered over a period of time to provide multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate the
full range of their learning; Provide continuous descriptive feedback that is clear, specific, meaningful,
and timely to support improved learning and achievement; Develop students’ self-assessment skills
to enable them to assess their own learning, set specific goals, and plan next steps for their learning.
Detail regulations all seek to realise those Seven Fundamental Principles. In addition, this document
provided policies, contexts, and measures in implementing assessment kinds related to assessment for
learning and as learning is usually performed in the education process of centred students. Therefore,
this document intensely and complete executed ideals of learners centre approach in education.
Both nations share a common idea in primary assessment and support for learning and recognition
of competencies. They tend to balance these two goals. Grade-based assessment for grading purposes
remains common in all classrooms, alongside testing, assessment by comment, and recognition of the
achievement of educational goals.
3. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
3.1. Conclusion
Vietnam and Canada are two countries with different levels of development and organisation of the
education system, both implementing the “student-centred” perspective in education, but with various
methods and levels of implementation.
Both Vietnam and Canada are moving towards a balanced approach of purpose in assessment when
there are two purposes of assessment: to classify, rank, and support learners’ progress.
In Vietnam, the “learner-centred” view in education is highly systematic, clearly mentioned in
the leadership approach from the national level, institutionalised and implemented systematically
throughout the national education system in recent years. While, in Canada, the position is not expressed
at the federal level, but it has been widely, flexibly and effectively implemented in the education system
at the high school level in the provinces.
Vietnam’s policies and regulations on assessment and evaluation are often mandatory, aiming for
detailed regulations. Still, some documents in the system are not synchronised, and the content’s quality
is not yet issued. As a result, the content is not complete or specified and not wholly relevant to reality.
Hence, it limits the ability to create and apply flexibly in practice in implementing personalised teaching
and taking the “learner-centred” approach in education. In contrast, the Canadian regulation system can
provide an extremely decentralised autonomy across the country, from the provincial level top-down.
The content of regulations often focuses on stating general principles and guidelines, giving autonomy
to schools and teachers in choosing and using appropriate teaching methods. Therefore, it has allowed a
very flexible implementation of creativity and is suitable for experimental conditions.
3.2. Suggestions
Vietnam needs to continue to review, adjust, supplement and complete the content of the
management document system related to assessment activities in education to implement the concept of
“student-centred”. This approach goes towards improving the uniformity, efficiency and effectiveness
of the legal document system. Steps include:
Supplementing the requirements on assessment capacity in the set of professional standards of
primary school teachers; expand and improve the range of accommodation on the assessment required
for high school teachers (from primary to high school) to develop this capacity of teachers, to meet the
requirements for an evaluation in the current context of educational reform.
Adjusting and adding more specific regulations and content on standard assessment forms and
methods in the classroom, and at the same time providing guidance and allowing teachers to actively
choose methods and forms of examination and evaluation of suitability with educational purposes of
the program and teaching methods, teaching objects and assurance conditions for each class and school.
It is suggested to recalculate the weights of the tests in the calculation of the subject learning results of
middle and high school students to ensure that the weight ratio of the regular assessment tests is higher
than that of the periodic ones. It is to carry out assessment purposes for the sake of learning and as
learning. It is all to support student learning and for student progress. On the other hand, it is necessary
to supplement and complete the contents of regulations, guidelines and clarify the criteria and levels in
implementing the “student-centred” perspective of the stakeholders in the educational process.
Researching to reduce the mandatory content in classroom assessment of current regulations,
especially documents at the national level;
Studying the regulations that reduce the number of issues required to carry out the assessment
in the form of subject scores increases the number of subjects and learners. Therefore, only consider
whether students achieve the objectives of quality and capacity that have been met according to the
course and program requirements.
It is necessary to supplement and renew the content of training on assessment capacity for pedagogical
students, and at the same time, strengthen training activities to improve assessment capacity and innovate
teaching methods for teachers inconsistent with current perspectives and trends of recent education
innovation and assessment.
Developing and supporting schools to implement specialised teaching and assessment software and
technical means to help teachers effectively carry out assessment activities in the classroom, assisting
teachers in reducing their workload to improve the effectiveness of assessment and teaching, and better
monitoring learners’ progress.
After the promulgation of new regulations, it is necessary to organise timely training for teachers
on new regulations on testing and assessment associated with the theory of student-centred education.
REFERENCES
1. American Federation of Teachers, N.C.o.M.i.E., & Association, N.E. (1990). Standards for
teacher competence in educational assessment of students. Educational Measurement: Issues
and Practice, 9(4), 30-32.
2. Ban Chấp hành Trung ương. (2013). Nghị quyết số 29-NQ. Tạp chí Xây dựng Đảng. Retrieved from
http://www.xaydungdang.org.vn/Home/vankientulieu/2013/6798/Nghi-quyet-ve-doi-moi-can-ban-
toan-dien-giao-duc-va.aspx
3. Canada, D. o. J. (1999). The Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982: Minister of Public Works.
4. Ontario, M. o. e. o. (2010). Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario

Schools, Retrieved http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf.
5. Ontario, M. o. e. o. (2021). Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession, Retrieved https://
www.oct.ca/public/professional-standards.
6. Québec minister of education. (2002). Evaluation of learning at preschool and elementary lev-
els. (2550420713). Retrieved http://collections.banq.qc.ca/ark:/52327/bs43754.
7. Quebec Ministry of Education. (2021a). Policy on Evaluation of Student Learning. Retrieved

https://www.rsb.qc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Policy-on-Evaluation-of-Student-Learn-
ing-No-Markup.pdf.
8. Quebec Ministry of Education. (2021b). Reference Framework for Professional Competencies

| For Teachers. Retrieved https://cdn-contenu.quebec.ca/cdn-contenu/adm/min/education/pub-
lications-adm/devenir-enseignant/reference_framework_professional_competencies_teacher.
pdf?1611584651.
9. Quốc hội. (2019). Luật Giáo dục 2019.
10. Rogers, W. (1993). Principles for Fair Student Assessment Practices for Education in Canada.
Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 9, 110 - 127.
11. The Government of Québec. (2021). Education Act. Retrieved http://legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/

ShowDoc/cs/I-13.3.
12. The Government of Ontario. (2021). Education Act. Retrieved https://www.ontario.ca/laws/

statute/90e02#BK440.
13. Tian, H., & Sun, Z. (2018). Academic achievement assessment: Principles and methodology:
Springer.
14. usnews. (2021). Overall Best Countries Ranking. Retrieved https://www.usnews.com/news/

best-countries/overall-rankings.
15. worldpopulationreview. (2021). Education Rankings By Country 2021. Retrieved https://world-

populationreview.com/country-rankings/education-rankings-by-country.
16. Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, O., Pant, H.A., Toepper, M., & Lautenbach, C. (2020). Student Learning
in German Higher Education: Springer.
COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION:
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN ERA 4.0
Bui Thi Kim Phuong

(Hanoi University of Science and Technology)
Nguyen Quy Thanh, Le Thai Hung
Abstract: Computer technology is being widely applied in education in general and in assessment in particular,
especially in the 4.0 era of digital transformation. In the field of language education, computerized adaptive
testing (CAT) is not a new concept and has attracted increasing attention from scholars since the 1980s. CAT
offers considerable benefits in language assessment as a reliable testing tool with high precision, time efficiency,
motivating individualized testing experiences, and wide coverage of assessment options for various purposes.
However, computerized adaptive language testing (CALT) poses certain concerns about test fairness and requires
a number of considerations in the development and validation process. Based on a review of previous discussion
and empirical studies conducted on CALT, the article offers an insight into the pros and cons of CALT and provides
constructive suggestions for language education practices in Vietnam. It also hopes to further contribute to the
literature of technological application in educational assessment and measurement.
Keywords: computer technology in education, computerized adaptive testing, computerized adaptive

language testing, language assessment.
1. INTRODUCTION
The 4.0 era of digital transformation has impacted on all aspects of education and promoted
innovative assessment practices. In the field of language assessment, the application of computer
technology has become more popular in all homes and schools, thereby offering favourable conditions
for a more efficient testing initiative - a computerized adaptive language testing system.
The adoption of CALT dates back to the 1980s. Larson and Madsen (1985) developed the first
computer-assisted tests in which students were allowed to access sources of references with the use
of computers to complete their writing tests. Then, there was a shift from paper-and-pencil tests to
computerized tests, thanks to computer experts (Meunier, 1994). In 1986, one project at Brigham Young
University introduced the first computerized adaptive language test, a language testing system that used
computers to tailor tests to the test-takers’ level of language ability (Larson, 1989).
Since then, many computerized adaptive language tests have been developed in many empirical
studies for different languages, including French (Kaya-Carton et al., 1991; Burston, 1995; Laurier,
1999); Spanish (Larson, 1987); Japanese (Brown & Iwashita 1996); German (Starr-Egger, 2001);
Chinese (Wang et al., 2012). It is noteworthy that DIALANG, a European project, offers web-based
adaptive tests for official EU languages along with Irish, Icelandic, and Norwegian (Chalhoub–Deville
& Deville, 1999).
CALT has been widely applied for English language assessment to assess various aspects of
English language proficiency (Tseng, 2016), more frequently with vocabulary (Vispoel, 1993, 1998;
Vispoel, Rocklin & Wang, 1994; Laufer & Goldstein, 2004; Tseng, 2016; Aviad-Levitzky, Laufer &
Goldstein, 2019; Mizumoto, Sasao & Webb, 2019), and receptive skills (Madsen, 1991; Kaya-Carton,
Carton & Dandonoli, 1991; Chalhoub-Deville, 1999; Dunkel, 1999; Nogami & Hayashi, 2010; He &
Min, 2017; Gawliczek et al., 2021), and less frequently with productive skills (Stevenson & Gross,
1991; Malabonga & Kenyon, 1999; Malabonga, 2000).
Now, an increasing number of computerized adaptive language tests have been developed; large
testing companies, despite low attention drawn to CALT in the past, have now paved the way for more
adaptive language tests (Pathan, 2012). One of them, Educational Testing Service (ETS), has transferred
high-stakes exams like TOEFL, GRE, and GMAT to CALT (Rudner, 2010). Moreover, the application
of CAT in language assessment has been the focus of discussion in various publications in the past
decades (Larson & Madsen, 1985; Canale, 1986; Tung, 1986; Henning, 1987; Lange, 1990; Meunier,
1994; Brown, 1997; Chalhoub-Deville & Deville, 1999; Laurier, 2000; Chapelle & Douglas, 2006;
Alderson, 2007; Ockey, 2009; Pathan, 2012; Khoshsima & Toroujeni, 2017; Okhotnikova et al., 2019).
In the context of Vietnamese education, CAT is not a well-established research field despite ever-
growing interests in technological application in education in the past decades, especially in the digital
era. Few existing studies have been conducted on the development and validation of CAT (Giang
& Hung, 2018; Hung, Hoa, et al., 2019; Hung, Thuy, et al., 2019). However, positive results have
been obtained by UEd-CAT 1.0, an adaptive testing system developed by the University of Education
(Hung & Ha, 2021). The system has now provided teachers and students with free access to measure
10 graders’ mathematical ability and Vietnamese reading comprehension competence. Since adaptive
testing is recognized as a growing trend in assessment and testing, the university will continue to invest
in research and develop the system to increase the system security and efficiency to assess the capacity
of learners at different levels and for different purposes as well as integrate CAT in adaptive learning and
blended learning environments in Vietnam.
By reviewing both previous discussion and empirical studies on CALT, this paper provides some
fundamentals of CALT, discusses the opportunities and challenges of CALT and puts forward suggestions
for future CAT and CALT practices in Vietnam.
2. COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE LANGUAGE TESTING
2.1. Overview
CALT refers to a testing system in which computers are used to generate a test adjusting to a test
taker’s language level. Figure 1 illustrates the CAT process (Thompson & Weiss, 2011).
The first component of CAT is a calibrated item bank, which serves as test content. In the case of
language assessment, the item bank consists of language items for language tests. All items in the bank are
first calibrated by item response theory (IRT) and latent trait theory (Meunier, 1994). Three IRT models
that can be applied to build an item bank include the one-parameter model examining test items in terms
of only one parameter, item difficulty, the two-parameter model analyzing both item difficulty and item
discrimination, and the three-parameter model covering item difficulty, item discrimination and pseudo
guessing. Once the item bank has been calibrated, it stores the items accompanied by their statistical
features, which are ready for the later algorithms in the system (Choi & McClenen, 2020).
The other components of CAT are CAT algorithms to decide the first item (starting point), choose
succeeding items (item selection algorithm), score items to estimate the test-taker’s ability (scoring
algorithm), and check predefined criteria to end the test (termination criterion) (Thompson & Weiss,
2011). In a complete testing process, the test administration starts with an item selected from the
calibrated item bank. This starting item can be chosen randomly or from a group of medium-difficulty
items in the item bank (Oppl et al., 2017; Choi & McClenen, 2020). If the test-taker provides a correct
answer, then a higher-difficulty question is given, and otherwise, a lower-difficulty question is given.
In this repeated process, the test-taker’s ability is estimated and recalculated based on the test-taker’s
performance until the system collects enough evidence to determine the candidate’s language level,
which means the stopping criterion has been achieved.
2.2. Opportunities
CALT has enormous advantages over conventional fixed formats testing, including paper-based
language tests and computer-based tests. In this paper, the opportunities of CALT development will be
discussed in terms of high precision, time-saving potential, individualized testing experience, and a wide
range of assessment options offered by CALT.
2.2.1. CALT – a precise testing tool
Given that the item bank, one of the architectural components of CALT, is calibrated on the basis
of IRT, CALT promises a higher level of test standardization than conventional tests like paper-based
and computer-based tests. Many empirical studies have provided evidence for the precision of CALT in
comparison with other test modes. Mizumoto et al. (2019) conducted a study to develop and evaluate
a computerized adaptive test - CAT-WPLT which is the CAT version of the Word Part Levels Test
(WPLT), designed two years earlier by Sasao and Webb (2017). The study results conclude that the
CALT version produced a “similar or or greater precision than the fixed-item counterpart” (p. 120).
Gawliczek et al. (2021) recently conducted a study to develop an adaptive test for reading and listening,
in which they undertook a comparative analysis between CALT and paper-based. One of the validity and
reliability indexes presented in the study findings is the high rate of test-takers confirming their reading
and listening ability based on the CALT results.
CALT is also regarded as an educational measurement tool with high precision by Larson &
Madsen, 1985; Olsen et al., 1989; Meunier, 1994; Choi, Kim & Boo, 2003); Giouroglou & Economides,
2003; Pathan, 2012; He & Min, 2017; Khoshsima & Toroujeni, 2017).
2.2.2. CALT – a time-efficient testing mode
Since CALT assesses language proficiency based on test items fitted to each individual test-taker,
questions that are not too difficult and too easy will not be selected and administered. As a result, along
with the testing time, the number of test items required for each test is considerably reduced while still
achieving precise test results. Olsen et al. (1989), in their comparative study on paper-based, computer-
based and adaptive tests, analyzed the testing time and reported that CAT took only one-fourth of the
testing time in comparison with the paper-based tests, and about one-third to one-half in comparison to
the computer-based tests. Madsen (1991) also revealed that the majority of CALT test-takers (over 80%)
needed less than one-half of test items in comparison with paper-based tests. Mizumoto et al. (2019)
reported that the CAT version determined the test-takers’ language proficiency in approximately 10
minutes instead of 20 to 30 minutes required by the paper-based version of the test.
The reduced demands for test items and testing time in CALT are also confirmed by other
researchers (Vispoel, 1993; Meunier, 1994; Giouroglou & Economides, 2003; Pathan, 2012; Tseng,
2016; Khoshsima & Toroujeni, 2017; Okhotnikova et al., 2019). Therefore, this distinct advantage of
CALT, and computer-based language testing helps reduce the burdens of time and money involved in
the test administration process (Pathan, 2012) and brings more accessible opportunities for test-takers in
different places, even for those with disabilities (Stone & Davey, 2011).
2.2.3. CALT – enhanced testing experiences
In an adaptive language test, the first test item is selected from a large item bank when the subsequent
test items are selected based on the test-taker’s performance of the earlier item; as a result, each test-
taker receives a specific test tailored to his or her level of language proficiency. When the test-takers
are provided with appropriate items with tailored features like difficulty and discrimination, they can
focus better on the test, have better testing perceptions and feelings (Meunier, 1994; Wise, 2014) and
relieve themselves of stress, boredom and fatigue (Giouroglou & Economides, 2003; Rasskazova et al.,
2017). Gawliczek et al. (2021) reported a higher level of motivation among the test-takers of both high
and low language proficiency. Moreover, as there are no limits in the testing time for each test item and
the whole test, the test-taker can control their answering speed to finish the test. In other words, there is
no longer time anxiety and pressure for the test-takers, which may negatively influence the test results
(Meunier, 1994).
As soon as the test is finished, CALT takers can access real-time feedback, with the defined
proficiency level and suggestions for improvement (Dandonoli, 1989; Meunier, 1994; Burston &
Neophytou, 2014; Gawliczek et al., 2021). The results are individually evaluated in reference to a certain
level of proficiency and announced to the test-taker, not in relation to the performance of other test-
takers. For test-takers who are eager to know the results, CALT brings them a very positive experience
compared to other conventional testing modes. It is also noteworthy that no information can be useful to
provide other test-takers with some cheating possibilities, even among test-takers who are sitting next to
each other or taking the test later. This approach, therefore, can ensure better security in CALT (Meunier,
1994; Pathan, 2012; Rasskazova et al., 2017; Okhotnikova et al., 2019). This advantage could account
for a high rate of test-takers’ readiness for CALT as Gawliczek et al. (2021) reported.
2.2.4. CALT – a wide coverage of assessment offers

Okhotnikova et al. (2019) mentioned the wide range of language ability levels that can be
evaluated in CALT as one of the biggest advantages of CALT in addition to the positive features of a
computer assisted tests. Rasskazova et al. (2017) emphasized this strength of adaptive language tests by
comparing with linear tests where the highest and lowest levels of language proficiency are not correctly
assessed if the tests target average-level test-takers. Olsen et al. (1989) asserted that CALT can be
developed for both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessment of test-takers’ ability level to
meet a specific educational goals. Adaptive tests can also be exploited for various assessment purposes,
such as high stakes testing (Alderson, 2007; Chapelle & Voss, 2008; He & Min, 2017), large scale
assessment (Chalhoub-Deville, 1999; Wen & Qinghua, 2002; Pathan, 2012; Khoshsima & Toroujeni,
2017), diagnostic assessment (Larson and Madsen, 1985; Alderson, 2007; Chapelle & Voss, 2008), and
formative assessment (Giouroglou & Economides, 2005; Choi & McClenen, 2020).
Moreover, the use of mobile devices in computer technology can facilitate the integration of
multiple-media features in the tests, the flexible administration of tests and supply of tests on demand
(Triantafillou, Georgiadou, & Economides, 2008). The superiority of CAT to other testing modes lead
to the unlimited application in different disciplines from education and training to professional teacher
development in schools, workplaces, and even the military. In the education 4.0, when computer use
is witnessed in all homes and schools, there is no doubt that CALT can satisfy increasingly greater
assessment demands with various offers and modern upgrades.
2.3. Challenges
Despite all the positive points that CALT brings to test-takers, scholars have presented a number of
challenges related to test threats and design requirements. In the 4.0 era of digital transformation, some
of the challenges are no longer the focus of attention while others call for serious considerations and
actions for more positive testing experiences with CALT.
2.3.1. CALT – test threats
In the digital era, when computers become familiar devices in education, computer expertise
(Madsen, 1991), digital presentation modes of test items and test bias due to computer anxiety (Henning,
1991) have been no longer the main causes of challenges about CALT. It is noted that other concerns
about test fairness should be brought to discussion for some constructive suggestions.
Henning (1991) was concerned that the validity of CALT may be under the influence of different
testing time and speed, which is related to test fairness. Another concern about the CALT experiences
is that there is no chance for test-takers to come back to the earlier items to check and revise the answer
(Giouroglou & Economides, 2003; Khoshsima & Toroujeni, 2017). Once the test-taker answers the
question, the ability is calculated to administer the succeeding item, then this property of CALT may
challenge the testing habits for a number of test-takers. However, these concerns can be overcome
through easier access to and more familiarity with CALT.
Wainer & Eignor (2000) also raised their concerns about the security of CALT when a number
of critical items could be recalled and discussed among test-takers, which then affect the reliability of
CALT. To overcome this challenge, one suggestion by Mizumoto et al. (2019) for a strict process of test
development and the development of more test items for the item bank needs to be emphasized.
2.3.2. CALT – design considerations

Papers on frameworks, guidelines, and experiences-sharing all indicate that the development process
of an adaptive assessment system requires an enormous investment of resources like time, money, human
labor, and cross-disciplinary expertise related to language association and computer technology (Brown,
1997; Larson, 1998; Chapelle, 1999; Chapelle & Voss, 2008; Nydick & Weiss, 2009; Chen & Wang, 2010;
Pathan, 2012; Rasskazova et al., 2017; Spoden, Frey & Bernhardt, 2018).
With regard to the unidimensionality assumption of the IRT models employed in the design of
adaptive tests, many concerns have been raised by scholars (Jamieson, 2005; Chalhoub-Deville, 2010;
Liu, 2019). Canale (1986) was concerned about a threat of CALT to language ability assessment when
language ability covers multiple constructs like cognition, knowledge, contextual use of language. Young
et al. (1996), Norris (2001), Giouroglou & Economides (2003), He & Min (2017), and Okhotnikova
et al. (2019) expressed their concern about the limitation of unidimensional CALT in handling open-
ended questions and questioning the feasibility of CALT in assessing productive skills. Even when
some automated scoring systems have been developed, there remains significant controversy over
whether writing and speaking can only be accurately evaluated by real persons. It is suggested that
more efforts should be put into the development of CALT, especially automated scoring systems, to
handle challenges from both speaking and writing assessment to make CALT more communicative
and authentic as expected in modern language and education philosophy as well as technology and
assessment practice (Canale, 1986; Young et al., 1996; Pathan, 2012; Okhotnikova et al., 2019).
As mentioned in the overview of CALT, the architectural design consists of two integral parts: a
calibrated language item bank and CAT algorithms. A large calibrated item bank is expected to ensure
the content quality and the successful operation of a CALT system. It is suggested by Okhotnikova
et al. (2019) that the CALT item bank should include more than a thousand items to guarantee the
coverage of all the abilities. Meunier (1994) reported the number of 100 or 200 items validated by the
one-parameter IRT model to be used in most adaptive tests and recommended the use of 2000 or more
items in case the two and three-parameter IRT models are employed for validation procedures. Nydick
& Weiss (2009) and Suvorov & Hegelheimer (2013) also emphasize the need for a substantial size of
item bank to minimize the problem of cheating resulting from test-takers’ memorization of items. Even
though many empirical studies have been implemented, no specific minimum size of CALT item bank
has been concluded; therefore, more research is needed to come up with standard indexes of the item
bank for future CALT design projects.
In terms of design challenges related to CAT algorithms, all the decisions on the starting point,
item selection, scoring mechanism, and ending criteria have yet to be made. Researchers are still
conducting further work to determine the optimal offer to maximize the potentials of CALT in providing
reliable and effective language assessment practices (Pathan, 2012; Khoshsima & Toroujeni, 2017).
In addition, in the 4.0 era of digital transformation, when computer technology benefits from many
technological advances, attracts more interests in all fields, and experiences a widespread and inclusive
application in the education system and in language assessment practices, it offers more opportunities
to strengthen CALT, but also brings additional challenges related to the handling of network security
risks and the requirements of continually maintaining, managing and upgrading CALT system as well
as modifying algorithms to satisfy the increasing needs of the society for education in general and
assessment in particular. It is expected that these challenges can be overcome through the considerable
resource investments and cooperation from various disciplines, including language education, testing,
assessment, programming and computer system management.
3. CONCLUSION
With a thorough review of previous studies and publications, this paper has attempted to synthesize
both potentials and considerations in the implementation of CALT in language assessment and provide
some suggestions for subsequent work and investment to solve the persisting problems in the context of
Vietnamese education.
It is concluded that CALT is a computer-based testing approach that tailors language tests to the
test-takers’ level of proficiency. Besides many benefits of a testing system integrating the computer
use, the initiative of CALT has obvious advantages over conventional testing modes, such as improved
reliability, time-saving potential, motivating testing experience, and diverse testing options. However,
CALT faces a number of challenges relating to test design and administration process.
In the 4.0 era of digital transformation, as the computer has become an easily accessible educational
tool and its technology has enjoyed a very rapid development nearly everywhere in schools and
universities, all the above-mentioned challenges will be overcome to create more reliable, flexible, and
efficient tests for different language assessment purposes, including summative adaptive assessment
and high school graduation exams, as well as to promote adaptive language learning opportunities in all
educational levels. It can strongly believed that CALT will achieve growing popularity as an innovative
assessment option in both research and practices in Vietnam.
REFERENCES
1. Alderson, C. (2007). Computer-adaptive language testing. Optimizing the role of language in

Technology-Enhanced Learning, 1.
2. Aviad-Levitzky, T., Laufer, B., & Goldstein, Z. (2019). The new computer adaptive test of size
and strength (CATS): Development and validation. Language Assessment Quarterly, 16(3), 345-
368.
3. Brown, A., & Iwashita, N. (1996). Language background and item difficulty: The development of a
computer-adaptive test of Japanese. System, 24, 199–206.
4. Brown, J. D. (1997). Computers in language testing: Present research and some future
directions. Language Learning & Technology, 1(1), 44-59.
5. Burston, J. (1995). Practical design and implementation considerations of a computer adaptive
foreign language test: The Monash/Melbourne French CAT. Calico Journal, 26-46.
6. Burston, J., & Neophytou, M. (2014). Lessons Learned in Designing and Implementing a
Computer-Adaptive Test for English. The EuroCALL Review, 22(2), 19-25.
7. Canale, M. (1986). The promise and threat of computerized adaptive assessment of reading
comprehension. In C. Stansfield (ed.), Technology and language testing (pp. 30-45). Washington,
DC: TESOL Publications.
8. Chalhoub-Deville, M. & Deville, C. (1999). Computer adaptive testing in second language
contexts. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 19, 273-99.
9. Chalhoub-Deville, M. (1999). Issues in computer-adaptive testing of reading proficiency. Cambridge:
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.
10. Chalhoub-Deville, M. (2010). Technology in standardized language assessments. In R. Kaplan

(Ed.), Handbook of applied linguistics (2nd ed., pp. 511–26). Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
11. Chalhoub-Deville, M. (Ed.). (1999). Issues in computer-adaptive testing of reading
proficiency (Vol. 10). Cambridge university press.
12. Chalhoub–Deville, M., & Deville, C. (1999). Computer adaptive testing in second language
contexts. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 19, 273-299.
13. Chapelle, C. A. (1999). Validity in language assessment. Annual review of applied linguistics, 19,
254-272.
14. Chapelle, C. A., & Douglas, D. (2006). Assessing language through computer technology.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
15. Chapelle, C. A., & Voss, E. (2008). Utilizing technology in language assessment. Encyclopedia
of language and education, 7, 123-134.
16. Chen, J., & Wang, L. (2010, October). Computerized adaptive testing: A new trend in language
testing. In 2010 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education (ICAIE) (pp.
725-728). IEEE.
17. Choi, I.-C., Kim, K. S., & Boo, J. (2003). Comparability of a paper-based language test and a computer-
based language test. Language Testing, 20, 295–320.
18. Choi, Y., & McClenen, C. (2020). Development of adaptive formative assessment system using
computerized adaptive testing and dynamic bayesian networks. Applied Sciences, 10(22), 8196.
19. Dandonoli, P. (1989). “The ACTFL Computerized Adaptive Test of Foreign Language
Reading Proficiency.” Modern Technology in Foreign Language Education: Application
and Projects, edited by F. Smith. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook.
20. Dunkel, P. (1999). Research and development of a computer-adaptive test of listening comprehension in
the less-commonly taught language Hausa. In M. Chalhoub-Deville (Ed.), Issues in computer-adaptive
testing of reading proficiency. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.
21. Gawliczek, P., Krykun, V., Tarasenko, N., Tyshchenko, M., & Shapran, O. (2021). Computer
Adaptive Language Testing according to NATO STANAG 6001 requirements. Advanced
Education, 19-26.
22. Giang, N. Q. & Hung, L. T. (2018). Mô phỏng một bài kiểm tra thích nghi trên máy tính thông
qua phần mềm R. Tạp chí Khoa học Giáo dục Việt Nam, 11, 6-11.
23. Giouroglou, H., & Economides, A. (2003, June). Cognitive CAT in foreign language assessment.
In Eleventh International PEG Conference” Powerful ICT Tools for Learning and Teaching”,
PEG’2003 (Vol. 28).
24. Giouroglou, H., & Economides, A. (2005). An implemented theoretical framework for a common
European foreign language adaptive assessment. In 3rd International Conference on Open and
Distance Learning, Greek Open University, Patra, Greece.
25. He, L., & Min, S. (2017). Development and validation of a computer adaptive EFL test. Language
Assessment Quarterly, 14(2), 160-176.
26. Henning, G. (1987). A guide to language testing: Development, evaluation, research. Cambridge,
MA: Newbury House.
27. Hung, L. T. & Ha, N. T. (2021). “Xu thế kiểm tra, đánh giá năng lực người học trên nền tảng
công nghệ”. Tạp chí Khoa học Giáo dục Việt Nam, 42, 1-6.
28. Hung, L. T., Hoa, T. T., May, D. T. & Huong, H. L. (2019). “Phát triển ngân hàng trắc nghiệm
thích ứng để đánh giá năng lực đọc hiểu môn Ngữ văn của học sinh lớp 10 trung học phổ thông”.
Tạp chí Khoa học Giáo dục Việt Nam, 24, 54-59.
29. Hung, L. T., Thuy, T. T., Anh, T. L., Dung, N. T., Anh, N. P., & Giang, N. T. Q. (2019). Developing
Computerized Adaptive Testing: An Experimental Research on Assessing the Mathematical
Ability of 10th Graders. VNU Journal of Science: Education Research, 35(4), 49-63.
30. Jamieson, J. (2005). Trends in computer-based second language assessment. Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics, 25, 228-242.
31. Kaya-Carton, E., Carton, A. S., & Dandonoli, P. (1991). Developing a computer-adaptive test of
French reading proficiency. In P. Dunkel (Ed.), Computerassisted language learning and testing:
Research issues and practice. New York: Newbury House.
32. Khoshsima, H., & Toroujeni, S. M. H. (2017). Computer Adaptive Testing (Cat) Design; Testing
Algorithm and Administration Mode Investigation. European Journal of Education Studies.
33. Lange, D. L. (1990). ‘Priority Issues in the Assessment of Communicative Language Abilities.”
Foreign Language Annals 23 403-407.
34. Larson, J. W. & Madsen. H. S. (1985). Computer-adaptive language testing: Moving beyond
computer-assisted testing. CALICO Journal, 2(3), 32-6.
35. Larson, J. W. (1987). Computerized adaptive language testing: A Spanish placement exam.
36. Larson, J. W. (1989). S-CAPE: A Spanish computerized adaptive placement exam. Modern
technology in foreign language education: Applications and projects, 277-289.
37. Larson, J. W. (1998). An argument for computer adaptive language testing. Multimedia-Assisted
Language Learning, 1(1), 9-24.
38. Laufer, B., & Goldstein, Z. (2004). Testing vocabulary knowledge: Size, strength, and computer
adaptiveness. Language learning, 54(3), 399-436.
39. Laurier, M. (1999). The development of an adaptive test for placement in French. In M. Chalhoub-
Deville (Ed.), Issues in computer-adaptive testing of reading comprehension (pp. 122–135).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
40. `Laurier, M. (2000). Can computerized testing be authentic? ReCALL, 12(1), 93-104.
41. `Liu, X. (2019). Optimizing design of incorporating off-grade items for constrained computerized
adaptive testing in K-12 assessment (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Iowa).
42. Madsen, H. (1991). Computer-adaptive testing of listening and reading comprehension. In P.
Dunkel (Ed.), Computerassisted language learning and testing: Research issues and practice
(pp. 237-257). New York, NY: Newbury House.
43. Malabonga, V. (2000). Trends in foreign language assessment: The computerized oral proficiency
instrument. NCLRC Newsletter.
44. Malabonga, V., & Kenyon, D. (1999). Multimedia computer technology and performance-based language
testing: a demonstration of the computerized oral proficiency instrument. In M. B. Olsen (Ed.), Computer
mediated language assessment and evaluation in natural language processing. New Brunswick, NJ:
Association for Computational Linguistics.
45. Meunier, L. E. (1994). Computer Adaptive Language Tests (CALT) Offer a Great Potential for
Functional Testing. Yet, Why Don’t They?. CALICO journal, 23-39.
46. Mizumoto, A., Sasao, Y., & Webb, S. A. (2019). Developing and evaluating a computerized
adaptive testing version of the Word Part Levels Test. Language Testing, 36(1), 101-123.
47. Nogami, Y., & Hayashi, N. (2010). A Japanese adaptive test of English as a foreign language:
Development and operational aspects. In W. J. van der Linden, & C. A. W. Glas (Eds.), Elements
of adaptive testing (pp. 191–211). New York, NY: Springer.
48. Norris, J. (2001). Concerns with computerized adaptive oral proficiency assessment. Language
Learning & Technology, 5(2), 99-105.
49. Nydick, S. W., & Weiss, D. J. (2009). A hybrid simulation procedure for the development
of CATs. In Proceedings of the 2009 GMAC Conference on Computerized Adaptive Testing.
Retrieved from www. psych. umn. edu/psylabs/CATCentral.
50. Ockey, G. J. (2009). Developments and challenges in the use of computer-based testing for
assessing second language ability. The Modern Language Journal, 93, 836–847.
51. Okhotnikova, A., Daminova, J., Muzafarova, A., & Rasskazova, T. (2019). Challenges of
designing and administering computer-adaptive tests. In 13th International Technology,
Education and Development Conference (INTED) (pp. 5633-5636). International Academy of
Technology, Education and Development.
52. Olsen, J. B., Maynes, D. D., Slawson, D., & Ho, K. (1989). Comparisons of paper-administered,
computer-administered and computerized adaptive achievement tests. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 5(3), 311-326.
53. Oppl, S., Reisinger, F., Eckmaier, A., & Helm, C. (2017). A flexible online platform for
computerized adaptive testing. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher
Education, 14(1), 1-21.
54. Pathan, M. M. (2012). Computer Assisted Language Testing [CALT]: advantages, implications
and limitations. Research Vistas, 1(4), 30-45.
55. Rasskazova, T., Muzafarova, A., Daminova, J., & Okhotnikova, A. (2017). Computerized
language assessment: Limitations and opportunities. eLearning & Software for Education, 2.
56. Rudner, L. (2010). Implementing the Graduate Management Admission Test Computerized
Adaptive Test. In van der LindenW. GlasC.(Eds.), Elements of adaptive testing (pp. 151–165).
57. Sasao, Y., & Webb, S. (2017). The Word Part Levels Test. Language Teaching Research, 21,
12–30.
58. Spoden, C., Frey, A., & Bernhardt, R. (2018). Implementing three cats within eighteen months. Journal
of Computerized Adaptive Testing, 6(3).
59. Starr-Egger, F. (2001). German computer adaptive language tests–better late than never. German
as a Foreign Language, 3, 12-30.
60. Stevenson, J., & Gross, S. (1991). Use of a computerized adaptive testing model for ESOL/
bilingual entry/exit decision making. In P. Dunkel (Ed.), Computerassisted language learning
and testing: Research issues and practice. New York: Newbury House.
61. Stone, E., & Davey, T. (2011). Computer Adaptive Testing for Students with Disabilities: A Review
of the Literature. ETS Research Report Series, 2011(2).
62. Suvorov, R., & Hegelheimer, V. (2013). Computer - assisted language testing. The companion to
language assessment, 2, 594-613.
63. Thompson, N. A., & Weiss, D. A. (2011). A framework for the development of computerized
adaptive tests. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 16(1), 1.
64. Triantafillou, E., Georgiadou, E., & Economides, A. A. (2008). The design and evaluation of a
computerized adaptive test on mobile devices. Computers & Education, 50(4), 1319-1330.
65. Tseng, W. T. (2016). Measuring English vocabulary size via computerized adaptive
testing. Computers & Education, 97, 69-85.
66. Tung, P. (1986). “Computerized Adaptive Testing: Implications for Language Test Developers.”
Technology and Language Testing, edited by C. W. Stansfield. Washington, DC: TESOL.
67. Vispoel, W. P. (1993). Computerized adaptive and fixed-item versions of the ITED vocabulary
subtest. Education and Psychological Measurement, 53, 779-788.
68. Vispoel, W. P. (1998). Psychometric characteristics of computer-adaptive and
self-adaptive vocabulary tests: the role of answer feedback and test anxiety.
Journal of Educational Measurement, 35, 155-167.
69. Vispoel, W. P., Rocklin, T. R., & Wang, T. (1994). Individual differences and test administration
procedures: a comparison of fixed-item, computerized adaptive, and self-adapted testing. Applied
Measurement in Education, 7, 53-79.
70. Wainer, H. & Eignor, D. (2000). Caveats, pitfalls and unexpected consequences of implementing
large-scale computerized testing. In H. Wainer et al.(2000). Computer adaptive testing: A primer
2nd ed. (pp. 271-99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
71. Wang, H. P., Kuo, B. C., Chao, R. C., & Tsai, Y. H. (2012). The development and evaluation of a
computerized adaptive testing system for Chinese proficiency-base on CEFR. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 64, 34-42.
72. Wen, K., & Qinghua, L. (2002). The trend of large-scale language testing: CALT [J]. Foreign
Language World, 2.
73. Wise, S. L. (2014). The utility of adaptive testing in addressing the problem of unmotivated
examinees. Journal of Computerized Adaptive Testing, 2(3), 1-17.
74. Young, R., Shermis, M. D., Brutten, S. R., & Perkins, K. (1996). From conventional to computer-
adaptive testing of ESL reading comprehension. System, 24(1), 23-40.
DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE CONTEXT
OF VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY
Le Van Hinh
(University of Economics and Law)
Do Dinh Thai
(Sai Gon University)
Nguyen Van Y
(Ho Chi Minh Cadre Academy)
Abstract: The world is in the context of fourth industrial revolution. Many things are changing for the better.
So, Vietnamese higher education is obligated to change in response to the regional education developement.
Vietnamese universities have many conditions right now to develop in response to the demand of society. Among
those is the autonomy for Vietnamese university. The Vietnamese goverment in 2021 has issued articles related to
the digital transformtion and promoted the digital transformation.
In this article, we will introduce what the digital transformation is, how Vietnamese university development
benefits from the digital transformation and how the University of Economics and Law will implement the
digital transformation for training programmes, quality assurance and university governance and provide some
suggestions for higher education in Vietnam
.
Key words: Higher Education, University Autonomy, Digital transformation.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the explosion of the industrial revolution 4.0, the outstanding development of online-based
communication technology has been changing the academic environment and contributing to the digital
transformation at the institution. Today almost every student owns at least one smartphone and is able to
access the internet through this mobile device. The universities are increasingly interested in accepting
new media technologies in teaching and enhancing digital transformation in teaching.
The digital transformation specifically e-learning, during the COVID-19 pandemic, has been seen
as a backup education system to continue the learning process. To date, this disease COVID-19 has
broken out and spread almost all over the world. The inability to predict when this pandemic will end
and brings a lot of uncertainty and confusion affecting economic, social and political institutions, as well
as the connections between individuals.
In the context of the pandemic, studies (Youssef, AB, & Dahmani, M., 2008; Batista, J., Morais, S.,
& Ramos, F., 2016) have proven the digital transformation as a tool useful because of its ability to increase
the level of interaction between students and faculty in higher education. This type of interaction takes
place mainly in the classroom, but now it is not limited to just one place but can happen almost anywhere
and at any time (Wentzel, 2009). In addition, through online learning activities, students use mobile
devices to become more effective in their daily tasks and also in innovating their learning methods.
Students also become more self-sufficient due to easier access to available information. Instructors have
also changed the way they teach, taking advantage of greater access to information technology.
Thus, the application of technology in higher education is an essential need to respond to the rapid
change taking place in the world (Butt, BZ, & Ur Rehman, K., 2010). However, the digital transformation
in teaching requires readiness in many aspects, (Sabo, 2014) and argues that the human resources are
important keys because there may be cases where students establish communication with teachers any
time of the day or any day.
2.1. Legal documents
Actually, there are some misunderstandings about the digital transformation. Firstly, everything
should not be digital transformation in the framework of a university. Secondly, even once the technology
is applied, there is no guaranteeing the success of your company or university. The first step for the digital
transformation is the change of your mindset, strategy and vision of each institution like the image below:
Source: https://smartfactoryvn.com/digital-transformation/chuyen-doi-so-la-gi/
So, Vietnamese government has issued the decision number 2289/QĐ-TTg about the national strategy
for fourth industrial revolution and decision number 749/QD/TTg about the digital transformation. Those
legal reasons help Vietnamese universities build its development strategy, based on the two important
decision, and define the concrete coopeations between foreign universities and Vietnamese partners.
2.2. Definitions
2.2.1. The definition of Christ of Ebert and Carlos Henrique C. Duarte, IEEE (2018) introduced digital
transformation goals about the social goals and economic goals in which the role of the technology is
less important than the knowledge of the people.
Digital Transformation Goals
Perspective Objectives
Foster the development of a more innovative and collaborative culture in industry and society
Change the education system to provide new skill and future orientation to persons so that they
can achieve excellence in digital work and society
Social Create and maintain digital communication infrastructure and ensure their governancem
accessibility, quality of service and affordability
Strenthen digital data protection, transparency, autonomy and trust
Improve the accessibility and quality of digital services offered to the population
Economic Implement new and innovative business models
Increase income generation productivity and value addition in economy
Improve the regulatory framework and technical standards
2.2.2. Digital: recording or storing information as a series of the numbers 1 and 0, to show that
a signal is present or absent1.
2.2.3. Transformation: a complete change in the appearance or character of something or someone,
especially so that thing or person is improved2
2.2.4. Strategy:a detailed plan for achieving success in situations such as war, politics, business, industry,
or sport, or the skill of planning for such situations3
3. RESEARCH METHOD
Rodrigruez-Abitia, G.; Bribiesca-Correa, G, (2021), the digital transformation takes place on 3
aspects: (1) ICT application at the universities, (2) materials and methods and (3) results and discussions;
Oleg Ye. Kaminskyi, Yulia O. Yereshko và Sergii O. Kyrychenko (2018), the digital transformations
is set to digitize all major, all services to the learners (university admission, the choice of curricula and
courses, the results of examinations, etc.…), curriculum, financial management, training planning, academic
training scheduling and many other functions. The university, as a provider of educational services, should
first focus on creating new services and and converting existing services into digital ones. Here is the
model for the digital transformation at the university.
Source: Oleg Ye. Kaminskyi, Yulia O. Yereshko and Sergii O. Kyrychenko (2018)
1 Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/dictionary/english/digital

2 Retrieved from: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/dictionary/english/transformation
3 Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/dictionary/english/strategy
Those are two research model from the foreigner universities about the digital transformation.
Our research is based on the use of general scientific and theoretical methods: analysis and synthesis
of scientific, technical and pedagogical literature concerning the digital transformation of society and
its impact on the system of higher education; studying digital transformation at the University of
Economics and Law; making an assessment, evaluating the good aspects and disadvantages of digital
transformation the combination of theories and conclusions from various fields of research. The paper
uses argumentative, deductive, inductive and systematic approaches.
4. THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAMESE HIGHER EDUCATION
On December 9th, 2020, the workshop on “Digital transformation in education and training”,
Minister of Education and Training, Phung Xuan Nha said: “In June 2020, the Prime Minister approved
the National Digital Transformation Program to 2025 oriented to 2030 in which education and training
is one of the top eight priority areas” and he affirmed “The education sector focused on training
Vietnamese citizens with knowledge and skills about the digital transformation to become global
citizens. Therefore, the digital transformation is identified as a breakthrough and an important task that
needs to be implemented in the coming years. The implementation of digital transformation not only
helps improve the quality of education, but more importantly contribute to improving labor productivity,
creating great opportunities for international integration.
The Minister sets out the orientation of digital transformation in education in general and in higher
education in particular: “First of all, there should have a unified national technology foundation for each
collective and individual, every teacher, every student who can participate and function effectively.
Based on that foundation, it will continue to perfect the database, build a repository of digital learning
resources in which management, learning, research, teaching, and knowledge sharing activities become
effective and practical”.
We can understand the digital transformation is inevitable, especially in the context of the fourth
industrial revolution which has been developing strongly. The digital transformation is a long process, the
result of this process can bring a new look of education, many new methods, tools and so on... The digital
transformation orientation of Vietnamese higher education begins firstly with the awareness of leaders,
lecturers and students and needs to focus on two directions: Firstly is the application of technology in
teaching and learning, scientific examination, evaluation and research and secondly is the application of
technology in educational management.
The digital transformation takes place on 3 core fields in Vietnam Higher Education
a. Application of technology in teaching, learning, testing, assessment and scientific research
With the development of technology, almost all aspects of teaching and learning can be using
technology. The most typical is the transition from teaching on a blackboard with white chalk into
beautiful, clear digital lectures that are convenient for both learners and teachers. In Vietnam, according
to ViOLET’s statistics, there have been nearly one million electronic lectures uploaded by the teaching
and learning community. This is a rather big number which demonstrates the growth rate in transforming
teaching and learning models, as well as the potential and demand of digital transformation in teaching
and learning.
Online teaching always goes along with the development of digital learning materials, and
at the same time it is necessary to build a healthy and convenient digital learning environment for
both teachers and learners. In addition, human resources, mainly lecturers, also need to be flexible
in teaching, especially need to improve their qualifications and adapt to the digital transformation
in higher education in particular and the industry revolution 4.0 in general. Therefore, at the higher
education online conference, Deputy Minister of Education and Training – Mr. Hoang Minh Son, the
digital transformation at the higher education focused on a number of key orientations: “Development
of the grassroots system national data on higher education; Developing and exploiting learning materials
platforms and digital learning environments; Developing highly qualified human resources for national
digital transformation”.
When the digital transformation takes place, the examination and assessment of education quality
should be considered because the teaching and learning model have changed, it is necessary to change
the way of testing and assessment to adapt in the new context. Many universities have developed
regulations to assess the quality of education for online teaching. The advantage of assessing an online
test helps student know their result immediately in comparison with the traditional test. The assessing
can be made many times, anywhere. In addition, the teachers can easily monitor the learning progress of
each student, adjust and shape the teaching methods in the best way.
The digital transformation in higher education has a great influence on the scientific research
process of both faculty and students. By sharing a common data set and scientific research results among
member universities will promote the scientific research process at each educational institution. In
addition, when the digital transformation process takes place, opportunities for international cooperation
between universities are also enhanced, raising the level of university lecturers.
Last but not least, the application of digital transformation in higher education will contribute to
promoting the development of subjects or training programs of the future such as artificial intelligence
(AI), data science, data analysis, big data…etc. Thereby, both teachers and learners need to have the
necessary skills to keep up with the development trend of the times. Even managers need to invest in
equipment, effort, and necessary funds to catch up with this “new wave”.
b. Application of technology in educational management

Deputy Minister of Education and Training Hoang Minh Son said in the higher education online
conference: “In 2007, credit training which was launched in a few schools allow learners to register for
study and to view their learning results and pay tuition fees online. Most universities have implemented
this kind of training today. The registration for high school exams and online admission, school
administration are also digitized and implemented on the basis of information technology application”.
This not only helps to reduce the workload in management, but also helps to improve the quality of
educational management, promote the model more simple, more effective than traditional models.
Specifically, the digital transformation in educational management includes the digitization of

information which is necessary to establish large interconnected databases, and uses the achievements
of 4.0 technology to manage, forecast, operate and make decision accurately and quickly.
Currently, according to statistics, the electronic management system of more than 300 universities
and colleges across the country has operated stably, smoothly and associated with the development of
technology platforms.
c. Development strategy of higher education institutions in Vietnam towards autonomy in the

context of digital transformation
The introduction of Law No. 34/2018/QH14 and Decree 99/2019/ND-CP has promoted the process
of university autonomy. In the context of digital transformation, the process of university autonomy also
needs many changes to adapt to new circumstances and improve the quality of the training institution
itself in particular and of higher education in particular.
Currently, the university autonomy model is born under the management of the university council.
The members of university council are very diverse in many universities including businessmen. This is
the foundation of the development for digital transformation in the trend of university autonomy.
The role and function of the university council were formed. We can see that the digital transformation
will help the university council to properly implement the autonomy model
5. Actual digital transformation at the University of Economics and Law
In order to have a good model for Vietnamese university autonomy, Vietnamese Goverment has
issued the legal document: Decree 77/2017 about the piloting model of operating mechanism with public
higher education institutions in the period 2014-2017 (Accoding to the decision, there are 23 public
higher education institutions) which allows public higher education institutions to increase the tuitition
fee to improve the education quality in the new context of Vietnamese autonomy university.
Learners in the digital era are learners who want to create value and product-oriented learning
(Zhao, 2012). They co-create teaching content with the teacher and with the university. Their position
move from a receiving position to a provider position. The lecturer no longer plays the role of providing
knowledge, but also creates a customized learning context according to the learners’ requirements.
At the same time, ICT has changed the teaching, learning and research environment of universities
which have to reshape teaching because the teaching activities is no longer within the framework of the
university. ICT changes the services for academic training activities, scientific research of universities.
In that context, the application of the digital transformation at UEL is imperative to meet the new
requirements of learners, employers and stakeholders, help learners co-create teaching content. in the context
of university autonomy of Vietnamese universities.
The University of Economics and Law, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (UEL) has
implemented the university autonomy at the beginning of 2021 which allows to increase the tuitition fee,
to improve the education quality in the new context of Vietnamese autonomy university. The autonomy
university falicitated UEL to develop in term of training, the scientific activities, the finance activities, the
human ressources, the academic activities, to build its brands, to to improve the education quality, has
made breakthroughs in training and research, contributing to creating a new “face” for higher education
system of Vietnam.
The digital transformation of UEL in the fields of economics, law and management is a mandatory
condition to develop itself in all aspects, to best meet the needs of learners and stakeholders. The digital
transformation helps the university operate well the human resources, finance, training and research aspects
for the faculties, the supporting departments as well as the university’s research units in the new context.
So, UEL assess that digital transformation is vital for its developement in the context of 4th Industrial
Revolution and university autonomy. In UEL’s strategy, the digital transformation is one of the 3 pillars
for the new development. UEL also implements the E-learning on different platformes BigBlueButton
(BBB), Zoom, Quickcom or Google Meet to support students. Moreover, UEL has constructed digital
learning materials in the framework of Education 4.0 Project.
Here is some aspects of the digital transformation at the UEL.
5.1. E-learning
Year
No Faculty
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Faculty of Information System
Number of student
1. Electronic commerce 57 106 115 123 113
Management Information System 71 98 106 108 99
Digital business and artificial intelligence - - - - 39
Faculty of Economics Maths

2
Applied mathematics in economics, management and finance - - 33 71 109
Source: UEL
5.2. Some information about the Education 4.0 Projet
Year/ Number of subject

No Faculty (including slide, case study, Subject
e-test, introduction video)
1. E-marketing
2. System analysis and design
3. Programming techniques
2018
4. Business website design and
6 subjects for online material
programming 1
5. Data Analytics in Business
6. Data structure
1. Basics Informatics
Faculty of Information
1 2. Business Information System
System (20) 2019
6 subjects for online material 3. Management information systems
4. E-commerce
1. Information system technology platform
2020 2. Graphics and multimedia

4 subjects for online material
3. Database management system
4. Information system security
1. Applied Statistics
2. Econometric
2021 3. Economic forecasting
06 subjects for online material 4. Time series analysis in finance
5. Asset Valuation Model
6. Operations Research
1. Applied Statistics
2018: 03 subjects for online
2. Econometric
material
3. Economic forecasting
1. Higher Mathematics
2. Bayesian Statistics
material
Faculty of Economics 3. Data Visualization
2
Maths (11) 1. Probability theory
2020: 3 subjects for online 2. Maths for Economics
material
3. Time series analysis in finance
1. Asset Valuation Model
material 2. Operations Research
Source: UEL
In the academic year 2019 – 2020, there were 1.751 subjects and in 2020 – 2021, there were 1969
subjects which are implemented in the framework of Education 4.0 Project. The UEL took many steps
to prepare for the digital transformation and has received many positive feedbacks from the faculties
and students after 2 years. Moreover, the digital transformation will be better if the infrastructure for IT,
e-learning and the most important things are improved more and more.
5.3. Advantages and disadvantages of the digital transformation at the University of Economics
and Law
5.3.1. Advantages:
- The active participations of the rectorate board, all faculties and departments
- The experiences in developing training programs according to CDIO in the period 2015 - 2017;
- The implementation of the Education 4.0 Project for the period 2018 - 2022 setting up a good
environment for E-learning teaching at the university.
- The active participation of students according to the blended learning teaching method.
5.3.2. Disadvantages:
- The trainers meet the difficulties due to the schedule and COVID-19.
- The regulations of IT application for training management and organisation takes time because it
relates to the finance, properties industries and legal documents.
5.3.3. Some suggestions for the university autonomy in the context of the digital transformation
• Start the changes from the leader’s mindset, university council. It is necessary to manage university
activities by applying available technologies on the basis of a common database of universities.
• There should have a set of evaluation rules, measuring work performance based on KPIs and
implement through scientific research evaluation indicators such as h-index, Citations, or i-10 index.
This contributes to international integration about the research in particular and to the development of
higher education in general.
• In the context of university autonomy, financial autonomy can be implemented with student data
which gives recommendations for admissions activities in order to have a roadmap to attract students.
• Organize more academic activities through online seminars which contributes to promoting the
development of local human resources and, at the same time, to attracting foreign investment.
• There should have an examination and evaluation of the effectiveness of autonomous activities in
higher education. This can be done by application of verified inspection systems and implemented in parallel
with personal assessments to avoid subjective assessments which waste finance and human resources.
• Encourage students and lecturers to seek out open learning resources and online courses to
improve their qualifications, thereby universities’ leaders build a suitable e-learning system for their
own higher education institution: like Coursera, Udemy, Edx,...
• Train the human resources (managers, lecturers, specialists, students) with knowledge and skills
to meet digital transformation requirements: skills in using IT, skills in information security, skills in
exploiting and using applications for teaching and learning work.
• Finally, strengthen the link between the school and the business in order to meet the student’s
output in response to the needs of the employer. They can have the opportunities to use the new
technology instead of using the outdated technology at the university.
6. CONCLUSION
Digital transformation is not just about disruption or technology. It’s about value, people,
optimization and the capability to rapidly adapt when needed through an intelligent use of technology
and information. It is the profound transformation of business and organizational activities, processes,
competencies and models to fully leverage the changes and opportunities of a mix of digital technologies
and their accelerating impact across society in a strategic and prioritized way, with present and future
shifts in mind.
The Vietnamese universities should implement digital transformation in the new context, which
helps them develop, intergrate to internationalisation, save money, adapt to learner’s demand. The first
step should start from the strategy of each university and change mindset and attitude from the leaders,
each person at the institution which are the core elements for digital transformation. That is the biggest
transformation for the university autonomy in Vietnam Higher Education.
REFERENCES
1. Batista, J., Morais, S., & Ramos, F. (2016). Researching the Use of Communication Technologies
in Higher Education Institutions in Portugal. In Handbook of Research on Engaging Digital
Natives in Higher Education Settings. IGI Global. pp. 280-303,
2. Butt, B. Z., & Ur Rehman, K. (2010). A study examining the students satisfaction in higher
education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 5446-5450,
3. Christ of Ebert and Carlos Henrique C. Duarte. (2016) Requirements Engeeneering for the
Digital transformation: An Industry Panel, Proc. 24th IEEE Int’l Requirement Eng. Conf. (RE
16), pp. 4 – 5,
4. Oleg Ye. Kaminskyi, Yulia O. Yereshko và Sergii O. Kyrychenko (2018), Digital Transformation
of University Education in Ukraine: Trajectoire of Development in the Conditons of New
Technological and Economic Order. ISSN: 2076-8184. Information Technologies and Learning
Tools, 2018, Vol 64, №2,
5. Rodríguez-Abitia, G.; Bribiesca-Correa, G. (2021) Assessing Digital Transformation in
Universities. Future Internet 2021, 13,
6. Sabo, R. (2014). How technology is changing how teachers communicate with students in teach
thought. Retrieved from http://teachthought.com/teaching/how-technology-is-changing-how-
teachers-communicate-with-students,
7. Zhao, Y. (2012). World class learners: Educating creative and entrepreneurial students (1st ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin,
8. Youssef, A. B., & Dahmani, M. (2008). The impact of ICT on student performance in higher
education: Direct effects, indirect effects and organisational change. RUSC: Universities and
Knowledge Society Journal, 5(1), 45-56.
9. https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Cong-nghe-thong-tin/Quyet-dinh-2289-QD-TTg-2020-
Chien-luoc-quoc-gia-ve-Cach-mang-cong-nghiep-lan-thu-tu-den-2030-461337.aspx
10. https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Cong-nghe-thong-tin/Quyet-dinh-749-QD-TTg-2020-phe-
duyet-Chuong-trinh-Chuyen-doi-so-quoc-gia-444136.aspx
11. https://moet.gov.vn
12. https://violet.vn
13. https://luatvietnam.vn/giao-duc/luat-giao-duc-dai-hoc-sua-doi-nam-2018-169346-d1.html
14. https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Giao-duc/Nghi-dinh-99-2019-ND-CP-huong-dan-thi-hanh-
Luat-Giao-duc-dai-hoc-sua-doi-432145.aspx
15. https://thanhnien.vn/giao-duc/truong-dh-cong-lap-nao-duoc-thu-hoc-phi-cao-1101182.html
APPLIED ART DESIGNER TRAINING IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATIONAL
AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AT UNIVERSITIES IN HANOI
Nguyen Thanh Giang

University of Industrial Fine Arts
Abstract: Nowadays Educational Innovation is one of the integration development trends. Especially in
the field of training applied fine arts, it is needed to combine science and technology to keep pace to the world
approach. Every year, the number of students who are being trained in applied arts design at universities in Hanoi
is about 2,000. They are trained with a variety of professions such as Graphics, Interior, Industrial Styling and
Traditional Fine Arts like Lacquer, Ceramic, and Jewelry. Current training orientation for designing artists is to
approach modern technology so the artists can practice creatively with the most updated designing software and
bring up bold ideas as well as empirical opportunities associated with the real needs.
Is there any difference in educational methodology between the institutions training Bachelors of Design
in Hanoi, whose graduates become designing artists of Applied Fine Arts, and other regular universities? This is
what our research wants to study. Moreover, we apply empirical research to dignify research issues and mention to
empirical education with its reality efficiency on art creativity. These are also issues that need to be shared in the
current trend of educational innovation and global integration among university bachelor’s training environments
in general and for applied fine arts training in particular.
Keywords: Educating designing artists, Applied Fine Art, Educational Innovation, Technology.
1. INTRODUCTION
Applied Arts includes following disciplines: industrial design, graphic design, fashion design,
interior design and art deco. In Hanoi, the following Educational Institutions provide Applied Art
Designers Training: specialized faculties at University of Industrial Fine Arts, Interior and Industrial
Fine Arts faculty of Hanoi Architectural University, Industrial Styling Design Faculty of Hanoi Open
University, Applied Fine Arts faculty of Hanoi University of Business and Technology, Industrial
Fine Arts faculty of Peace University and Nguyễn Trãi College, Graphic Design faculty of National
University of Art Education, Graphic Design major at Vietnam University of Fine Arts, Fashion
Design & Garment Technology faculty of Hanoi Industrial Textile Garment University, FPT Arena…
All the above educational institutions have faculties giving Bachelor education on Graphic, Interior,
and Fashion. Only University of Industrial Fine Arts gives Bachelor education for Applied Decorative
Products Design on traditional materials at disciplines like Lacquer, Pottery and Jewelry Design. Design
Artists are graduates who are fully equipped with basic knowledge of applied arts and have specialized
skills in their trained disciplines. With the knowledge and skills, they can proficiently apply on design
software to be able to create products in many fields to meet the real needs of life. Nowadays, at the
applied arts training institutions, their training is associated with technology in the process of digital
transformation. This is one of the important goals to update and develop. There are studies on digital
approaches to the education at university level in the world and these studies show that current interest
in educational innovation on the digital platform is not a small proportion.
Education in narrow meaning is to give training: fundamental and in depth, professional and
vocational, distance, long term and short term, etc. Training is the process of indoctrinating and
transmitting knowledge and experiencing consciously with goals and plan, lecturers lead the way
(Nguyễn, Vũ, 2020). For the field of applied art, education is both science and art in a process of training
people aimed at preparing for them to participate in social life and production work. More specifically,
applied art training is to develop thinking and ability to create and design products to serve life in
different fields.
José Goldemberg, a Brazilian physicist, a leading expert on energy and environmental issues, also
a university educator and research scientist, shares his view that the innovation with a more realistic
model for all the countries is: all the elements such as research, technology development, production
and marketing should be conducted simultaneously. Realistic model is: doing research always associates
with market and developing appropriate technology in order to create products which meet the real needs.
Currently, when the 4.0 Revolution is developing, all the training professions also need to approach and
apply global technology, so that training of applied arts in the context of digital transformation needs to
create a new educational space, in which the technical support is really necessary to produce products.
Together with other countries to approach educational innovation, we raise the following questions:
How are specific methods in training applied art designing artists being innovated (1)? How does the
applied art practice differ from other scientific research disciplines (2)? And we have the hypothesis
as followed:
(1) Innovation in training of applied arts is the learning always couples with the development of
technology; new designing software is updated and used.
(2) Practicing applied arts is to apply empirical education in order to promote creative directions
and product research.
Empirical education has been applied quite popularly and in the applied arts training discipline
because this is an environment directly related to technical practice on the theoretical foundation.
Empirical education brings practical effects in terms of artistic creation. John Dewey (1859 - 1952) was
an American philosopher, educational reformer with worldwide influence and the father of empirical
education. Right from the early years of the 20th century, John Dewey had many progressive educational
ideas with the desire to change and reform traditional educational methods, which is said to have many
limitations in developing the capacity of each individual, and education idea based on learning through
practice to develop empirical education.
We have accessed a number of recent published articles in Education Research Journal on the
issue of training at university level with the movement of digital technology. In the research work
of author Melissa Bond and her associates, she focused on the digitalization process at universities
in the Federal Republic of Germany. The main objective of the authors is to study on which digital
technology and which educational technology is being applied in the process of learning and teaching,
through awareness and assessment of the learners and students. The result shows that 94% of Oldenburg
University’s students use search tools daily. Other tools including instant messages, lecture recording
tools, data archiving system in cloud provided by schools and citation software are not frequently used
by students (Melissa, 2018).
Digital transformation in education must be associated with sustainable management because

education needs to maintain its stability in the face of non-stop changing process of technology. Emilio-
Segura et al. in their research article “Sustainable Management of the Digital Transformation in Higher
Education, Global Research Trends” have studied and analyzed trends of research on this topic in the
global scope from 1986 to 2019. The group of authors aimed at studying trends in digital transformation
of universities to analyze the impacts during the implementation of new technology at these educational
institutions. Emilio Abad-Segura et al. have analyzed 1,590 related scientific articles from Scopus
database. The university with the most digital transformation-related publications is Delft Technology
University. America is the country having the most number of published scientific works and the most
international collaborated projects on digital transformation in education (Emilio, 2020). Through this, it
can be seen that the research on technological approaches in Higher Education in general is a large field
while research on applied art training schools is considered a narrower field, so study more specifically
is needed.
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Empirical education creates an environment where learners need knowledge and skills to actively
explore and build knowledge through their own creativity. We rely on pedagogical empirical analysis
to clarify this issue. Specifically, experiments are the results of pedagogical observations. We observed
classes of each discipline during their learning process. Each class of specialized discipline has 10 - 15
students. In such a learning space, the number of students is quite a few compared to other training
disciplines in other educational field (about 1/5 of the student amount). Therefore, it has a special element
because the teacher is able to cover and observe rather closely learning process of each student. For each
lesson, each student has to create one product which meets the application requirement and follows
the need of the market. Students also have to learn about fundamental elements of hobbies, trends of
customers. One practical applied space will be selected for the product. That is the requirement of a
design lesson, so each student should make a great effort to prove their creativity having high practical
efficiency, can be selected to produce in production environment for the disciplines like industrial
styling, interior design or decorative product design. Similarly for the Graphic design, the product should
meet all practical requirements such as being able to identify brands, design logos and advertisement
posters of a specific external market. Through empirical research by observation, we see how specific
the teaching in applied arts training environment is in order to give out hypothesis and recognize how
important the teaching activity in applied arts discipline closely associated with the life is. Applied arts is
multi-disciplinary, multi-angle, and it is necessary to observe many aspects of a polyhedron to see how
similar and different the forms and training activities are in different training disciplines.
In this study, we discuss the hypothesis that new technology being applied in the applied art training
model has already spread to all disciplines: Interior Design, Graphic design, Fashion design, industrial
styling design, traditional fine art product design (Ceramic, Lacquer, Jewelry) at applied arts training
schools in Hanoi area. On the basis of hypothesis, we select experimental groups in similar disciplines
at training schools of applied arts such as Graphic design at University of Industrial Fine Arts, Graphic
Design of Faculty of Industrial Styling – Hanoi Open University, Graphic Design discipline - National
University of Art Education. We can have the answer for that is at this time, technology is being applied
with modern design software and they are being used quite popularly. It is being developed to create
an up-to-date trend in conformity with the digital era as well as with the context of educational and
technological innovation which is happening not only in the education sector but also other sectors on
the global scale.
We conducted empirical research in the totally alike condition for all four groups of disciplines:
Graphic design, Interior design, Industrial Styling design, and Fashion design, then we observe the
developments and studying results of all groups objectively following each phase from theoretical
exercises to effective practice and resulting in creative products.
Analyzing survey results, organizing, classifying and dealing, then assessing based on comparing
results of each testified group. With pedagogical empirical method, we got some results and summarized
that teaching model for applied arts training is being conducted in a rather unified procedure in each
discipline.
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
3.1. General methods of teaching applied arts at Universities in Hanoi
The field of applied art includes specific training disciplines and differs from common and universal
teaching and learning process, unlike studying natural and social science. Training applied art artists
is a separate field, so close to real life because students in applied art environment later will become
design artists. They should have synthetic mindset, both artistic and logical thinking combined with
the thinking of a businessman. In training of design bachelors, other needed elements are emotion,
creativity, and flexibility which help students’ learning activities to be effective and it’s necessary to
keep them throughout learning process. In training process for an applied art design bachelor, students
need to accumulate two thickness of technical and artistic knowledge - two elements always go hand in
hand in a field that is considered quite specific.
Students need to be equipped with basic skills such as creation, thinking and reasoning, empirical
ability. It’s very clear that the teacher’s role is very important. They are good at profession and ability
to indoctrinate knowledge. In the applied art training, the contribution of teachers to society is assessed
by the quality of the applied art bachelors they have guided and trained. In training activity at university
level, the teacher training applied arts plays central role, providing students basic knowledge on
methodology, applied art in life.
Teaching theory at the applied arts training environments includes basic knowledge and concepts
around the issues of history, movement and application in each training discipline. The practical part of
the lesson is more focused and about 1.5 times longer than the theory part. For example, the theory takes
2 modules while the practice takes 3 modules.
Practice also includes theory on practice. These theories are established by system of technological
software that designs products for each discipline. Steps are from creative idea – product design –
application in space and in a complete process to get quality products. In all specialized discipline,
the lesson needs also meet requirement of life of present time, so the learners should grasp reality
objectively for creative ideas. The lecturer is the guide for the students, making specific requirements
according to the purpose and requirements of the lesson. Teachers can often ask direct questions such
as what logos and branding mean and symbolize for: How does the interior of the room with space and
light require? What is the shape and proportions for industrial products? What are the trends in fashion
design? How to design a traditional product with lacquer, ceramic, and jewelry materials to promote the
traditional quintessence and update with modernity?
The teaching is active or not based on interaction with students and discussing about options to
integrate many application possibilities from the lessons to reality. Practical activities make students
more excited, learn better. The actual practical activity of students is to practice making the product
of the lesson in another space - the Experimental Workshop. At the applied art training institutions,
each lesson has both practical and theoretical part, and both parts are carried out at the experimental
workshop, where has enough facilities and experts specialized in teaching technical part of each
discipline. The experimental workshop is located right at the specialized faculty, this is also a difference
of the education taking technology and engineering practice as the center in applied arts training field.
The Faculty of Interior and Industrial Fine Arts at the Hanoi University of Architecture has a rather large
Fashion Experimental workshop, where students can practice every garment steps. At the University of
Industrial Fine Arts, the Experimental Workshop usually has an area of more than 100m2 for students
in each discipline to do exercises here. The Graphics workshop has a large size printer, the Furniture
workshop has a good ground, equipped with supporting machines and hand-held devices. Workshops
of traditional industries are also fully equipped, kilns for Ceramics, premises and full equipment for
jewelry design, etc. Experimental activities at the School Workshop are always highly appreciated.
Along with the training at the school, students also have the opportunity to practice at enterprises,
design and production companies and construction sites. Students who study well and excellently are
introduced to have part-time jobs that are exactly relevant to their trained majors from the end of the
third and fourth years. Therefore, after graduate, students who have and accumulated experience and
knowledge before will confidently encounter reality.
3.2. Combine training with science and technology in applied art training disciplines
On the momentum of global technology development in the 2020s, many design projects have been
implemented and product samples have been applied thanks to technology. The training of applied arts
majors such as graphic product design, interior space design, trendy fashion collection design or applied
decorative product design has started to be applied in new design software. Each software is applied for
each specialty. Renovating teaching model based on technology, building a new teaching process in the
field of applied arts at training schools has initially showed its efficiency thanks to the creative ability of
the learners and the lecturers- instructors.
Modern design software has been widely applied to each discipline, creating a universally applied
technology training system. Nowadays, Graphic design is no longer merely designing products as Logos,
banners, print publications made by using old designing software like Illustrator, Sketch, Photoshop but
also includes designing communication products such as video clips, websites, etc, so it is renamed:
Digital Graphic Designer or Digital Media Designer and collectively known as Digital Graphic Design.
Students have the opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills in brand design, web design, game
character design, mobile application design, etc. Thanks to accessing to Information Technology,
graduates can integrate with the market and get jobs more easily.
For the Fashion industry training, the product is created in a virtual space by specialized integrated
software like Lectra, Gerber, Optex or Autodesk. From the creative ideas, costume will be designed, cut
and tailored on the computer, then applied immediately on the 3D model with accurate measurements of
the human body. With the support of 3D design software, the manufacturers easily change parameters,
sizes or textures to create necessary vibrancy as well as variety and variation of products in fashion.
3D Marvelous Designer is the very popular design software because of its friendly interface, very fast
processing speed. Some students from the fashion design discipline at the University of Industrial Fine
Arts has used this software since the years of 2019 and 2020.
The Interior design discipline is the one using multimedia and modeling applications, so 3D design
software helps to create three-dimensional architecture. Interior products designed by there applications
like AutoCAD, AutoCAD Architecture, Autodesk Revit, 3ds MAX, Auto Sketch are immersed in the
space corresponding to the actual space, helping the designer to realize all his ideas. Each interior project
can get the most effective solution because customers can see and approach the space they want to do in
reality beforehand thanks to support of design drawing software. This software can provide impressive
interior design sketches. If you quickly sketch your furniture design ideas on paper, you can scan the
drawings and then continue working in CAD Pro. These software have been applied continuously and
intensively in the interior design discipline at University of Industrial Fine Arts, Architecture Faculty
and Applied Fine Arts Faculty of Hanoi University of Business and Technology, helping to ensure that
the quality of the students’ products and meet the requirements of the modern real life. For Industrial
Styling, it is software to create a product in three-dimensional space with precise proportions and
put in the material as an actual product. The industrial styling industry uses 3DS MAX software and
Solidworks. These two softwares are the most popular. Solidworks allows easy conversion from 2D
drawings and sketches into 3D geometric models and has the ability to create 3D model industrial
products, which is extremely convenient for creative activities, innovation, and product development of
the industrial design industry.
For the traditional product design, a unique discipline trained at the University of Industrial Fine
Arts, product prototyping with 3D technology is an experimentally applied digital-based process which
produces a specific model with precise proportions and texture. In addition, it is possible to put special
materials such as lacquer, ceramic, and jewelry on the surface of the product. A new training method has
been implemented in teaching and training in the field of traditional fine arts that perhaps few people
know about. It is not only a training environment for product designers that inherits traditional decorative
elements and specific materials of Vietnam, but this environment also train design artists at the forefront
of applied art design inspired from the traditional trades of Pottery, Lacquer, Jewelry. They are also
equipped with new knowledge and are learning on the newest design software 3DS Max. In addition,
they have opportunity to practice with technology of the next-generation 3D printers in Jelwery design
discipline. In particular, at the University of Industrial Fine Arts, the only training cradle of traditional
trades, the product designs can support traditional villages of ceramic and lacquer production such as
Bat Trang and Ha Thai in order to enrich the current popular and mass models.
3.3. Looking out to Asian countries
Comparing with the training of applied fine arts in some Asian countries such as Thailand, India
and South Korea, we found one similarity that the Design Industry in general always applies and updates
with newest design software. These softwares are used relatively similarly in training disciplines like
Industrial Styling, Graphics and Interior.
International University Standford in Bangkok, Thailand has a strength in training Communication
Design with Creative Bachelor Program which includes: Advertisement, packaging, logos, website design,
photography, television, short film, games, 3D model, 3D digital, effect design, etc. We can see that,
application of new technology in this training model is blooming in Graphics in Communication, however,
we haven’t seen the variety and depth at designing industrial products and other applied products.
Also in Thailand, King Monkut’s University - established in 1960 - is the first public university in
Thailand who gain the management autonomy. King Mongkut is a famous technical and technological
University with specialized disciplines like Architecture and Applications, Technique, Energy, Biological
Resourse, Environment, Linguistic, Industrial Art Technology. For the department of industrial art
technology in King Mongkut’s University in North Bangkok, they have a special target to preserve
traditional trades, so they have Art Pottery Design and Industrial Pottery Design. Here, learning activities
take place quite diverse and rich so it is really an intensive training environment on architecture and
design. King Monkut’s University has also had academic exchange with Hanoi University of Industrial
Fine Arts for many years, especially the exchange of department of industrial art technology on Pottery
Product Design, the discipline of interest of both universities.
Among the leading Design Institutes in India, Unitedworld Institute of Design (UID) is a
training institution which has modern laboratories and creative learning methods in practice, material
discovery, production techniques, their training balances creativity with technology, cultural interest
with environmental needs. UID is prominent compared to other design colleges in India as it gives
communication opportunities for students. Teaching program encourages exploring practice, putting
customers and market as the center. Softwares are updated and applied along with the training like
applied art training in Vietnam. This university attracts a large number of students in the world and the
number is increasing year after year.
We have also learned about design training in South Korea through a seminar on “The Role and
Strategy of Design in developing Vietnam’s Industry” within the framework of international cooperation
in training between the Vietnam National University of Industrial Fine Arts and Busan Design Institute
(now renamed as Busan Design Revival Institute), Korea on September 17th, 2019, at the University
of Industrial Fine Arts. Dr. Kang Kyungtae – Director and Dr. Park Jeahyn – Vice Director of Busan
Design Institute (Korea) and Dr. Yoon Jang Wun – President of Sedia Design Association (Association
of Industrial Design DONGNAM) were present at the seminar to discuss about the education work to
promote the role of Industrial Fine Art Design in both countries and at the same time set out a strategy
to develop applied art design towards the development of Vietnam Industry. “Industrial Revolution
4.0 – Development Strategy for Integration of Design and Technique” is the research content shared by
Dr. Kang Kyungtae – Director of the Busan Design Revival. He generalized the concept of integration
between design and technique nowadays. Researchers have shared the same opinions about important
role of Industrial fine art Design in the period of international integration, technical and scientific
support, specialized design software, etc to contribute to the industrialization nowadays, the imminent
target of both countries. This study also shows the common ability to adapt and create with modern
design software among students trained in product design disciplines.
4. SOME ASSUMPTIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
Application of new technology in training and education of all applied art fields is the process from
design idea, usage of design software to creation of product model in accordance with the requirement
of each lesson, including theory, practice and experiment. Training a design artist is a process to develop
creative thinking and learner’s identity so the support and promotion of attribute and nature of each
individual is required and necessary. The teacher needs to discover, orient and guide in details for each
development steps of the learner.
Looking at society, applied art design belongs to group of technical disciplines and it is a necessary
discipline group for nowadays development. The survey results showed that in the term 2020-2025, it
accounts for 30% of human resource demand. However, why are there a few candidates to take part
in the entry examination of this discipline? Actually, it is a difficult discipline which requires creation,
special ability and Endeavour to develop thinking mindset in the whole learning process. Nowadays,
training institutions need to promote themselves in media channel to attract more students so that the
institutions will have opportunity to select the qualitative input students. In general, the pupils’ aesthetic
and artistic thinking need to be nurtured since their school time so they can discover their ability. At
present, Ministry of Education and Training has begun to popularize art education programs, including
in the fields of painting, graphics, architecture, sculpture, and theater... at the high school level, helping
them expand their knowledge and have the opportunity to learn and approach careers early.
Artist Phan Vu Linh, a lecturer at University of Fine Arts in Ho Chi Minh city shares that the art and
architecture are specialized disciplines because candidates not only need the ability but also the artistic
and painting talent. Nowadays, the schools provide interdisciplinary training so during their learning
process they are also equipped with knowledge relating software, business, and market. Talent element
is the start point to follow applied art design discipline. Although it is a discipline group for talented
students, students still have to prepare some important soft skills such as presentation, communication,
working in group. Having the innate ability to do the job is not enough, it needs perseverance. Besides,
self-improving, improvisation and ability to carry out technological experiment are necessary nature to
follow disciplines of applied art design.
Thanks to digital technology, we can narrow the distance and time so that we can access art and
culture products and can sit at home to access the latest inventions and works of the times. The training
of applied art designers has been making favorable developments in the current integration trend. This
proves that it is a certain positive learning activity that has keeps pace with the progress of the 4.0
technology age in digital era that we are moving with. In the trend of developing all aspects of socio-
economic life based on technology, research and application of technology, the field of applied arts
training has become a task and current educational process at universities in Hanoi. On the one hand,
this activity contributes positively to the innovation so that education is in line with social needs. On the
other hand, it proves the effectiveness of training knowledge and practical capacity and the development
of personal inner strength when placing learner centered. Applied Arts was a specific training field for
many specialized disciplines. Different from most other training programs, this training combines the
artistry and technical elements.
With this research, we are able to confirm our hypotheis that: Innovation in training of applied
arts is the learning always couples with the development of technology; new designing softwares are
updated and used (1). Practicing applied arts is to apply empirical education in order to promote creative
directions and product research (2).Therefore, learning about teaching methods in this field in the context
of Educational Innovation at Universities will provide helpful information for researchers on pedagogy
and education technology.
REFERENCE
1. Emilio Abad-Segura (2020). Sustainable Management of Digital Transformation in Higher

Education: Global Research Trends. Sustainability, 12(2107). doi:10.3390/su12052107
2. Kang Kyungtae (2019) “Industrial Revolution 4.0 – Development Strategy for Integration
of Design and Engineering”, Scientific Conference on Roles and Design Strategies for
Industrialization, University of Industrial Fine Arts, Hanoi.
3. Proceedings of International Conference (2020), Culture – Art Education in the context of
international integration and technology revolution 4.0, Social Science Publishing House, Hanoi
4. Nguyễn Hồng Linh, Vũ Trịnh Thế Quân (2020), “Education in the context of Industrial
Revolution 4.0”, Proceedings of International Conference: “Culture – Art Education in the
context of international integration and technology revolution 4.0”, Social Science Publishing
House, Hanoi.
5. Melissa Bond et al. (2018). Digital transformation in German Higher Education: student and
teacher perceptions and usage of digital media. International Journal of Educational Technology
in Higher Education, 15(48)
6. University of Industrial Fine Arts (2014), Proceedings of Conference on Applied Fine Art
Training associated with social needs, Hanoi.
Reference documents from websites:
7. https://web.archive.org/web/20070927222919/http://www.abc.org.br/sjbic/curriculo.
asp?consulta=goldemberg
8. https://karnavatiuniversity.edu.in/uid/
9. https://tapchigiaoduc.edu.vn/article/86795/225/chuyen-doi-so-trong-giao-duc-xu-huong-loi-
the-va-thach-thuc/
10. https://tapchigiaoduc.edu.vn/article/87034/225/chuyen-doi-so-trong-cac-truong-dai-hoc-o-duc-
cong-nghe-giao-duc-va-nang-luc-so/
11. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/king-mongkuts-university-
technology-thonburi
12. https://revistapesquisa.fapesp.br/en/from-critic-to-herald/
13. https://www.stamford.edu/
14. https://vietnamnet.vn/vn/giao-duc/nguoi-thay/john-dewey-nha-triet-hoc-khai-sinh-ra-giao-duc-
thuc-nghiem-411155.html
THE KEY FACTORS FOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
OF UNIVERSITY GRADUATES IN VIETNAM
Pham Duc Long

(Hanoi University of Industry)
Nguyen Thuy Nga
Abstract: Higher education institutions in Vietnam have been devoting resources to accreditation of higher
education institutions and programs under the Education Law. Regarding evaluating higher education programs,
the external evaluation team is often interested in university graduates’ employment opportunities from feedback
from employers and graduates. The paper presents the literature review of the factors affecting the employment
opportunities of university graduates from the studies of international authors and Vietnamese researchers through
a desk-top research study. Based on the study results, this paper proposes some recommendations for higher
education institutions in Vietnam to make university graduates’ school-to-work transition process smoother and
shorter. It also hopes to contribute to the literature relating to measurement and assessment in education.
Keywords: higher education programs, employment opportunities, university graduates, school-to-work

transition.
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of higher education aims to develop highly qualified human resources, satisfy
requirements of social and economic growth, and ensure national defense and security (The National
Assembly, 2018). To enhance the output results of higher education institutions, the employability of
graduates of all training programs needs to be identified, supervised, and compared for improvement
(MOET, 2017). At which level the labor market accepts higher education institutions’ training outcomes
depends on the school-to-work transition of the university graduates. Not only is the transition concerned
about the length of time from school leaving to the first stable or satisfactory job, but the qualitative
elements of the transition to employment (Tran, 2018). Therefore, our paper attempts to fill in the gap
by clarifying the qualitative elements in the literature review.
Furthermore, employment for university graduates has received more concern from society and
families at developed countries and developing countries (Mgaiwa, 2021), especially in the context of
the COVID pandemic. As stated by United Nations, youth aged 15-24 are seeking better professional
development chances. In the meantime, they face difficulties in access to employment, health, education,
and gender equality (United Nations, 2020). Regarding the employment section, among 1.2 billion youth
aged 15-24 globally is 273 million not in Employment, Education or Training (NEED). In Vietnam, in
2020, the number of unemployed people at working age increased to 1,278,900 people, of which the
number of unemployed youth went up to 89,267 people (MOLISA, 2020). About 7% of unemployed
young people can be regarded as one of the most significant problems facing Vietnam’s social and
economic growth. Accordingly, the Prime Minister’s promulgated the program to support the labor
market development to 2030. The Prime Minister’s target is to maintain the jobless youth rate in urban
areas at less than 7%. In addition, the underemployment rate of rural youth should be below 6 percent.
One of the critical solutions to achieve the above goal is developing a mechanism and implementing
programs and projects to support job creation and participation in the labor market for special labor
groups, including recent university graduates (Prime Minister, 2021). However, so far too little attention
has been paid to the factors and solutions for promoting university graduates’ employment opportunities
which aim at actualizing Prime Minister priority for university graduates’ employment affairs since the
COVID 19 pandemic spread nationwide.
Because of two reasons discussed above, the article intends to systematically review theories relating
to employment opportunities to address the following question “What are the key factors affecting
employment opportunities of Vietnamese university graduates?” and then presents the proposals for
better graduate employability. The paper is shown in the following sections: introduction, research
methodology, key factors for employment opportunities, results and implications, and conclusions.
Many research methods can be selected to identify the crucial factors impacting employment
chances for graduates from higher education institutions. Because of being at the beginning phase of
carrying out the doctoral dissertation, the authors chose “literature review as research methodology”
(Snyder, 2019), of which outputs can be employed to establish a theoretical framework for further
studies. As classified by Torraco (2016) , who is regarded as the frontier on the “literature review” since
his first article in 2005, there are five distinct goals for literature interview. The paper authors adopted
the 5th method objective of using literature review to solve “specific research questions about the topic
reviewed in the literature” for the purpose of identifying the article’s boundaries to be focused on and
its issues to be discussed.
As a result of positive effects of digital transformation on education and library, many academic
articles are shifted to digital publication with digital object identifier. Accordingly, the papers mainly
chosen to revise are the digital journals and official institutional reports such as United Nations, European
Commission, Vietnamese National Assembly, Vietnamese Government, MOET and MOLISA.
The authors employed an “integrative literature review” (Torraco, 2005) method, broadly used
to summarize various research papers from different research areas to generate data for specific theme
literature reviews. Academic publications in human resource development, employment-related
economic issues, and job-concerned educational domains were preferably chosen for this article.
3. UNIVERSITY GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Employment is the state in which someone gets paid to work for an enterprise or an organization.
In Vietnam, employment is an income-generating activity that is not forbidden by law (The National
Assembly, 2013). The school-to-employment transition process of young people, including university
graduates, is related to capital, employability, and the labor market (Tran, 2016b; Zhang & Wang, 2020).
3.1. Capital
Capital has been popularly discussed in a vast body of politico-economic or socio-cultural studies.
However, a small amount of academic works is discovered in interdisciplinary research of Economics
and Education. The authors briefly present some typical capital terms for the employment sector related
to economics and education knowledge in the paper.
3.1.1. Identity capital

Identity capital indicates what individuals contribute money in identifying “who they are” and
expect to receive rich dividends in the future. To become an individual possessing good identity capital,
he or she needs to establish social skills and technical skills in various areas, a wide range of the best
behavior, advanced psychosocial development, and prolonged engagement in crucial professional and
communal networks. Identity capital can be tangible or intangible. Tangible identity capital involves
sociological sources such as educational certificates, member of the same job or interest, membership
of social organization for female students, a club’s member or institution’s member, as well as personal
posture and appearance, useful as “passports” into other communities and institutions. Besides, identity
capital resources are also intangible. Intangible resources involve psychological features such as personal
strength, self-monitoring, self-assurance, cognitive complexity, cognitive flexibility, critical thinking
competencies, and ethical reasoning competencies (CÔTÉ, 1996).
The comparative advantage of university graduate can be enhanced by possessing interdependent
identity capital resources which are scarce, valued and difficult to imitate or substitute. The
interdependent resources of identity capital include four categories, as shown in Figure 1: “intelligence
resources; personality resources; meta-skill resources; and job-specific resources” (Finch et al., 2016).
Firstly, intelligence resources can be complex cognitive skills, enabling graduates to attain desirable and
practical outcomes by judging, analyzing, and synthesizing. Finch et al. indicate a strong association
between intelligence resources and employability across various jobs and situations in the previous
studies. Therefore, the graduates should be rich in intelligence resources to prepare themselves qualified.
Moreover, it can be crucial for university graduates to associate intelligence resources with other
resources to make them stand out from other graduates. Secondly, the relationship between personality
and elements of employability has been studied in the past twenty years. Conscientiousness and openness
to experiences are proved to have a stronger connection to employability than emotional stability,
extraversion, and agreeableness (Finch et al., 2016). Thirdly, as Finch et al. point up, meta-skill resources
are not related to academic skills but also helpful in the workplace. Meta-skill resources are involved
in “listening, communication, teamwork, adaptability, social sensitivity, managing relationships, time
management, goal-orientation, and task completion” (Finch et al., 2016). Last but not least, job-specific
resources connected to understanding, competencies, and eagerness are highly considered in recruiting
and selecting employees.
Figure 1: identity capital capabilities required for university graduates (Finch et al., 2016)
3.1.2. Physical capital, human capital and screening theories

To operate a business, physical capital and human capital are obligatory components. Physical
capital is tangible, exchangeable in the market, and represented by machines, tools, equipment, and
office supplies in facilitating production. Different from physical capital, human capital is shaped by
changes in persons that generate capabilities and skills to enact in different ways. Human capital is
characterized as intangible resources which cannot be separated from its owner. Human capital attributes
are concerned about “education, experience, knowledge and skills” (Zelekha & Dana, 2019). Therefore,
supporters of human capital theory assert that pursuing a higher level of education is a desirable way to
prepare for future jobs (Dobbs et al., 2008).
Unlike human capital theory which is rooted in Neoclassical Economics, screening theory has
its origin from Institutional Economics. Specifically, it is costly for job applicants to participate or
escape from the employment market, which is challenging and contains incomplete information about
applicants. However, employers use the screening theory to sort out individuals according to their
characteristics (Dobbs et al., 2008). In other words, employers might divide job seekers into different
groups based mainly on gender and ethnicity (innate identification) or education and marital status
(signals) and then put them in various job positions. This theory acts as the foundational link between
fresh graduates’ education and employment in the ecosystem of education-screening-employment-
wages. The researchers of screening theory demonstrate that good personal education can be directly
associated with strong self-regulated ability and high-quality learning. Therefore, university graduates
who present positive education signals can be offered competence-based jobs (Zhang & Wang, 2020).
Whether in human capital theory or screening theory, university graduates are recommended to
spend their school time developing professional knowledge.
3.1.3. Social capital
The concept of social capital has a history of more than 100 years. It was first proposed by American
researcher to refer to close emotional relationships, mutual sympathy and sharing through interactions
of individuals and families in the social community (Nguyen, 2011; Fukuyama, 2001). Social capital
affects many aspects of the social life of Vietnamese people. Family and relatives are recognized as the
most important sources of social capital, which significantly contribute to solving mental difficulties and
obstacles (Nguyen & Cao, 2012). Notably, social capital through association relations such as classmates,
compatriots, colleagues, volunteer organizations is recognized to have crucial values in job search,
house-building, and funeral work. Regarding employment, the study by Shan, 2009 is noticeable. On
the way to navigate and access the Canadian labor market, Chinese immigrant women who possessed
high levels of social capital could keep their trained jobs while the others had to change their jobs due
to their low levels of social capital.
3.2. Employability
Many scholars and practitioners have defined employability. However, Moreland’s explanation of
employability is accepted popularly as “a set of skills, knowledge and personal attributes that make an
individual more likely to secure and be successful in their chosen occupation to the benefit of themselves,
the workforce, the community, and the economy” (Moreland, 2006). To make Moreland’s definition
clearer, Tran (2016) sets the question relating “skills/attributes” and summarizes the previous studies
that skills/attribute is different from knowledge and graduates need to build specific skills and attributes
to enhance graduate employability the following skills: soft skills, key skills, core skills, basic skills,
generic skills, common skills, enterprise skills, essential skills, transferable skills, cross-curricular skills,
cross-disciplinary skills and graduate attributes. Employability skills are vital for graduates to assure
and keep up work, to progress within a specific occupation, and develop competence to adapt to a new
demanding job in need (Lowden et al., 2009).
Through the lens of employers (demand side), employability is viewed as work readiness (Mason
et al., 2009; European Commission, 2014), which includes ASK (attitudes, skills, and knowledge) and
business understanding that new graduates have prepared to contribute significantly to enterprises’
targets after leaving schools.
From the responsibility of higher education institutions (supply side), university graduates are
required to possess the following transferable skills (Lowden et al., 2009, European Commission, 2014):
teamwork skills, problem addressing skills, self-responsibility, business mastery, numeracy and literacy
for the recruitment position, ICT mastery, communicative abilities, creative thinking ability, leadership
skills, positive attitudes and viewpoints.
From educational quality assurance, graduate employability is placed high in most universities’
policies since thirty universities from ten countries in South East Asia have followed the AUN-QA in
implementing their quality assurance systems. The AUN quality assurance framework urges universities
to collaborate closely with employers to develop curricula, revise the syllabus, and enhance graduate
employment which is directly related to outcomes standards (Tran, 2016a). However, a cooperation
culture between higher education institutions and enterprises is blurred in a centralized country such
as Vietnam (Pham, 2019; Nguyen & Ta, 2018). The theory of educational quality assurance shows that
the enterprise is a definitive stakeholder who participates in higher education by possessing power,
urgency, and legitimacy but in Vietnamese reality, the enterprise acts as the minimal power member
without urgency and insufficient legitimacy towards developing training programs and governing the
higher education institutions’ quality. Therefore, their engagements are considerably dependent on higher
education institutions. In light of educational quality assurance, university graduates’ employment has
much affected by the relationship between universities and enterprises and Vietnamese cultural features.
In the Vietnamese context, academic works concerning graduate employability are published by
some scholars such as Tran Thi Tuyet and Tran Le Huu Nghia. Tran Thi Tuyet’s research interests focus
on graduate employability in relationship with university-enterprise collaboration. Tran Le Huu Nghia
spends his time discovering skills gaps and developing employability skills in Vietnamese universities.
The researchers reveal the main factors which explain Vietnamese graduates’ quality insufficiency (Tran
T. T, 2014; Tran L. H. N., 2018). The student or employee-related factors consist of uncomprehensive
and outdated professional knowledge, inexperience in applying theoretical knowledge to practical
working contexts, limited foreign language skills, poor work experience, and passivity in planning and
navigating their career. The labor market and university-related factors involve the theoretical university
curriculum and dramatic changes in the labor market.
In short, employability can be divided into two primary categories: employment-centered and
competence-centered. The first approach focuses on capabilities to get the first job, keep the current job
and switch a new job if required. The second approach concerns competencies that university students
are expected to shape during school time to meet employers’ requirement.
3.3. Labor market

Labor market can affect job seekers through socioeconomic development, social position and
transformation of occupation employment which are clearly indicated in growth employment theory,
theory of social mobility and theory of structural transformation of occupation employment.
Growth employment theory identifies the relationship between socioeconomic development and
work transition. The supporters of growth employment theory affirm that there is a strong connection
between economic growth and employment. Similarly, economic environment is also critical factor
for university graduates’ jobs. The education industry is recognized as one sector in the general
economy which means that the general education level in a region will also be changed by that region’s
economic wealth (Zhang & Wang, 2020). Furthermore, the Friedman-Phelps natural rate hypothesis,
which contradicts the half-century-ago-accepted Phillips Curve, ascertains the relationship between
economic progress and employment adjustment. The Friedman-Phelps approach shows a connection
between inflation and unemployment, equivalent to the association between economic evolvement and
employment. As described by Friedman-Phelps, if inflation is low, unemployment is low, and vice versa
(Gordon, 2018).
Social mobility is related to the change of individuals and households into social positions. Social
mobility is involved in intra-generational mobility and intergenerational mobility. Intra-generational
mobility refers to an individual or household’s position modification in their lifetime. Intergenerational
mobility is concerned about the position transition of an individual or a family compared to the previous
generations. Furthermore, social mobility can be measured in views of education, employment, and
income (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2020). It is identified that the social position movement is possibly higher
or lower under the perspective of employment. For example, when an enterprise owner fails in business
and goes bankrupt, his social standing does not likely keep the same. According to Zhang and Wang,
social mobility is promoted in China due to open interpersonal relationships and career development
systems which result from applying the mutual choice employment model that differentiates the
previous model of national central allocation. Consequently, job seekers have more opportunities and
freedom to participate in the work market (Zhang & Wang, 2020). In Vietnam, employment mobility of
young people occurred during the ten years of 2004-2014. The youth tended to transit more frequently
from self-employment to hired employment as compared with older ones. Additionally, regarding intra-
generation mobility, pursuing a higher level of education could bring more competitive advantages for
highly educated heads to access skilled or non-manual jobs. Similarly, urban and King people were
more eligible to get promoted in employment than rural people and ethnic minority people due to higher
intergenerational mobility in urban areas (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2020).
Structural transformation of occupation employment shows that significant growth of economics
might tackle joblessness. At the same time, it causes a shortage of job positions and employment
obstacles in the job market. For example, the jobs are not supplied in the region in which the job
seekers expect to employ or job finders’ background is not suitable for job vacancies’ requirement of
competencies (Zhang & Wang, 2020). The World Bank shows that structural transformation happened
in two closely relating shifts between 1990 and 2008 in Vietnam. The first shift is the transition from
government-owned employment to the private one. The second shift originates from household-based
business transformation into formal registered firms that mainly focus on the manufacturing sector. Due
to these shifts, GPD per capita increased three times, and poverty decreased incredibly. Over two decades,
employment share in agriculture fell from 70 percent to 54 percent, while manufacturing employment
share reached 14 percent, and service employment share accounted for more than 30 percent. It was
supportive evidence about the fact that the laborer moved from lower into higher productivity activities
under the effect of structural transformation of production and employment (Mc Millan et al., 2017).
4. RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS
From previous studies and literature, a model of factors for employment is summarized as follows:
Table 1: A summary of factors for employment
Factors Components Sources
Innate identification and screening signals

Dobbs et al., 2008
(gender, ethnicity, education and marital status)
Identity capital Tran T. T, 2014

(intelligence resources; personality resources; meta-skill resources; and job- Finch et al., 2016;
specific resources; professional knowledge; career positioning skills; Tran L. H. N., 2018
theoretical knowledge’s application into practical working contexts; foreign
language skills; and work experience)
Shan, 2009
1.
Internal Social capital (trust, commitment) Nguyen and Cao,
factors 2012
Mason et all., 2009;
Work readiness/employment-centered employability
European
(attitudes, skills, knowledge and business understanding)
Commission, 2014
Transferable skills/competence-centered employability
(teamwork skills, problem addressing skills, self-responsibility, business Lowden et al., 2009;
mastery, numeracy and literacy for the recruitment position, ICT mastery, European
communicative abilities, creative thinking ability, leadership skills, positive Commission, 2014;
attitudes and viewpoints)
2.
Pham, 2019;
External University and enterprise partnership, Vietnamese cultural features
Tran, 2016a
factors
Mc Millan et al.,
2017
Gordon, 2018;
2. Labor market
Tran L. H. N., 2018
External (socioeconomic development, social mobility, and structural transformation
Zhang and Wang,
factors of occupation employment)
2020;
Nguyen and
Nguyen, 2020;
After reviewing the previous studies relating to employment opportunities of job applicants in
general and university graduates in particular, the authors give some implications to promote the transition
from school to workplace: widely advertising the competitive advantage of higher education; flexibly
transforming employability skills in training programs; and diversifying work experience activities for
students; and promoting the roles of stakeholders.
Firstly, the benefits of higher education should be reinforced. Entrance into higher education has
been proved to be highly effective in helping university graduates get more considerable benefits than
their colleagues without finishing higher education (Dobbs et al., 2008; Nguyen et al., 2019; Zhang
& Wang, 2020; and Nguyen & Nguyen, 2020). However, publicizing higher education institutions’
output results seems not to be widely implemented to help students and their families believe in higher
education’s missions in maximizing the value of lifelong earnings or assist employers in attracting and
recruiting the graduating students. It is suggested that the higher education institutions should advertise
the employment reports of new graduates on their institutions’ websites or crucial social networks such
as alumni associations or associations of former teachers and staff.
Secondly, higher education institutions should be flexible in transforming employability skills in
their curriculum. Employability skills can be enhanced for students in three ways (Mason et al., 2009).
Firstly, higher education institutions can embed the employability skills in courses. Secondly, they can
provide separate skills courses which are much more productive in traditional academic programs.
Lastly, the universities can make huge efforts to promote employability skills by utilizing a combination
of stand-alone and embedded teaching methods.
Thirdly, higher education institutions are encouraged to improve and diversify the students’
work experience activities which can supply students with tremendous opportunities to develop self-
confidence and personal effectiveness in a collaborative teamwork environment. Work experience
programs need to be designed and organized to help build the students’ identity capital which is viewed
as initial competencies to support them to recognize job prospects (Lowden et al., 2009). Therefore, the
new graduates are advised to deliver their work experience and what they have obtained when they are
on the pathways to impress recruiters.
Finally, stakeholders’ participation should be strengthened. A loose engagement between university
and enterprise (Tran, 2016a; Bennett, 2019; Pham, 2019) is indicated as one factor in making the
university graduates’ transition to employment painful. Higher education institutions, industry, and
students must share the mutual responsibility for employability development to address the issue. In the
context of the growing number of input students and dynamic market-driven economy, universities will
not successfully provide and prepare students to find and secure employment if employers, students,
and their families do not proactively work with the universities. University-industry cooperation
enhancement is considered an effective long-term solution for university students to apply theoretical
knowledge to practical working contexts and achieve success in career development.
5. CONCLUSION
In summary, the paper discusses some aspects of employment opportunities of university graduates.
It is noticeable that capital, employability, and the labor market can affect the success of the career
development of each individual. Firstly, capital is the crucial term in human resource development in
which theories of identity capital, human capital, social capital, and screening theory are much related
to employment. Secondly, employability has received growing concerns from international scholars,
but it seems not to be fully perceived and widely implemented by higher education institutions.
Future researches can focus on employment-centered or competence-centered employability. Finally,
with its invisible hand, the labor market can intervene job opportunities of university leavers through
the strength of social and economic development, job seekers’ social position, and transition in the
occupation structure. After reviewing the previous studies, the authors summarize a table of factors
affecting employment opportunities of university graduates and propose feasible solutions to enhance
their school-to-work transition.
The paper has some following limitations. Due to conducting the literature review to develop
a conceptual framework for future studies, the article has not presented data collection and analysis to
examine the theoretical basis and illustrate the specific findings. The authors will continue to conduct
further research to discover factors of the students’ employment opportunities at a Vietnamese university
in the light of assessment and measurement in higher education. The second shortcoming is roles of the
stakeholders in enhancing the employability skills for university graduates have not been investigated.
Therefore, the coming papers are advised to fill in the gap. The authors’ efforts in the incoming time are
hoped to act as a practical value reference for fostering the quality of the Vietnamese labor force to partially
contribute to the national target of becoming a high-middle-income developed country by 2030 and turning
it into a high-income advanced nation before 2045.
REFERENCE
1. Bennett, D. (2019). Graduate employability and higher education : Past , present and future.
HERDSA Review of Higher Education, 5(April), 31–61. https://www.herdsa.org.au/herdsa-
review-higher-education-vol-5/31-61
2. CÔTÉ, J. E. (1996). Sociological perspectives on identity formation: the culture-identity link and
identity capital. Journal of Adolescence, 19(5), 417–428. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1996.0040
3. Dobbs, R.L., Sun, J.Y., & Roberts, P.B. (2008). Human Capital and Screening Theories:
Implications for Human Resource Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources,
10(6), 788–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422308325761
4. European Commission. (2014). Modernisation of Higher Education in Europe: Access,
Retention and Employability 2014. In American Salon (Vol. 137). http://search.proquest.com/
docview/1469873414?accountid=83127
5. Finch, D.J., Peacock, M., Levallet, N., & Foster, W. (2016). A dynamic capabilities view of
employability. Education + Training, 58(1), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1108/et-02-2015-0013
6. Fukuyama, F. (2001). Social capital, civil society and development. Third World Quarterly, 22(1),
7–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/713701144
7. Gordon, R.J. (2018). Friedman and Phelps on the Phillips Curve Viewed from a Half Century’s
Perspective. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24891
8. Lowden, K., Stuart, H., Dely, E., & Jon, L. (2009). Employers’ perceptions of the employability skills
of new graduates. London: Edge Foundation 2011. http://www.edge.co.uk/media/63412/employability_
skills_as_pdf_-_final_online_version.pdf
9. Mason, G., Williams, G., & Cranmer, S. (2009). Employability skills initiatives in higher education:
What effects do they have on graduate labour market outcomes? Education Economics, 17(1),
1–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645290802028315
10. Mc Millan, M., Rodrik, D., & Sepulveda, C. (2017). Structural Change, Fundamentals, and
Growth: A Framework and Case Studies. April. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-8041
11. Mgaiwa, S. J. (2021). Fostering Graduate Employability: Rethinking Tanzania’s University
Practices. SAGE Open, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211006709
12. MOET. (2017). Circular No. 12/2017/TT-BGDDT dated May 19, 2017 of the Ministry of Education
and Training promulgating the regulation on higher education accreditation.
13. MOLISA. (2020). Bản tin cập nhật thị trường lao động Việt Nam quý 2 năm 2020 [Vietnam labor
market update newsletter in the 2nd quarter 2020]. http://www.molisa.gov.vn/Upload/ThiTruong/
LMU-So26-Q22020-D5-final.pdf
14. Moreland, N. (2006). Entrepreneurship and higher education: an employability perspective. The
Higher Education Academy, 1–24.
15. Nguyen, Q.T., & Cao, T.H.B. (2012). Quan hệ xã hội và vốn xã hội: Nghiên cứu so sánh Việt Nam
và Hàn Quốc [Social Relations and Social Capital: A Comparative Study of Vietnam and Korea].
Xã Hội Học [Sociology], 3(2012), 35–45.
16. Nguyen, T. A. (2011). Vốn xã hội và mấy vấn đề đặt ra trong nghiên cứu vốn xã hội ở Việt Nam
hiện nay [Social capital and its problems in research in Vietnam today]. Tạp Chí Xã Hội Học
[Sociology Magazine], 3(115), 9–17.
17. Nguyen, T.T., Tran, T., Trinh, T.P.T., & Le, T.T.H. (2019). Does education improve employee
benefits in Vietnam? The first evidence from matched employer–employee data. Cogent Education,
6(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662162
18. Nguyen, V.C., & Nguyen, T.L. (2020). Intra-generational and Intergenerational Social Mobility:
Evidence from Vietnam. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 55(3), 370–397. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0021909619876320
19. Pham, H.T. (2019). Stakeholders’ Engagement in Quality Assurance in Vietnam. In Nguyen C.,
Shah M. (eds) Quality Assurance in Vietnamese Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26859-6
20. Prime Minister. (2021). Quyết định ban hành chương trình hỗ trợ phát triển thị trường lao động
đến năm 2030 [Decision promulgating the program to support the development of the labor market
until 2030].
21. Shan, H. (2009). Practices on the Periphery: Highly Educated Chinese Immigrant Women
Negotiating Occupational Settlement in Canada1. The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult
Education, 21(2), 1–17. http://ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/
docview/203164302?accountid=9838%5Cnhttp://dc8qa4cy3n.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_
ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&rfr_id=info:sid/ProQ%3Acbcacomplete&rft_
val_fmt=info:ofi/
22. Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology:An overview and guidelines. Journal
of Business Research, 104(August), 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
23. The National Assembly. (2013). Law on employment. http://vanban.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/
portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban?class_id=1&_page=1&mode=detail&document_id=171410
24. The National Assembly. (2018). Law on amendments to the law on higher education. http://
awsassets.wwfnz.panda.org/downloads/earth_summit_2012_v3.pdf%0Ahttp://hdl.handle.
net/10239/131%0Ahttps://www.uam.es/gruposinv/meva/publicaciones jesus/capitulos_
espanyol_jesus/2005_motivacion para el aprendizaje Perspectiva alumnos.pdf%0Ahttps://ww
25. Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples. Human
Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283
26. Torraco, R. J. (2016). Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Using the Past and Present
to Explore the Future. Human Resource Development Review, 15(4), 404–428. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1534484316671606
27. Tran, L. H. N. (2018). Game of blames: Higher education stakeholders’ perceptions of causes of
Vietnamese graduates’ skills gap. International Journal of Educational Development, 62(July),
302–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2018.07.005
28. Tran, T. T. (2014). Graduate employability in Vietnam: A loose relationship between higher
education and employment market. Anchor Academic Publishing.
29. Tran, T. T. (2016a). Enhancing graduate employability and the need for university-enterprise
collaboration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 7(1), 58–71. https://
doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2016vol7no1art598
30. Tran, T. T. (2016b). Sự chuyển dịch của thanh niên sang thị trường lao động: Cần một cái nhìn toàn
diện hơn [The transition of youth to the labor market: A more comprehensive view needed]. VNU
Journal of Science: Education Research, 32(3), 1–10. https://js.vnu.edu.vn/ER/article/view/3592
31. Tran, T. T. (2018). Youth transition to employment in Vietnam: a vulnerable path. Journal of
Education and Work, 31(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2017.1404011
32. United Nations. (2020). World Youth Skills Day. https://www.un.org/en/observances/world-
youth-skills-day
33. Zelekha, Y., & Dana, L. P. (2019). Social Capital Versus Cultural Capital Determinants of
Entrepreneurship: An Empirical Study of the African Continent. Journal of Entrepreneurship,
28(2), 250–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971355719851900
34. Zhang, Q., & Wang, X. (2020). Factors Influencing Employment Rate and Mobility of Science and
Engineering and Economics and Management Graduates in Northeast China: An Examination.
SAGE Open, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020931935
A NUMBER OF MEASURES FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
FOR EXPERIMENTAL PRIMARY SCHOOL
IN THE CONTEXT OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
Tran Thi Kim Yen

(Faculty of Educational Sciences, VNU University of Education)
Abstract: Managing inclusive education in primary schools is one of the duties of administrators to create
equal opportunities in learning and development for all students in the school. In order to have a practical
basis for proposing measures, this article has studied the current situation of inclusive education management
at Experimental primary school in the current context by means of methods in-depth interview with the Vice
Principal of Experimental Primary School in charge of the school’s educational work. On the basis of analyzing
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges for inclusive education activities at schools, the author
proposes measures to improve the quality of inclusive education management for student’s school.
Keywords: Inclusive education management, Inclusive education, Digital transformation, Experimental

primary school.
1. INTRODUCTION
Inclusive education is a common trend of most countries in the world. Inclusive education has
also been identified by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training as the main direction to
ensure equality and equity in the education of children with special circumstances, especially the right
to education. Inclusive education is also an opportunity for all children to have equal access to quality
education. Thus, inclusive education is an indispensable thing, a trend, and a task of education worldwide
in general and in Vietnam in particular.
However, the current situation of inclusive education and inclusive education management in
educational institutions is still limited. Most of the teachers and school administrators are not fully aware
of their roles and responsibilities in inclusive education. The facilities for inclusive education activities
are poor in quality and limited in quantity and type, and there are no specific teaching equipment and
supplies for each type of integrated students. Teachers have not received intensive training in inclusive
education. So, how do students learn to integrate well in schools, especially primary schools, this is an
issue that the whole society needs to pay attention to and needs to be managed systematically.
In the past few years, the concept of digital transformation has been mentioned a lot in fields such
as: Economy, services, business, ... For education in general, only during the COVID-19 pandemic,
outbreak on a global scale, when students cannot go to school, digital transformation is really a process,
the result of which can be a whole new face of education, with methods, new ways, methods, techniques,
tools and means.
Stemming from the above reasons, the author chooses to study the problem “A number of
measures for inclusive education management for Experimental primary school in the context of digital
transformation” to find out measures to improve the effectiveness of the management of inclusive
education in Experimental Primary Schools in the context of digital transformation.
2. CONTENT
2.1. Concept of inclusive education management
* Concept of inclusive education
According to Tony Booth and Mel Ainscow, inclusion in education includes: (1) Respect for
all students and teachers and staff in the school; (2) Increase student participation in activities while
gradually reducing the risk of being separated from local regulations, policies, programs and community
groups in schools; (3) Restructure the regulations, policies and the implementation of those regulations
and policies in the school so that they can meet the diversity of students in the locality; (4) Gradually
remove impediments to the learning and functioning of all students, not only those with disabilities but
also those identified as “special needs”; (5) Learning from efforts to overcome obstacles that limit access
and participation of some students in order to create changes for the benefit of all students as a whole;
(6) View students’ differences as a source of support for learning, not as a problem to be overcome;
(7) State clearly the student’s right to study in the locality; (8) Improving schools for teachers, school
officials as well as for students; (9) Emphasize the school’s role in building community and developing
appreciation for students and enhancing student achievement; (10) Strengthening the sustainable
reciprocal relationship between the school and the community; (11) Recognizing that inclusion in
education is one aspect of the process of integration in society [10, p.3,4]
According to UNESCO: Inclusive education is a process of comprehensive transformation of the

education system by identifying and responding to the diverse needs of all students, regardless of social,
economic, cultural, linguistic, physical, or other physical factors [11, p.4]
Author Nguyen Xuan Hai believes: “Inclusive education is the education of all children in the
normal classroom of a high school. Inclusive education is to support all children, including children with
special circumstances, to have an equal opportunity to receive educational services with the necessary
supports in the classroom, appropriate at the school in which they are located children live, in order to
prepare them to become full members of society” [1, p.20]
In the author’s opinion, the concept of inclusive education is understood as: “Inclusive education
is an educational method that meets individual educational needs for all children with integration needs
in the home of an educational institution. In the process of inclusive education, children are interested
in basic characteristics such as religion, ethnicity, physical and psychological condition, economic
condition, social background, living situation and learning conditions.”
* Concept of education management
The author uses the concept of educational management at the micro level (school management)
by Tran Kiem as follows: “Educational management (at the micro level) is understood as a system of
voluntary (conscious, purposeful, planned, systematic and regular) effects of the managing subject on the
educational collective. staff, students, parents and social forces inside and outside the school in order to
effectively and qualitatively implement the educational goals of the school.” [12, p.12]
* Concept of inclusive education management

From the concept of inclusive education and educational management analyzed above, the author
proposes the concept of inclusive education management as follows: “Inclusive education management
is the impact, organization and the planned orientation of the management subject towards the managed
object based on the objective requirements of legal theory and practice on inclusive education, the
management relationship in order to achieve the goal of educational management education on inclusive
education and optimizing the available resources of the school”
2.2. Contents of inclusive education management
2.2.1. Managing records and activities to mobilize children to school
After studying student records, the school needs to manage the records to capture the basic and
necessary information about each student to understand the needs of the child. Records include: health
care logbook, assignments, tests, transcripts, birth certificates, certificates of completion of schooling,
diplomas, academic certificates, apprenticeships and other documents other. However, in practice, there
are children with special circumstances to a certain extent who need an individual education plan, a
sheet to monitor the results of the implementation of the individual plan, and a transition plan. In parallel
with the management of records, schools need to take measures to mobilize children with special
circumstances to go to school. In order to do this well, the school must work closely with the parents
of the students, mobilizing them to accept their children to go to school; and at the same time persuade
children with special circumstances to agree to go to class. The school needs to closely understand the
family’s situation and the special needs of the child in order to have appropriate mobilization measures. [1]
2.2.2. Managing team and mass organization in the school
In order to support and create favorable conditions for children to learn and develop, besides
teachers, schools need to build mass organizations in the school such as: Red Cross, Board of Parents
Student, Youth Union, Youth Team. These organizations have the task of working closely with teachers
in educating students, specifically as follows: The Red Cross supports health services; The Parents’
Representative Board, Youth Union, and Youth Team cooperate with teachers to organize educational
activities outside of class time for the comprehensive development of children. Mass organizations
are under the direct management of the principal, operate according to specific plans and have a close
relationship with each other. [1]
2.2.3. Managing learning activities and inclusive education

Management of inclusive education and learning activities includes three main contents: The school
needs to manage the implementation of goals, contents, educational programs and inclusive teaching.
Implement the school’s general inclusive education goals and specific educational goals for children with
special circumstances, thereby adjusting the educational program content to suit the cognitive level and
needs of the students. children with special circumstances according to four adjustment methods; The
school organizes teaching and learning activities outside of class time; Tailor lesson plans to children
with special educational needs. The essence of inclusive education is: Education for all students. This is
the thought, the first element embody the essence of inclusive education. In inclusive education there is
no separation differences between students. Every student is respected and valued as much as together.
Study at the school where you live. All students are entitled to one general education program. This
just shows equality in education while showing respect for every student’s right to an education sex
equally. Adjusting the program, renewing teaching methods and perspectives, assessment way. This
is the core issue for inclusive education to be most effective. Program adjustment is an inevitable part
of inclusive and adjusted education. Appropriate programs will meet all children’s needs and abilities
different. Inclusive education does not equate all children equally. Every child is an individual, a
personality with different abilities, different learning styles, learning speeds not the same. Therefore,
it is necessary to adjust the program accordingly. Teach creatively, actively and collaboratively. That
is the goal of teaching integrate. In inclusive teaching, it is possible to create for children general and
general knowledge, symmetrical. To do so, the teaching method must be effective and meet the needs of
the students different needs of students. To teach effectively, the lesson plan must be specific possible,
according to the cooperative learning method. Must know how to choose a method and use it at the right
time: batch method, multi-level method, duplicate method lesson plans, alternative methods, individual
methods. [1]; [2]; [3]; [4]
2.2.4. Managing facilities and build a friendly educational environment
In order to ensure that the facilities in the school effectively serve the work of inclusive education,
the facilities must be designed in a safe, hygienic and convenient way for people with disabilities to
live at the school; Schools have their own equipment for inclusive education. In addition, schools need
to encourage collectives and individuals to make toys, learning tools, and educational equipment for
inclusive education. The physical environment in the classroom and outside the classroom needs to meet
the following requirements: Appropriate seating position, learning facilities, adequate lighting, airy
atmosphere, distance, appropriate tables and chairs, scenery, paths, amusement park, collective activity
area, protective fence, toilet, clean water, electricity system, ...On the other hand, the psychological
environment is mainly social relationships such as: Learning Students with students, teachers and
parents, parents and parents, teachers and students, and teachers together also need to be taken care of by
the school. To meet the above requirements, the school needs to effectively use the supported funding;
regularly maintain and upgrade available tools and equipment; well implement the socialization of
education; strengthen the relationship between school and home. [1]
2.2.5. Managing family and community coordination
In order for inclusive education to be effective, schools need to regularly keep in touch with families,
relevant agencies, organizations and mass organizations to promptly handle regular and unexpected
information related to students; coordinate in organizing cultural, sport and healthy activities in the
school and in the locality. In addition, it is necessary to carefully study and receive opinions from
families, agencies, and mass organizations involved in the nurturing, care and education of children,
pupils and students. [1]
2.3. Situation of inclusive education management at Experimental Primary School - Ba Dinh
District - Hanoi City in the context of digital transformation
2.3.1. Characteristics of digital transformation context
Digital transformation (DT) is the application of innovation and rapidity of technology to solve
problems. This concept was born in the era of Internet boom, describes activities that innovate strongly
and comprehensively in the way the whole enterprise/training institution operates, in all aspects such
as providing production, collaboration, customer relationships, or even creating new businesses with a
completely new way of doing things. Digital transformation affects not only organizations or businesses,
but also other target groups around such as customers, partners, human resources, distribution channels, ...
2.3.2. Experimental Primary School

Stemming from the experimental research needs of the Center for Educational Technology
(CGD), after more than 30 years of development, from the initial difficulties, the Experimental Junior
High School has now become a model education “New school with optimal development of modern
Vietnamese children”.
In 1978, Experimental Junior High School (including Experimental Primary School, Experimental
Middle School) was established under Decision No. 360/VP – UB of the People’s Committee of Ba
Dinh District according to the written request. No. 2237/VP - BGD of the Ministry of Education and
Training. Orientation of the school: Building a friendly learning environment, creating conditions for all
teachers and students to be active, creative and proactive in teaching and learning. All activities in the
school are aimed at developing the capacity of the participants.
On September 19, 2018 on the basis of merging three Experimental Primary Schools, Experimental
Middle School and Experimental High School, Elementary School, Middle School and High School
Experimental Science Education. Education under the Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, was
established. The school is a public education and training institution in the national education system and
in the system of high schools of Hanoi City. The school teaches according to the educational program
of the Ministry of Education and Training, while experimenting with advanced teaching models and
methods, and experimenting with scientific researches of the Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences.
The school’s educational plan is quite open and diverse, with many options suitable for different types
of students. The school aims to be a highly responsive inter-school model, gradually integrating with the
world’s advanced education. [7]
2.3.3. Results of interviews with administrators of Experimental Primary School about the current
situation of inclusive education management of the school
2.3.3.1. Results of interviews with administrators of Experimental Primary School

To collect information on the management of inclusive education of Experimental Primary School,
the author interviewed in-depth school administrators including: Principal and Vice-Principal of the
school and obtained the following results:
Regarding the management of data and records and the work of mobilizing children to school: Due
to the small number of children with special circumstances at the school, the management of the records of
children with special circumstances is assigned directly to the school. Technology teachers of classes with
students with special needs and teachers are responsible for reporting periodically to the administration or
when necessary. From the school year 2013 - 2014 and earlier, the school collects records of students with
special needs through parents and teachers of children with special needs. However, from the 2014-2015
school year up to now, because the enrollment is done by the Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences
and the School belongs to the Institute, the School accepts students and student records are sent directly
by the Institute.
Regarding team management and mass organizations in the school: The school does not set up
specialized groups and groups on inclusive education, however, in the meetings of the professional
groups, activities are held every first Monday. During the week, teachers also shared with each other
about teaching, educating and managing children with special needs. The school also sends staff and
teachers to attend classes to improve their knowledge in the implementation of inclusive education. The
teachers and staff in the school responsible for educating children with special needs are required to
regularly update the student’s situation every 3 months to the Vice Principal in charge of education. of
the school.
Regarding the management of learning activities and inclusive education: Teachers often adjust
the teaching content in a multi-level and simultaneous method. For example: During Vietnamese class,
foreign students often find it difficult to read and spell, so teachers and classroom assistants will set lower
requirements than students who do not have needs. Especially, In foreign language class, teachers will
set higher requirements for those students. During the practical or experimental lessons, the teachers and
classroom assistants implement the method simultaneously. Managing learning activities and inclusive
education is a content that is highly appreciated by administrators for its importance. The school sets
requirements for teachers and staff to carry out the work of inclusive education to self-implement a
part of the management process, including the following steps: (1) Planning teaching and inclusive
education; (2) Organizing teaching and inclusive education; (3) Self-examination and assessment of
teaching results and inclusive education for students.
The measures that the school administrators have taken to effectively teach career-oriented
education are:
- Organize gifted classes so that students with special needs can exchange, learn and practice their
language skills such as: singing, story-telling, “child editor”, ...
- In the process of recruiting teaching assistants for regular classes, priority will be given to
candidates with good foreign language communication skills. For classes in which students have special
needs, the school assigns appropriate teaching assistants to each class, especially those with students
with special needs.
Regarding the management of facilities and building a friendly educational environment: Currently,
the school’s facilities have partly met the needs of children with special circumstances. Not enough for
children with disabilities. Regarding the psychological environment, the school always tries to build a
positive environment by: every month, the school launches the emulation movement “Flowers with 10
points” to reward and commend students with the most 10 points every week and every month. This
measure aims to stimulate and encourage students to be more active in the learning process.
Regarding the management of family and community coordination: The school often updates the
student’s situation with the student’s parents through the electronic contact book, from which the family
grasps the situation and actively coordinates with the student’s parents, schools in the education and
management of students with special needs. Most students’ parents are very active in coordinating and
responding to information with the school, so it is relatively convenient to teach, educate and manage
students with special needs in the school easily.
2.3.3.2. Assessing the situation using the SWOT method

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
- The school has a team of highly qualified - Facilities for education are not really adequate, suitable for
teachers who actively innovate methods and some students to learn to integrate.
are dedicated to the profession.
- The management of data and records of integrated students
- The school has the special support of is still slow and untimely.
researchers who are professors and doctors of
- The school does not have a team of dedicated teachers to
the Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences.
carry out inclusive education activities.
- School administrators have a sense of
- The school has not applied the achievements of science and
self-improvement in management skills and
technology in the management of inclusive education.
professional competence.
- The perception of a part of inclusive teachers is not really
correct about the role and meaning of inclusive education.
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
- The Party and State have many policies with the - Asking for a higher age lies with inclusive education
desire to develop inclusive education. administrators.
- The school’s educational improvement - Investment costs for facilities for inclusive education are
proposals often receive the approval of relatively high.
students’ parents.
- Due to the small number of children in need of inclusive
- Students’ parents care about their children. education, teachers do not often have the opportunity to
experience inclusive education.
2.3.4. Proposing some measures to improve the quality of inclusive education management in
Experimental primary schools in the context of digital transformation
2.3.4.1. Principles for taking measures
* Guaranteed practicality
To achieve the goal of more and more students with special needs enrolling at the school, the
quality requirements of the school’s Inclusive Education products will increasingly have to be improved
and met the needs of society. Therefore, inclusive education activities in general and the management
of inclusive education programs in particular need to be realistic, that is, in line with the expectations of
parents and students, suitable for the development according to the psychology of the students’ age, ... at
the same time, it also needs to be suitable with the development of society, with the educational status,
must be close to the conditions of the team. staff and conditions of the educational institution.
* Ensure feasibility
The proposed inclusive education management measures need to be based on the actual situation
of the school to be able to implement, that is the factors of the macro environment such as: educational
products and services, staff, technical facilities... Especially, it must be suitable with the management
capacity, the vision of the leaders and the solidarity and efforts of all members in the educational
institution, in order to realize the development goals develop training at the specified scale.
* Ensure system and synchronization
Inclusive education management is an extremely important task in the pedagogical environment, an
integral part of the teaching process and other educational processes. Inclusive education management is
a system with many elements that have a binding relationship with each other and work together towards
a common goal. It influences each other according to a certain rule to all aspects of education.
Therefore, when implementing measures, they must affect all aspects of the management system,
the educational forces of the process of inclusive education management. Each different measure will
affect different stages and elements. Resolutely not to solve overload but must be unified, closely related
to each other, to form a whole, synchronized with all the school’s inclusive education management.
* Ensure inheritance and development
In the current system of primary schools, the educational forces, when implementing measures
to improve efficiency and promote the positivity of vocational education management, must ensure
the inheritance, promote pre-existing experience in inclusive education management. In particular, it
is necessary to maximize the potential of social forces involved in the process of inclusive education
and inclusive education management. At the same time, we must inherit the measures that bring high
efficiency in the management of inclusive education, which we have found to be of practical significance.
On that basis, we can exploit, supplement, reaffirm but not necessarily negate the effect that it brings. All
towards the goal of building a friendly educational environment, unified education system.
2.3.4.2. Proposing some measures to manage inclusive education

In order to improve the effectiveness of inclusive education management at Experimental Primary
School in the context of digital transformation, the author proposes a number of measures below:
* Building an information system in data management, records and activities to mobilize children
to school
This is a measure to help school administrators systematically grasp information from basic to
detailed information about children with special education needs more effectively in all aspects such
as: students’ health, learning situation, etc., thereby assessing the effectiveness of the school’s inclusive
education in general and the quality of teachers and staff implementing inclusive education private.
The school should establish an internal information management system for teachers assigned
to conduct inclusive education and students receiving inclusive education. At the time of receiving
students for inclusive education, teachers assigned to conduct inclusive education need to update the
children’s situation immediately into the school’s information management system and the education
teachers. This work should be done periodically every month and when there are special considerations
or special support is required in the process of inclusive education. The school needs to guide teachers
in declaring information on the management system and should have timely impact and support for
teachers and students when necessary.
* Application of information technology in managing the coordination between family, school and
society in inclusive education
In the context of digital transformation, the application of information technology in managing the
coordination between families, schools and society helps the connection between educational forces
to ensure smoothness and continuity. Education administrators need to build an online communication
system between teachers implementing inclusive education and students’ parents to promptly support
students’ families during the time when learning cannot take place direct.
* Establishing specialized groups and groups on inclusive education
In order to implement inclusive education in Experimental Primary School with specialization and
high efficiency, the school’s management board needs to establish specialized groups and groups on
inclusive education.
Specialized groups and groups on inclusive education should be invested by the school in resources
to develop and create conditions for teachers, staff, and administrators to exchange, share, and learn from
each other to improve the quality of inclusive teaching in particular and inclusive education in general.
* Organizing awareness raising about the importance of inclusive education management for
teachers, officials and employees in the school
In order for the management of inclusive education in the school to be highly effective, the school
administrators need to change the perception for officials, employees and teachers in the school because
“Right action must originate from the awareness of it’s correct”.
Organize and propagate the views, lines and policies of the Party, State and Sector on inclusive
education management so that everyone can properly understand, properly perceive and voluntarily
perform the assigned tasks. delivered. It is necessary to raise more awareness for the teaching staff
so that they can actively foster and improve their professional skills, improve the quality of their own
teaching in particular and the quality of education in general, because the teachers are the best teachers
in the world who use their own personality to educate character for students.
* Organizing coordination among units and forces responsible for inclusive education in schools
The coordination mechanism is the operation of relationships in the system for the purpose of
improving the quality and efficiency of inclusive education management activities in the school. The
measure is meant to form a legal coordination mechanism, ensuring benefits for stakeholders. The forces
jointly manage the issue of inclusive education for children with special needs in schools. Raise the sense
of responsibility of officials, teachers and employees in implementing inclusive education management
as well as inclusive education. Modernize the management of teaching plans and thematic activities of
inclusive education, contributing to improving the quality of teaching, education and management.
3. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

It can be said that the current management of inclusive education is extremely important so that
children with special needs can develop in an appropriate educational environment, without barriers,
and no student is left out. Therefore, the responsibility of inclusive education administrators is extremely
important and is a decisive factor in the success of the policy of “ensure equality and equity in education
for children with special circumstances.” difference” in the current period. Measures, if implemented
fully and systematically, will help the school’s inclusive education work to be highly effective.
All proposed measures to manage inclusive education in Experimental primary schools as described
above have certain roles, positions and importance in raising awareness, in order to manage inclusive
education ensures both quality and quantity to meet the increasing requirements of modern society.
Each measure has its own position, function and strength, when implemented, each measure will
affect each aspect of the management staff in general and the inclusive teaching staff in particular; But
the measures are related in a unified whole, in the direction of mutual promotion, as a prerequisite and
condition for each other in the process of managing inclusive education in primary schools.
Therefore, in the process of managing inclusive education in primary schools, it is necessary to

implement measures synchronously, however, based on specific conditions and time, managers of each
educational institution consideration and selection should focus on prioritizing the implementation of
each measure accordingly to achieve high efficiency when implementing.
In the current conditions, it is necessary to focus on implementing measures to optimize the
function of information technology in the process of managing inclusive education to meet the increasing
requirements of society, minimizing resources force but increase management efficiency.
REFERENCES
[1] Nguyen Xuan Hai (2010), Inclusive education innovation curriculum, Pedagogical University
Publishing House, Ha Noi.
[2] Bui Thi Lam, Hoang Thi Nho (2012), Inclusive education curriculum, Vietnam Education
Publishing House, Ha Noi.
[3] Tran Thi Thiep, Nguyen Xuan Hai, Le Thi Thuy Hang (2011), Inclusive education curriculum
for pre-school pedagogical colleges, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Ha Noi.
[4] Ministry of Education and Training (2007), Management of Inclusive Education, Women
Publishing, Ha Noi.
[5] Do Thi Thao, Nguyen Thi Hoa, Tran Tuyet Anh (2015), Inclusive education for children with
intellectual disabilities, Publishing scientific and technical, Ha Noi.
[6] Ministry of Education and Training (2012), Inclusive education for children with disabilities in
primary schools, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Ha Noi.
[7] http://thucnghiem.edu.vn/gioi-thieu-chung_p327.aspx
[8] Eileen Winter and Daul O’Raw (2010), Literature Review of the Principles and Practices
relating to Inclusive Education for Children with Special Educational Needs, ICEP Europe in
conjunction with the 2007-2009 NCSE Cosultative forum.
[9] European Agency for Development in Special meeds Education (2010), Key principles for
promoting quality in inclusive education.
[10] Tony Booth and Mel Ainscow (2002), Index for Inclusion- Developing Learning and Participation
in school, CSIE, Frienchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1 QU.
[11] Ministry of Education and Training, UNESCO in Vietnam (2014), Strengthening the training
and fostering of inclusive education teachers, Document 1 - Introduction - Correction, Hanoi.
[12] Tran Kiem (2008), Basic issues of educational management science, Pedagogical University
Publishing House, Hanoi
THE INFLUENCE OF PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
ON THE PERCEPTION OF TEACHER QUALITY AMONG PUBLIC
PRESCHOOL TEACHERS IN DONGDA DISTRICT, HANOI
Nguyen Thi Hien

(Department of Early Childhood Education - Ministry of Education and Training)
Nguyen Thi Thanh
(Central College of Education)
Abstract: This study focuses on assessing “The influence of preschool teacher professional standards (issued
under Circular 26/2018/TT-BGDĐT) on the perception of teacher quality of school teachers, public preschool
in Dong Da district, Hanoi city”. The research results show that professional standards have changed the
perception of ECE stands for teacher quality in public preschools in Dong Da district. Teachers are motivated
to strive to practice, minimize the negative effects often encountered in the process of nurturing, caring and
educating preschool children. However, the standard assessment teaching is sometimes still formal, superficial,
still conceptual, and has not yet entered the essence. Evaluation results have not been used effectively, not created
incentives to strive. Training plans to improve quality capacity sometimes do not come from standard assessment
results. The assessment often focuses on the last few days of the year, so teachers have difficulty collecting evidence
for self-assessment.
Keywords: influence, professional standards of preschool teachers, teacher quality, ivory ethics, teacher style.
1. BACKGROUND
The teacher is the main factor determining the quatity of the preschool education system. Investment
in improving the quality of teachers in general and preschool teachers, in particular, is increasingly
interested in many countries around the world.
Implement Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW dated November 4, 2013 of the Party Central Committee
on a fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training (Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW
of the Party Central Committee, 2013) meeting the requirements of industrialization and modernization.
Stemming from the guiding viewpoints of the government and the general trends in the investment
and development of ECE, the Ministry of Education and Training (Education and Training) has issued
regulations on professional standards of ECE (Education Law, 2019). The regulation proposes regimes
and policies for preschool teachers to be evaluated well in terms of professional competence. It also
helps preschool teachers self-assess their professional competence; develop a training plan to improve
their moral, political, professional characteristics.
Since the promulgation of the professional standards for preschool teachers, there have been no
studies investigating the effects of professional standards on the awareness of preschool teachers, and
there have been no studies that delve deeper into understanding because perceptions are affected by
What are the changes in professional standards leading to ECE teachers when performing their duties,
especially changes in the moral qualities of each teacher?
Therefore, the author focuses on researching and assessing “The influence of preschool teacher
professional standards (issued under Circular 26/2018/TT-BGDĐT) on the perception of preschool
teachers quality at public preschools in Dong Da district, Hanoi city”. Research results will suggest
proposing policies in implementing standards in ECE institutions to meet the requirements of preschool
education innovation.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
- Qualitative research methods
+ Theoretical research: Analysis of documents and related regulations on professional standards;
Researching scientific works related to research issues.
+ Semi-structured interviews with relevant subjects, including managers, teachers, and lecturers.
Purpose of the interview: The goal is to find out the perception of the respondents; To interview
what they think or how they care about the research thesis.
Interview process: We designed different questions for semi-structured interviews with teachers and
administrators by working with professors and using identified structures as relevant to the main research
questions. (see Appendix 3 and 4).
Time and location: To understand the participants’ perceptions regarding the criteria-based assessment,
we conducted approximately one-hour face-to-face interviews.
Observation with notes: We recorded all subject-related factors during data collection in a note-
book. We kept a field log to record our thoughts, feelings, experiences, and perceptions during research.
This process helps us code and categorize the information collected from the interviews during the data
analysis. The data will be ordered and chronologically time arranged, reviewed many times, and coded.
- Quantitative research method
+ Survey method: Using questionnaire.
SPSS and Excel software are used for descriptive statistical analysis and inferential interpretation.
+ Descriptive statistical method: using different statistics to analyze the survey data collected on
two groups of surveyed subjects
+ Inferential statistical method: Based on descriptive statistics, describe, infer and interpret the
influence of ECE professional standards on the awareness of ECE teachers about teacher quality and
their professional skills
3. RESEARCH SAMPLE
Quantitative research: The questionnaire was sent to 242 preschool teachers from 27 public
preschools in Dong Da district, Hanoi.
Qualitative research: conducting the above semi-structured interview. 28 teachers (n = 28) and 14
administrators (n = 4) assign numbers based on the number of people in each group (G1-28 and Q1-14).
4. QUESTIONNAIRE
Based on reference to the research process, develop a research tool to assess the influence of
professional standards of preschool teachers by Nguyen Thi Hien (Nguyen Thi Hien, No. 496 period
2-2// 2021), the author proposes the following research questions:
Preschool teachers’ perception

1 2 3 4 5
of “Teacher’s Qualities
Preschool teacher professional standards have influenced teacher’s

1
perception of teacher ethics. So they:
1a Strictly implement the regulations on teacher ethics
1b Consciously strive to improve the moral quality of teachers
1c Being an exemplary model of teacher ethics
1d share experiences, support colleagues in moral training
Preschool teacher professional standards have influenced

2
teacher’s perception of their working style. So they
Having a working style and method suitable to the work of a
2a
preschool teacher
2b Having a sense of self-training, creating a scientific working style
Be an exemplary model of respect and closeness to children and

2c
young parents
2d Have a good influence and support colleagues to form a teacher’s style
5. RESEARCH RESULTS
5.1. Some conceptual research tools
In this study, the authors mention some basic concepts as follows:
Impact: Most English dictionaries in the world are using the term impact to indicate that the
influence is the effect of one object/thing on another object/thing; Vietnamese dictionary: influence is to
influence and make certain objects change (Vietnamese Dictionary, 2017)
ECE professional standards: “Standard is what is chosen as a model for implementation, a unit
of wage measurement” (Vietnamese Dictionary, 1998); “ECE professional standard is a measure to
determine the level of achievement in terms of quality and capacity of teachers” (Dinh Thi Kim Thoa,
2008); Professional standards for preschool teachers: “are a system of qualities and competencies that
teachers need to achieve in order to carry out their tasks of nurturing, caring for and educating children in
preschool education institutions. Quality is a teacher’s ideology, ethics, and working style in performing
jobs and tasks. Competency is the ability to perform assigned tasks and tasks” (Ministry of Education
and Training, 2018)
Qualities of teachers “Quality (limited to people) can be understood as the essence, the thing to
create individual worth of each person. (http://giadinh.bvhttdl.gov.vn/khai-niem-pham-chat-dao-duc/,
n.d.); “When it comes to a person’s qualities, it is often seen from such angles as political qualities,
moral qualities (virtue) and competence qualities (talent)” (Nguyen Thu Thuy, 2019).
Teacher quality is teachers’ perception, ethics, and behavior in performing their jobs and duties
(Circular 26/2018/TT-BGDĐT, 2018).
5.2. The reliability of the survey on “The influence of professional standards on teachers’
perceptions of teacher quality.”
The structure of teacher quality includes teacher ethics and teacher style, so the thesis reviews
and evaluates the reliability of the questionnaire according to Cronbach’s Alpha formula (similar to
calculating the reliability of the whole questionnaire). The results of the overall reliability of the structure
on teacher quality reached .950. The indexes of the component variables according to the results of the
correlation between the variables and the correlation with the total variable, specifically as follows: c1a
(.791 and .944) c1b (.839 and 941)) c1c (.812 and .942 ) c1d (.850 and .940) c2a (.842 and .940) c2b
(.822 and .942) c2c (.827 and .942) c2d (.736 and .947).
Table 5.1. Reliability of the survey on “The influence of professional standards
on teachers’ perception of teacher quality”
Total variable .950
Correlation with total variable Reliability coefficient if excluding variable
C1a .791 , .944

C1b .839 , .941
C1c .812 , .942
C1d .850 , .940
C2a 842 , .940
C2b 822 , .942
C2c .827 , .941
C2d .736 , .947
Thus, the results show that the indexes ensure the correlation between variables and with the total
variable. The information collected from the survey is reliable enough to be used for the research of the topic.
5.3. The reliability of the survey on the influence of professional standards on teachers’ perception
of teacher ethics.”
The author considers the reliability of the survey on “professional standards affect teachers’
perception of teacher ethics using Cronbach’s alpha value.” The reliability index of the total variable
is .920, the component variables according to the results of the correlation between the variables and
the correlation with the total variable, specifically as follows: c1a (.820 and 893) c1b (.792 and .901
respectively: c1a (.820 and 893) c1b (.792 and .901) )) c1c (.850 and .882) c1d (.797 and .898).
Table 5.2. The reliability of the survey on the influence of professional standards on teachers’ perception of
teacher ethics
Total variable .920
C1a .820 , .893
C1b .792 , .901
C1c .850 , .882
C1d .797 , .898
5.4. Reliability of the survey on the influence of professional standards on teachers’ perceptions
of their own working style
Results of the reliability of the survey on “professional standards affect teachers’ perception of
home style” education, shows that the reliability index of the total variable is .910, the component
variables according to the results of the correlation between the variables and the correlation with the
total variable, specifically after c2a (.818 and.871) c2b (. 825 and .870) c2c (.857 and .857) c2d (.680 and
.923). In the item c2d criterion, the confidence index is higher than that of the total variable. However,
it is still within the allowable limit, so the index is still statistically significant and does not affect the
reliability of the questionnaire.
Table 5.3. The reliability of the survey on the influence of professional standards
on teachers’ perception of their own working style
Total variable .910
C2a .818 .871

C2b .825 .870
C2c .857 .857
C2d .680 .923
5.5. The influence of professional standards on the perception of teacher quality

Due to the perception of ethics and working style that has been affected by professional standards, the
preschool teachers have self-assessed about the changes in related behaviors of themselves, specifically:
Table 5.4. Teachers’ perception of teacher quality
Totally Dis- Strongly

N Doubt Agree
Sta- disagree agree agree Std.
Mean
tistics Deviation
Valid Missing
Standard of Vietnamese language arts has influenced her perception of teacher ethics. So she:
1

Strictly
implement the 4,182
C1a 242 0 6.2% 0.4% 1.7% 52.5% 39.3% .9769
regulations on ,
teacher ethics
Consciously
strive to
C1b improve 242 0 3.3% 0.4% 3.7% 53.3% 39.3% 4248 .8277
teachers’
moral qualities
As examples
morally
C1c 242 0 3.7% 0.4% 2.1% 57.0% 36.8% 4,227 .8312
exemplary
teachers
share
experiences,
support
C1d 242 0 4.5% 0.4% 4.5% 57.9% 32.6% 4136 .8844
colleagues in
ethics training
of teachers
Preschool teacher professional Standard influenced the teacher’s perception on their working style.
2
Therefore, they
Have a
working
method
4,174
C2a suitable to 242 0 3.7% 0.4% 4.5% 57.4% 33.9% .8416
,
the work of
a preschool
teacher
Consciously
self-trained
C2b 242 0 2.9 % 0.8% 3.7% 58.3% 34.3% 4,202 .7970
in scientific
working style
Be a role
model in
C2c respect and 242 0 3.3% 0.4% 2.9% 53.3% 40.1% 4,264 .8226
closeness to
children
Influencing
colleagues
C2d 242 0 4.5% 1.7% 6.6% 59.9% 27.3% 4037 .9033
to form the
teacher’s style
Table 5.4 shows that mean (the average value of the options selected by the candidates) is
concentrated around the value 4 to 4.2, corresponding to the scale of 4 and 5 (measured by Likert 1-5).
The results show that most teachers believe that professional standards have influenced on their
perception about teacher quality, so they have strictly implemented the regulations on teacher ethics,
consciously striving to improve the quality of teachers.
Thus, the influence of professional standards has had a positive effect on preschool teachers’
awareness of teacher’s qualities.
5.6. Semi-structured interview results

In order to confirm the survey results by questionnaire, the topic has conducted interviews with school
management and teachers, and the interview results show that:
Most ECE teachers believe that the ECE profession requires teachers to be patient, have flexible
pedagogical skills, and have the right communication and action behaviors. Teachers communicate and
behave with children with gentle, open, joyful gestures, giving children a sense of security, peace, and
comfort, sowing positive emotional nuances in children’s hearts. Therefore, they always comply well
with the regulations on teacher ethics. At school, they have never committed violations of teacher ethics
and abused children. However, since the new standard (circulars 26) was issued, teachers are more aware
of the need to nurture and practice to improve their quality following professional requirements. G06
(good level according to professional standards) “I understood why it is necessary to care, ask and help
and share with colleagues and their family when facing difficulties, not alienating, keeping distance with
colleagues, and not discussing the privacy of colleagues and their weaknesses. The process of gathering
evidence to evaluate the standard rating helps me to be more aware of this”. As a longtime person in
the school, G09 “I see at my school since the standards were issued, those who used to cause internal
conflicts, some people spoke badly of the other, now have more awareness of their words. According
to the report, internal conflicts have decreased because of fear of evaluation and grading at the end of
the year, but this is also a positive influence. Thanks to standard assessment, it can limit the negative
effects of teacher quality. G26 believes that “although there is still a phenomenon of anger and yelling
at children because the class size is too large, creating a lot of pressure for teachers, so even though we
understand what can and can’t be done, preschool teachers-” second mother of the child, but sometimes
teachers still violate” . Q12 said that “since having professional standards (TT26), her school teachers
understand and have a clearer orientation in training to improve teacher quality for teachers. In order
for teachers to improve the quality of teachers, it is necessary to evaluate teachers fairly, objectively and
transparently, to create teachers’ trust. Teachers are satisfied with the results of year-end evaluation and
grading, creating motivation for them to improve day by day.” (Agree with this opinion, there are Q03,
Q06, Q08, Q11).
According to Q04, “in order to help teachers make the transition from changing awareness to
changing behavior, it is necessary to organize training to raise awareness about teacher quality regularly
through many different forms” Q01 added, “the school has organized thematic activities to raise
awareness about legal knowledge, ethical standards requirements of preschool teachers, supervise,
support and adjust teachers in communication and behavior with children, ensuring the right conditions.
working conditions and environment to reduce pressure on teachers”.
Thus, with the results of the above data analysis, it can be concluded that professional standards
have changed the perception of teacher quality of preschool teachers in public schools in Dong Da
district. Teachers always have a sense of learning, fostering and improving the quality of teachers, have
a sense of training and self-cultivation. Managers have many changes in organizing training courses,
ensuring the quality of training courses. Teachers are motivated to strive to practice, minimize common
negatives such as internal conflicts, uncultured behavior in schools with 100% specificity. The results
answered question number one that the influence of professional standards positively affected preschool
teachers’ awareness about teacher’s qualities.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion: Thus, with the above data analysis results, it can be concluded that professional
standards have changed the perception of teacher quality of preschool teachers in public preschools in
Dong Da district. Although it is not much, teachers have been more conscious of improving teachers’
quality, consciously training and cultivating themselves. Thanks to the fair and objective assessment
according to the criteria and clear and transparent evidence, a cultural environment has been created in
the school. Teachers are motivated to strive to practice and minimize common negatives such as internal
conflicts and uncultured behavior in schools with 100% specificity. The results answered question
number 1 that the influence of professional standards positively affected preschool teachers’ awareness
about teacher quality.
However, the standard assessment is sometimes formal, superficial, and conceptual, not yet in
essence. Evaluation results have not been used effectively, not created incentives to strive. Training plans
to improve quality capacity sometimes do not come from standard assessment results. The assessment
often focuses on the last few days of the year. Hence, teachers have difficulty collecting evidence for
self-assessment.
Managers have a role in creating incentives for teachers in preschools to strive for standards.
Managers who are interested in that place have real quality, and standards are put into practice, the
school has clear and transparent policies, teachers are often conscious in training to improve quality and
capacity to meet standard requirements. For schools of management staff who still underestimate or are
still leveling, slapping in assessment often creates little motivation for teachers to strive.
Recommendations
For schools, it is necessary to have specific annual plans, short-term, medium-term, and long-term
plans for the standard assessment; Develop policies according to the actual situation of the school to
encourage teachers to strive for standards; attach importance to evaluation based on collecting clear
evidence that is transparent; guide teachers on how to collect evidence to avoid accumulating at the end
of the year.
For teachers who are active in self-study and self-research to raise awareness to meet the
requirements of the standard; advise leaders on solutions to improve the quality and effectiveness of the
standards in practice, meeting the requirements of the ECE program implementation.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of Education and Training (2018). Circular 26 promulgates professional standards for
preschool teachers.
2. Nguyen Thi Hien (No. 496 period 2-2/2021). Developing research tools The influence of criteria of
child rearing, health care and education in professional standards on professional skills of preschool
teachers. Education Journal, 8-13.
3. Education Law (2019).
4. Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW of the Party Central Committee. (2013).
5. Dinh Thi Kim Thoa (2008). Curriculum assessment in early childhood education. Education
Publishing House.
6. Nguyen Thu Thuy (2019). Professional ethics of preschool teachers in Vietnam today. PhD thesis.
7. Vietnamese Dictionary (1998 ). Social Science Publishing House.
8. Vietnamese Dictionary (2017). Da Nang Publishing House, Vietnam.
9. http://giadinh.bvhttdl.gov.vn/khai-niem-pham-chat-dao-duc/
SOME THEORETICAL ISSUES ON THE QUALITY MANAGEMENT
IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Nguyen Duc Huu
(Ministry of Education and Training)
Nguyen Xuan Hai
Abstract: Quality is considers as the key factor to ensure the sussess or failure or even the elimination of
an organization in general and a school in particular. Therefore, quality is always to involve the attentions of
each organization and school. The outcomes of education and training are regarded as its products and reflected
in the characteristics of personalities and his labour powers or competency of practical knowledge, skills of the
graduated persons, correspondingly to the aims, education and training programs. First of all, management of
education and training are manifested in the mechanism, policies, strategies and others from psychological-socio
perspectives.
The contents of the manuscript shows the results of a PhD desertation named: “Inclusive Education
Management for Primary School Students following Approach of the Quality Insurance” by the author of this paper.
In the limitation of the paper, some issues are mentioned to as quality, quanlity management and management of
education and training.
Keywords: quality, education and training, factors of quality, management.
I. INTRODUCTION
Quality is the exploration of humanity. In the market mechanism, quality plays a decisive role for
the success or failure, the existence or doom of organizations in general and each school in particular.
Therefore, quality is always the top concern of every organization and school.
Quality is a very abstract matter, no one can see and feel the quality directly with their senses,
and ordinary measuring tools cannot measure it. The quality of education and training is generally
understood as the quality of the educational and training product, which is the result of the educational
and training process reflected in the characteristics of personality value and labor value or the ability
to practice knowledge and skills of graduates corresponding to the objectives , specific educational and
training programs [2].
Management is an essential activity formed to organize, coordinate and direct the activities of
different individuals in a small group or a large organization to achieve a certain purpose. Management is
a universal and necessary activity that takes place in all fields, at all levels and involves everyone. Without
management, it will lead to spontaneity, arbitrariness, chaos in organizations and inefficient activities.
Management is a necessary and inevitable activity of all structures, types of groups or organizations
large and small and is one of the three basic factors (labor, knowledge, management) to maintain and
promote social development. Management is the combination and application of knowledge and labor
to develop social production.
If combined well, it will promote social development, while on the contrary, the society will be
slowed down or become confused. That combination is first of all expressed in the mechanism; policy
regime; management measures and in other socio-psychological aspects. As society develops, the level
of organization, administration or management in general is also improved and developed.
The content of the article will go into in-depth researches and discussions on quality issues, quality
management and quality management in education and training.
II. RESEARCH CONTENT
2.1. Quality
2.1.1. Terms
The quality of education as an integrity, whole social system (Quality of Education; Education
Quality, Educational Quality).
The quality in education - Quality in education as in an area of social and practical life (Quality in Education).
The education quality as a requirement for an education or education of the desired quality
(Education Quality).
2.1.2. Definitions
- Quality is attributed to educational goals or outcomes.
- Quality is measured in all the elements constituting education.
- Quality is attributed to both factors and conditions outside of education that affect educational
processes, activities and outcomes.
2.2. The Quality of Education
2.2.1. Approaches to the quality of education
2.2.1.1. Holistic approach/overall outreach
This approach leads to a wide-range understanding of the concept of education quality corresponding
to the educational category itself. Education implies elements of abundance and of certain quality. It is
the quality of the ingredients that make up the education quality.
2.2.1.2. Specific or partial approach
This approach leads to an emphasis on different stages, divisions or areas of education. The meaning
of the partial approach is to allow to delve into each stage, each element, each part, each sub-structure
(such as branches and educational levels) of the overall education to consider the specific education
quality in every part of it.
For example, the quality of education in terms of educational outcomes (or products) reflects the
development of learners and the improvement of teachers’ skills and professional ethics as a result of the
level of investment input resources and effectiveness in educational processes and activities.
The quality of input resources (programs, material facilities, training qualifications and professional
feelings of teachers, starting level of learners, quality of school-family-society relationships,…) plays a
leading role, fundamentally, deciding the entire quality of education.
However, the quality factors of the education process itself have a great impact on quality, as they
can change the quality of input resources, create quality factors that play a new role and thus improve
the quality of education in general.
2.2.1.3. Other interpretations or conceptions
- The quality of education has different ranks or levels, which is a multi-level, multi-variable and
extremely rich phenomenon.
- The quality of education is something that can be measured and needs to be evaluated, not only
in educational outcomes but also regularly in the educational process.
- The quality of education is influenced by many factors and influences inside and outside education.
2.2.2. The concept of the quality of education
Diagram 1. The Educational Quality Function Framework
The diagram 1 only describes the educational quality framework according to its own objective
logic, which means that this is the most common diagram for all education systems. The quality is
what makes things what they are and not something else. But assessing and evaluating the quality of
education is another matter. All three groups of factors that make up the overall quality of education
(educational background) must satisfy a common and extremely important criteria, that is - this quality
must match the needs and interests of learners, of the society and the country. Without the above criteria,
we cannot assess the quality of education as high or low, good or bad, good or broken.
The quality of education in this country is high, but in another (if desired and can do it) it is not at
all considered high, even inferior.
Although internationalization trends are also taking place in education, the legitimate subjectivity
of communities cannot be denied when assessing and evaluating education quality (concepts) according
to their own needs and interests. According to objective indicators, the education level of developed
countries is recognized as high. But surely, no country or individual, including poor ones, will
unconditionally accept that the quality is high if it does not match the needs of its people, students and
the interests of its own country.
2.2.3. Factors of the education quality
The quality factors are understood as all that forms the overall quality of education, which comes
from different elements and departments of education. Since overall education is a complex, multi-
component, multi-quality system, it is not appropriate to attribute the entire quality of education to a
simple formula. However, the quality of education can be briefly defined as a combination of the quality
of all the factors that make up education, or the combination of all factors of the education quality.
Education is organized from a wide range of physical and mental factors that can be observed and
felt. These are human resources, material, activities, relationships, operating environment, results or
products, counted at least in the fields of: education management, pedagogical training, research and
information education, teaching and learning. This is a broad conception of the structure of activity
fields in education.
But customarily, we often pay the most attention to the area of teachers and learners’ activities,
i.e. teaching and learning, and often direct quality goals in this area. The education quality factors must
actually cover all four areas, while the quality of activities and the direct educational process is only a
part. But that is the central, most important quality department, which is purposeful, and the other areas
must serve to achieve the desired quality here.
The quality of teaching and learning reflects the overall status and quality of education as a whole,
and is in principle consistent with the quality of management, the quality of researches and information
and the quality of pedagogical training. If there is no quality agreement among the four areas, it is
forced to admit that in some areas there are unresolved quality problems, or in some areas there is a
phenomenon of artificial quality.
Diagram 2. Factors of Education Quality

Quality factors belong to the direct educational process and activities of teaching and learning.
Compared with the other 3 areas, the quality of teaching and learning is the quality of products, while the
quality in the other areas has an assurance function. In other words, the quality factors in management,
research and information, pedagogical training are the factors that ensure the quality of teaching
and learning.
When applying the ISO international quality management system to education, most institutions
have understood and followed this concept. At this time, education was limited to schools, the quality of
education was reduced to the quality of teaching and learning, even to the results of training in graduates
(products). When understanding the quality of education as the quality of the learners at the output,
meeting the human resource needs and focusing on the labor market, meeting the needs of the learners’
own personal development, then of course the quality management system will only focus on product
quality management, not overall management.
According to such a concept, it is possible to identify groups of the factors of the quality of
education, what UNESCO calls the main sizes (dimensions) of educational quality, as follows:
1- The suitability of the education with the needs of learners, the community and the society;
2- Quality of environment and input for teaching and learning activities;
3- Quality of teaching - learning processes and activities;
4- Quality of output and the impact of teaching and learning outcomes (here there is a problem
related to the effectiveness of the output, i.e. the external effect of education).
For an educational institution, a school for example, it is possible to evaluate the quality of its
education in a number of key areas such as: 1- Educational programs; 2- Study materials; 3- Professional
qualifications and personality of teachers; 4- Material-technical foundations; 5- Teaching methods
and technologies; 6- Academic results and achievements; 7- Effectiveness and achievement of school
management as well as leadership and management of the educational process.
The quality of the school can be considered as the basis unit of the quality of education, because
it contains all factors of the quality of education but that quality is limited to a specific scope and level.
The quality of education is always associated with the effectiveness of the school. An inefficient
school is generally not of high quality of education, or at least in some parts of the state of low quality.
For example, the input quality is high but the execution quality is low, resulting in low output quality,
which in general cannot be high.
2.3. Quality Management

2.3.1. Definition [1]
Many authors use the term of quality management to describe methods or procedures carried out
in order to verify that products are up to the required quality parameters for the intended purposes. The
quality management is carried out by various methods.
According to the International Organization for Quality Standardization: “The quality management
is a set of activities with a common management function that define the quality policy and quality
objectives and implement them by means of facilities such as planning, quality control, quality assurance,
quality improvement within the framework of a quality system”.
According to Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS): “The quality management is a system of methods
for facilitating output, economically producing quality goods, or providing satisfactory quality services
for demand of customers”.
AG. Robertson, a British expert, said that: “The quality management is defined as a management
system aimed at formulating a program and coordinating the efforts of different units to maintain and
enhance the quality in organizations from design, production, operation, etc. to be most effective and at
the same time, allow to satisfy the needs of consumers”.
AV. Feigenbaum, an American said that: “The quality management is defined as a unified, effective
system of activities of different parts of an organization responsible for implementing quality parameters,
maintaining the quality level achieved, and improving it to ensure the most economical production and
consumption of products, satisfying consumer needs”.
Kaoru Isgikawa said: “The quality management is the implementation research, production design,
and maintenance of products with the best quality, the most economical, the most useful for consumers
and always satisfying their needs”.
According to Philip Crosby, an american expert: “The quality management is a systematic means
of ensuring the total respect of all components of an action plan”.
Thus, each definition of the quality management is based on its own considerations, but all of them
are similar in that it represents the quality management as a system of processes for assuring the quality
of the entire system, satisfying the market’s needs at the lowest cost, with the highest economic efficiency,
is carried out in all stages from design, production to distribution and use of products.
2.3.2. Principles of the quality management
2.3.2.1. Customer Focus
In education, consumers are understood as learners, the society and the State - these are the subjects
that make requirements, evaluate and assess the quality of education, test and accept educational
products. The education development and the overall quality of education (input-implementation-
output) depends on these factors, especially on the needs of learners, the society and the State - the main
force in education to represent the interests of the people.
2.3.2.2. Leadership
Leaders must establish the consistency of purpose and direction of the organization, create and
maintain an internal environment conducive to everyone’s full participation in the achievement of the
organization’s goals. In the school, the political leader is the head of the party committee (secretary), the
professional leader is the principal, the person who directly manage the expertise are the professional
vice principals and the professional team leaders
2.3.2.3. Involvement of People
People in their respective positions are the backbone of the organization and their full involvement
will allow their competencies to be used to the benefit of the organization. Individual teachers, social
organizations in the school such as the trade unions, teachers’ youth unions, student youth unions, youth
teams, etc., as well as specialized education groups, the core groups… must become an important force
creating dynamic quality factors of the school.
2.3.2.4. Process approach when doing work

The desired results will be better if the activities and related resources are managed as a process.
That means we need to recognize and monitor, operate and evaluate them regularly, flexibly, to analyze
and use them in a dialectical way: depending on the job, the person, the time, the occasion and specific
conditions. The process approach in the educational quality management allows controlling the entire
quality evolution from input resources, how they are changed and transformed to lead to the output
quality, which stage is stable or which is not good, what needs to be adjusted or changed or which
personnel to achieve higher efficiency.
2.3.2.5. Systems approach to conduct management
Perceiving, understanding and managing interrelated processes, as a system will contribute to
the organization’s high efficiency and performance. Education as a system is made up of structures,
functions, entities, processes, roles, resources and values. The direct systems approach requires the total
quality management in education, it is not possible to manage only a single part or element but achieve
high efficiency.
2.3.2.6. Continuous improvement
Continually improving the overall performance of an organization is always a long-term goal of
any organization. The accumulation of improvements will lead to a new higher quality. For education,
improving the quality of teaching and learning activities, school management processes, basic resources
such as teacher development, learning materials, technical infrastructure, educational solutions based on
scientific-technological researches… are the priority directions.
2.3.2.7. Factual Approach to Decision Making
Effective decisions must always be based on the data and information analysis. If the data and
information analysis is conducted in a scientific way, this is already one of the important quality assurance
factors of the education management. Both management information and scientific information must
be taken seriously. The reality of the education management in our country shows that the management
information alone is not enough for strategic planning and management, has not yet allowed proper
assessment and quality assessment, and cannot improve professional management efficiency and overall
management effectiveness.
2.3.2.8. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships
The organization and its suppliers are always interdependent, and the reciprocal relationship
enhances the capacity of both parties to create value. In education, it is a triangle relationship as
mentioned: Education sector and schools <> Learners <> Government and Society. This is especially
important in the context of the market economy, because it is the main driving force of the educational
quality management and educational development process.
2.3.3. Quality management system
2.3.3.1. Steps to build the quality management system
Building a quality management system includes the following 6 steps/requirements:
First, it needs to establish the most important areas to be managed in the school, the essential
processes in the quality management system (the leadership processes, the resource management, the
other quality assurance conditions).

Second, to identify sequences and new interactions between processes. The output of this process
must be considered as input to which processes, the output quality of the previous process must match
the input quality of the process.
Third, to identify the quality standards and methods needed to ensure effective operation and
control of educational processes.
Diagram 3. Determination of Quality Sandards
Fourth, to develop processes, ensure the availability of necessary resources and information to
support operational activities and monitor educational processes. It is necessary to prepare procedures
processes (PP), work instructions (WI) and application forms (AF) to control the educational process.
Diagram 4. Building Processes

Fifth, to measure, monitor and analyze educational processes.
- To measure: to select measurable quality standards.
- To monitor: to record the measurement results according to the duration period.
- To analyze: to apply statistical techniques SPC (Statistic Process Control) to analyze each process,
to find problems to be solved and make decisions.
Sixth, to implement necessary activities, perform correctly and continuously improve processes.
- To identify processes status and their stability (measured by X-R control chart)
- To rebuild quality or objectives standards.
- To update, adjust and improve processes.
2.3.3.2. Illustrative example: Deming’s circle

To realize continuous improvement in quality management, Deming proposed the PDCA cycle
of continuous improvement (Plan; Do; Check; Action) is also known as the Deming’s circle and is
represented as shown in Figure 3.
Diagram 5. Deming’s Management Cycle

Quality does not stop but is continuously improved according to the PDCA cycle as shown in Figure
3 [8]. An organization that always acts like this will create trust for customers, thereby create a reputation
for itself.
The Deming’s Circle is the sequence required for the effective performance of any job according
to the principle of continuous improvement.
Diagram 6. The Cycle of Continuous Quality Improvement
2.3.3. Quality management in education and training

2.3.3.1. Concept
Quality management in education is a method whose main tool is a set of standards, including
standards, criteria, indicators and procedures for implementing those standards. Quality management
in education is the construction and operation of a management system (on the basis of standards and
criteria) in order to influence the quality assurance conditions in all stages of the educational process,
for all products of the system, not for the quality of each stage or individual product.
2.3.3.2. Levels of quality management
a) Quality control
Quality control is the oldest model of quality management and also the most common measure
in educational quality management [3]. Quality control is examination and evaluation of the quality of
educational outputs and products. This is an activity carried out after the training courses have ended and
carried out through graduation exams, thesis and PhD thesis defense.
Similar to “Quality Control” in production, the purpose of the test is to evaluate the quality
of education by comparing the learning outcomes that students achieve compared to the prescribed
program standards and training objectives. In human resource training, in order to meet the customers’
requirements in the market mechanism, this standard must be based on the customers’ requirements and
the production, so it is often called the industry/service standard.
Thus, as in manufacturing, the outcome of the quality control is to guarantee the quality of the
graduates, but does not create the quality of graduates by themselves.
b) The process control
With the view that quality is a process, for quality training, it is necessary to control the quality of
every stage of the training process: Input - Process - Output.
Thus, the quality management of the training process must be managed from the stage of enrollment,
teaching, examination, assessment, and granting diplomas to graduates. The quality of each of the above
stages contributes to the quality of training. On the other hand, good management of each stage will
promptly take measures to limit the number of weak students, back-to-back students and increase the
percentage of graduates students from training courses. To manage the training process, the school
needs to organize a good management of the enrollment process; to organize educational and teaching
activities; examination, assessment. Teachers need to strengthen regular checks in the teaching process
to take timely measures to fill in gaps in knowledge, skills and attitudes for students.
Thus, just like in production, the process control aims to train qualified graduates, and at the same
time, there are solutions to prevent the poor learning status of some students to minimize the number of
back-to-back students, dropped-out students or not be recognized for graduation after completing the
training program in order to improve the quality and effectiveness of training.
In recent decades, under the strong impact of scientific and technological progress as well as
politics, economy and society on the education of each country, the quality management of the training
process has been mentioned in the context of education and CIPO model: Context - Input - Process - Out
put/Outcome have been applied in training quality management [4].
c) Quality assurance
The quality assurance is a model of quality management in training institutions that has been widely
applied in many countries, and has also begun to be implemented in our country. The quality assurance
is all activities planned and carried out within a management system that have been demonstrated to be
sufficient to provide confidence that an entity (object) will fully satisfy quality requirements” [5].
Unlike the quality control, the quality assurance is the process that occurs before and during the
training implementation. Its concern is to prevent mistakes from happening in the first place. The quality
assurance is to consistently meet standards. These standards are the quality assurance conditions of
the training institution. The quality assurance is largely the responsibility of workers, often working in
independent units rather than the responsibility of inspectors, although inspectors can also play a role in
the quality assurance.
The quality assurance is implemented in universities in general including Vietnamese schools in
many different ways. Common college entrance exams are one of the prime examples of the quality
assurance system. Students across the country take exams compiled by the Department of Quality
Management, Ministry of Education and Training with the idea that all students from different schools
have an equal opportunity to take the tests and that the results of these exams reflect how well they have
meet the standards of knowledge and skills of the program issued by the Ministry of Education and
Training.
Tests are written by experts in each field. Answers and scorecards are also compiled at the same
time as the exam questions to adjust the scoring of different judges.
The quality accreditation is one of the quality assurance activities of universities with two basic
contents: accreditation of training institutions and accreditation of training programs. Accreditation of
education has a long history in the United States and North America and is now used in many countries.
The quality accreditation is a process of internal assessment (self-assessment) and external
assessment to make a decision to recognize a school or a training program of the school as meeting
specified standards [6].
The main purpose of the quality accreditation is to ensure that certain standards are met in
training, meet the requirements of human resource users and ensure the interests of learners. The quality
accreditation is carried out by a responsible agency or organization. The agency or organization may be
State-owned or non-State. The quality accreditation can also be voluntary or compulsory [7].
d) Total quality management
The total quality management aims to continuously improve the provision of services or products
to customers. Today, education has been seen as a service with a global reach. Therefore, without
continuous improvement and innovation, education will gradually lose its competitiveness in the process
of globalization and international integration. This can be avoided if early education is accessible to
information quality management.
The potential benefits of applying total quality management in school management can be listed
as follows:
1. The total quality management can help the university provide better services to its main
customers, which are students and employers.
2. Continuous improvement - the emphasis in the total quality management is the basic way to
fulfill the requirement of social responsibility - a common requirement of the whole education.
3. Operating the total quality management system with the motto of continuous improvement will
provide many opportunities and challenges for students, improve the learning environment so that all
students can achieve results in learning and training.
With the above benefits, the total quality management nowadays has been applied to the education
quality management in many countries, especially in Japan.
e) ISO (International Standards Organization)
ISO is an organization’s set of standards for quality management that have been standardized and
internationalized. The ISO-9000 series of standards was published in 1987, reviewed for the first time in
1994 and reviewed for the second time in 2000. Currently, there are over 160 countries participating in
this international organization. Vietnam has been an official member of the International Organization
for Standardization since 1987 [60]. In the process of international integration on trade, especially
after the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the ISO set of international standards has
been increasingly widely applied in many countries in the management of production and service
organizations. According to GATT, education is considered as a commercial service sector and the
Government of Vietnam has also committed to implement GATT in the field of education.
A number of universities and vocational schools in Vietnam such as National Economics University,
Hanoi Vietnam, Hanoi National University of Education, Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho
Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Song Da Vocational College... have applied
ISO to school management and recognized as qualified, although at that time these schools were all
conducting quality accreditation according to the set of quality accreditation criteria issued by the
Ministry of Education and Training.
III. CONCLUSION
The results of the above theoretical research on quality management, quality management of
education and training show that:
1. Education and training quality management is all that constitutes the overall quality of education,
which comes from different elements and parts of education and is based on a holistic and partial
approach. When developing and implementing quality management according to this approach, it will
certainly bring good quality to the educational process of each school and of the whole system.
2. Quality management in education requires the development and operation of a management system,
especially the development and implementation of quality management standards and criteria for the entire
educational process. The use of quality management standards and criteria first of all should be fully
aware and understood by administrators and teachers of each school, gradually applied and persistently
implemented, gradually reaching desired quality of education and training.
3. The quality management of education and training requires the observance of principles,
processes, and conditions for their implementation at all stages of the educational process, especially the
involvement of social forces, the consensus of all social classes, the parents of students, etc. Therefore,
the implementation process inevitably encounters many difficulties, requiring the perseverance of
leaders, managers and consensus of stakeholder. When these requirements are met, the education and
training process will bring quality, meet customer requirements and achieve educational goals.
REFERENCES
1. Nguyen Duc Chinh (editor), Tran Xuan Bach, Tran Thi Thanh Phuong (2015), Quality
management in education, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
2. Tran Khanh Duc (2004), Management and Quality Accreditation of human resource training
according to ISO & TQM, Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
3. Sallis Edward (1993,1996,2002), Total Quality Management in Education, Kogan Page Ltd, 120
Pentonville Road, London N19JN, UK; Stylus Publishing Inc, 22883 Quicksilver Drive Stering
VA 20166-2012, USA.
4. Taylor, A and F Hill (1997), “Quality management in education” from “Organizational Effectiveness
and Improvement in Education” Edited by Alma Harris, Nigel Bennett and Margaret Preedy, at the
Open University Press; Maidenhead – Philadenphia, USA.
5. General Department of Standards, Metrology and Quality (2004), General awareness of the quality
management system according to ISO 9001:2000, Hanoi.
6. Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, Regional Center For Higher Education
and Development (2003), Framework For Regional Quality Assurance Cooperation in Higher
Education, Published by Seameo Rihed, Bangkok, Thailand, 10400.
7. Hua Trung Thang, Ly Hong (2004), Methods of effective management of human resources,
Labor - Social Publishing House, Hanoi.
8. www.4ulr.com/products/productquality/deming_cycle.html
EVALUATION OF SCHOOLS’ TEACHERS ON MANAGEMENT
EFFECTIVENESS OF SCHOOLS’ PRINCIPALS IN HO CHI MINH CITY:
APPROACH FROM GENDER PERSPECTIVES
Kieu Thi Thuy Trang, Nguyen Quy Thanh, Hoang Gia Trang
Abstract: In today school management, besides capabilities and qualifications which are the general
characteristics defining the leadership of men and women, gender differences have the significant impact to the
roles and effectiveness of the leaders. Our research was conducted with 1212 teachers to study the management
effectiveness of school principals in Ho Chi Minh City. The results showed that, throught the evaluation from
both male and female teachers, the management of female principals were more effective than male principals.
The average evaluation scores from female teachers were also higher than ones from male teachers in the same
catergory of evaluation for male and female principals. The research results can contribute to the enhancement
of management quality of principals in the coming years and, in particular, to successfully implement the General
Education Program 2018. Furthermore, it contributes to the requirements of fundamental and comprehensive
education and training reform in Vietnam.
Keywords: management effectiveness, principal, teacher, gender.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Vietnam’s Party XIth Central Committee’s Meeting 8th had passed the resolution which identified
the basic principle of comprehensive education reform, which is ‘Movement from quantitative-focused
education and training development to emphasize the quality and effectiveness, at the same time to satisfy
the quantity requirement’. Today, education sector is in the progress of reforming the public education
program where the roles of leadership are very essential to the success of the entire education and
training reform program. Directives from XIIIth National Communist Party Congress clearly mentioned
‘Improving the quality of teachers and management personnels at different levels to meet the basic
and fundamental requirements to change the education and training sector’. In order to achieve such
goals, we need to reform the management responsibilities to improve education quality. The duties of
school principals include management of the teachning process, managing the educational environment,
competitions and rewards, as well as other uprising problem in schools. According to Decree No.
14/2018/TT-BGDDT dated July 20, 2018 from the Ministry of Education and Training for ‘Enacting
the qualifications and requirements for public schools principals’, the management requirements of
principals include planning, managing teaching and learning activities, human resources management,
organizational management and administration, financial management, education quality management.
Based on these requirements, it is very important to conduct a research to evaluate the effectiveness of
the management duties of school principals in order to develop the right strategy for management and
development.
Our survey was conducted with 1212 school teachers who were working in Ho Chi Minh City
to collect their opinions on management effectiveness of their school principals. Online Google form
was used in the survey due to the situation of spreading Covid-19 pandemic. Gender-based analysis is
appplied to yield the research results in order to evaluate management effectiveness of the female and
male principals through the viewpoints of female and male teachers.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Questionnaire
We developed a questionnaire which is consisted of two sets of close-ended questions and open-
ended questions to collect data for this research. A 4-graded scale with selections ranging from “Never”
to “Frequently” was used in close-ended questions. Additionally, some open-ended question were
included to encourage respondents to elaborate further on their answers.
The online questionnaire was designed to collect teachers’ opinions on the following catergories:
leadership style; qualities of leadership and measures to improve leadership capacity.
2.2. Interview
The interviews were conducted to identify the gender factors which can influence the leadership
and management in schools; qualities in leaders and managers; assessment of male and female teachers
on management effectiveness of school’s principals. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic situation, the
interviews were also conducted online via Zoom application.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Participation of teachers in school activities
In order to understand management duties of school principals, we had studied the participation
of teachers in school activities which is one of the key figures to evaluate leadership and management
capability of principals. The results were reported in the table below:
Table 1: Participation of teachers in school activities (%)
Male teacher Female teacher

Jobs
Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never
1. Construct education plan

40.5 25.7 31.8 2.0 50.8 21.7 23.1 4.4
for the schools
2. Construct development
23.0 33.8 39.2 4.1 28.7 32.5 31.2 7.5
strategy
3. Discussion on internal
34.1 34.5 28.7 2.7 42.7 31.9 20.3 5.1
financial regulations
4. Self evaluation for

77.7 15.2 5.7 1.4 79.9 16.7 2.9 0.4
competition and reward
5. Professional enrichment 89.5 7.8 2.0 0.7 93.7 5.0 1.1 0.2
The results showed the majority of the teachers who were asked participated in the schools activities
at different levels. A small number of teachers said that they have never participated in the activities
with the ratio below 8%. Among them, 7.5% female teacher and 4.1% male teacher said that they
never joined the activity ‘Construct development strategy’. For the “Frequently” participation, activity
4 ‘Self evaluation for competition and reward’ and activity 5 ‘Professional enrichment’ had the highest
percentage of teachers’ participation with the ratio more than three quarters of total teachers in the survey.
These 2 activities directly related to the teachers themselves hence the participation was proactive and
more often. The other 3 activities related to the operation and development of the schools, therefore
teachers participation was at the lower levels (below 50%). This is dependent on the teacher positions
whether they are teachers, team leader or subject vice-leader. For all 5 activities, the results showed that
female teachers participated more than male teachers. The chi-square test with p-value <0.05 resulted
in statistically significant differences at actitivies 1,2,3,4. The p-value >0.05 of activity 5 ‘Professional
enrichment’ meant there was not any difference in the answer between male and female teachers.
The active and frequent participation of teachers in school activities are the key advantage for the
management duties. When the strategies and plans of the schools are widely popularized and contributed from
the teachers, they will clearly understand and contribute their efforts to the common development activities.
For teachers and educational institution, teaching is the primary and the most important activity.
This survey has studied the participation of teachers in decision making process of teaching activities
including: +/ Teaching content; +/ Teaching methodology; +/ Examination, Evaluation. The results were
summarized in the table below:
Table 2: Participation of teachers in decision making process of teaching activities (%)
Subject Team Subject Team

No. Areas Self decision Principals decision
together decide and the management
1 Teaching content 7.6 42.4 40.8 0.8
2 Teaching methodology 32.1 34.7 24.8 0.2
3 Examination, Evaluation 10.8 16.5 61.7 0.4
According to the survey, issues related to teaching were discussed among the school management,
subject teams and teachers. There was very little opinion which agreed that the principals decide the
teaching activities (below 1%). Almost teachers agreed that the school management discussed with
the teachers and subject teams to come to the final reasonable decision. In all areas in table 2, teachers
could decide the teaching methodology with the highest ratio of 32.1%. The remaining areas were
discussed with the subject team or between subject teams and the management. This expressed the
democracy spirit and also highlighted the collective intelligence to contribute to the common activities.
There was another portion of teachers (less than 5%) mentioning that the combination and exchange of
different approaches, such as the management and subject team, subjecting team-teacher meetings to
make decisions.
From the teachers’ opinion and analyzed results, we can infer that the management approach of
principals in the schools which participated the survey was democratically oriented. In the other ways,
there are discussions and exchanges between the management and teachers relating to the teaching
activities. Within certain limitations, teachers have the right to make decision to the teaching activities,
particularly ‘teaching methodology’. Teacher’s initiatives in teaching activies will enable creativity and
better teaching and learning quality.
2.2. Teachers’ evaluation on the management effectiveness on school principals

In order to evaluate the management effectiveness of principals, the research group has given 10
items and asked the teachers to give score with the scale from 0 to 10 whereas 0 means the worse and 10
means the best. Based on the average score, management effectiveness was classified in the following
categories: 5.0-6.5: Average; 6.6-7.9: Relatively Good; 8.0-above: Good and Very Good.
The results of evaluation from the teachers for the management effectiveness of principals were
scored for every items in the below table:
Table 3: Evaluation of teachers on management effectives of principals
No. Items Male Principal Female Principal t p
1 Handling of request and suggestion 7,77 8,20 -5,246 ,000
2 Role of planning in school activity 7,85 8,22 -4,518 ,000
3 Inter-department coordination 7,92 8,38 -5,772 ,000
4 Solidarity 8,00 8,53 -6,071 ,000
5 Rewarding policy 7,87 8,32 -5,459 ,000
6 Disciplinary 7,88 8,37 -5,906 ,000
7 Transperancy and clear information 8,07 8,53 -5,244 ,000
8 Innovation 7,89 8,41 -6,395 ,000
9 Building friendly working environment 8,05 8,55 -5,715 ,000
10 Handling difficulties in school activities 7,91 8,40 -6,083 ,000
Average score 7,92 8,39
From the above table, teachers evaluated male principals with average score of 7.92 and female
principals with average score of 8.39. Among all areas, male principals have only 3 in 10 areas
being evaluated at the level ‘Good’ (score 8.0 and above) which are ‘Solidarity’, ‘Building friendly
working environment’ and ‘Transperancy and clear information’ The remaining 7 in 10 areas table 3
were evaluated at ‘Relatively Good’ by the teachers. When examining the evaluation scores of female
principals, we obtained the average score of more than 8.0 at all areas. This meant female principals
have all achieved the management effectiveness at the ‘Good’ level evaluated by both male and female
teachers. Notably the lowest average score of female principals was also higher the highest average
scores of male principals (8.20 compared to 8.07). This survey result highly recognized the great effort
of female leadership in education sector. The t-student test also confirms the statistical difference of
management effectiveness between male and female principals.
The next analysis was presented from another perspective, male teachers evaluating male and
female principals; and female teachers also evaluating male and female principals. Details of results
were tabulated in the table below:
Table 4: Evaluation of male and female teachers on management effectives of principals
Male teacher Female teacher

No. Items
Male Female Male Female
principals Principals Principals Principals
1 Handling of request and suggestion 7,61 8,0 7,84 8,24
2 Planning in school activity 7,63 7,97 7,94 8,27
3 Inter-department coordination 7,77 8,09 7,98 8,45
4 Solidarity 7,82 8,28 8,08 8,58
5 Rewarding policy 7,75 8,07 7,92 8,38
6 Disciplinary 7,67 8,15 7,97 8,42
7 Transperancy and clear information 7,82 8,30 8,19 8,58
8 Innovation 7,63 8,13 8,01 8,46
9 Building friendly working environment 7,85 8,31 8,14 8,60
10 Handling difficulties in school activities 7,74 8,17 7,99 8,45
Average score 7,73 8,15 8,01 8,44
3.2.1. Evaluation of teachers on management effectives of male principals:

Throughout the survey results, we observed all male teachers marked the management effectiveness
of male principals average score below 8.0 which belongs to ‘Relatively Good’ level and close to ‘Good’
level. Three areas have the highest scores for male principals are building friendly working environment,
solidarity, transperancy and clear information. Under the assessment of female teachers, male principals
have 4 areas which were evaluated more than 8.0 (Good level). They were transperancy and clear
information, building friendly working environment, solidarity and innovation. Three outstanding areas
of management activities of male principals were consistent and shared by the opinions of both male
and female teachers. However, the average score evaluated by female teachers is higher than which
evaluated by male teachers. It seems that female teachers are much more opened than male teachers in
evaluating the magement activities of principals. The ultimate average score by female teachers is also
higher than which by the male teachers (8.01 compared to 7.73).
3.2.2 Evaluation of teachers on management effectives of female principals:
Data obtained from the survey answered by male and female teachers to the management
effectiveness of female principals showed that both male and female teachers graded level ‘Good’ (8.0
and above). Furthermore, the ultimate average score by male teachers for the management effectiveness
of female principals in all 10 areas is 8.15. The respective score by female teachers is 8.44. These
evaluation results are higher than the evaluation for male principals.
Three areas were highly appreciated in the management activities of female principals are building
friendly working environment, transperancy and clear information and solidarity. These are also the
most outstanding characteristics in male principals through the evalutation. However, the evaluation
scores of female principals are much higher than those of male principals.
It is really true that for principals, building friendly working environment and solidarity are very
important to empower teachers to work and students to learn passionately. According to Decree No.
14/2018/TT-BGDDT prescribing the qualifications and standards for principals, Article 6, Standard
No.3 on ‘Building education environment’ also required principals to build up safe, healthy, friendly,
democratic education environment, and prevent school violence. A healthy education environment will
also help to enhance the solidarity, among teachers, between teachers and the management, and with the
students. This will also enable the teaching and learning activities to achieve better results.
4. DISCUSSION
It is very essential to evaluate the effectiveness of management activities of school principals.
In a previous study by Nguyen Anh Thuan (2014), there was 90.13% secondary school teachers who
were asked told that it is ‘necessary and very necessary’ to evaluate teaching-learning management of
the principals. Particularly in our study, the gender approach in the leadership and management will
allow us to examine the strength and weakness of male and female principals. The survey results and
analysis showed that female principals were evaluated as better in management effectiveness compared
to male principals. The average evaluation score by male and female teachers in 10 management areas
for female principals were 8.15 and 8.44 respectively, while the evaluation score for male principals
were 7.73 and 8.01. When male teachers evaluate male principals, all 10 areas were in the level from
7.61 to 7.85, approaching the level ‘Good’ (8.0 and above). Male teachers evaluated female principals at
the higher average score. There are 4 in 10 areas which were graded 8.0 and above while the remaining
6 in 10 areas were below 8.0 but still higher than the average score of male principals at the same areas.
The lowest score for male principals is ‘handling of request and suggestion’ and ‘Planning in school
activity’. When analyzing the evaluation of female principals, the research results also indicated that the
2 lowest scores in consistent with the same areas with lowest scores in the evaluation for male principals.
However, the results of evaluation of management effectiveness of female principals are substantially
outstanding compared to male principals. This is the results of more and more women participated in the
management activities and prove their capability.
In education sector, women contributed to the higher ratio in teaching. Almost all teachers in
kindergarten are women. Female teachers also make up 70% of the total number of school teachers.
Therefore, women participation in the management in schools will ensure the gender perspective in
decision making. The International Labour Organization (ILO) Reports confirmed that ‘A gender
integrated working environment will bring a lot of benefits to companies because that environment will
create diversity of experiences and thinking that both men and women can contribute to that diversity’.
Therefore, a better learning environment will be created with the active contribution from both male and
female leaders in schools.
According to the stastics of academic year 2020-2021, the education and training sector in Ho Chi
Minh City has 51.9% female and 48.1% male principals in primary school, 46.32% female and 53.68%
male principals in secondary school, 26.61% female and 73.39% male principals in high school (data
provided by Ho Chi Minh City’s Department of Education and Training). We can see that women have
increasingly taken important roles in leadership. According to author Tran Thi Minh Duc (2015), besides
the desire to contribute their professional capability, women also desire to strive for promotion and to
hold leadership positions to fully utilize their capability; increase opportunities to network and learn;
as signs of approval and evaluation of co-workers and supervisors to their personality and capability
of women. It is shown that women effort to join the leadership and management in different sectors,
particularly in education and training, has achieved good results.
ILO’s report from pointed out that ‘89% of people who were asked in Vietnam agreed or completely
agree that women leadership is as effective as men. However, there is difference in point of view of each
gender. Higher ratio of women (34%) who were asked completely agreed with this statement compared
to the ratio of men who were asked the same question (23%)’. In comparison with our research results
also showed that average score of male teachers evaluating the management effectiveness of female
principals is lower than that of female teachers (8.15 compared to 8.44). However, male teachers also
admitted that management effectiveness of female principals is better than male principals (see table 4).
5. CONCLUSION
Evaluation of school principals’ management effectiveness from the gender approach allowed
us to have overall picture of management effectiveness of male and female principals thoughout the
evaluation of male and female teachers. Our research results showed that women actively participated
in the management duties in schools. The survey results indicated that female principals were highly
appreciated in the jobs that they were assigned. For male principals, the evaluation of management
effectiveness also resulted in ‘Relatively Good’ and close to ‘Good’ level through the evaluation of
male teachers. Female teachers graded male principals with nearly half of the areas at ‘Good’. This
understanding allows us to promote the strengths of male and female principals in school management
activities to meet education innovation today.
REFERENCES
1. The road to success: Women in business and management in Vietnam, International Labor
Organization - ILO Research Report, November 2020 https://ilo.org/hanoi/Whatwedo/
Publications/WCMS_761061/lang--vi/index.htm accessed 24/07/2021.
2. Communist Party of Vietnam - Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW dated November 4, 2013 of the 8th Central
Conference of the XI term on fundamental and comprehensive reform of education and training.
3. Decree No. 14/2018/TT-BGDDT of the Ministry of Education and Training, dated July 20, 2018
on “Promulgating the Standard Regulations for principals of general education institutions”.
4. Documents of the 13th National Congress, National Political Publishing House, volume II, p.129.
5. Tran Thi Minh Duc, Nguyen Thi Viet Thanh, Female intellectual with management leadership,
VNU Scientific Journal: Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 31, Issue 3 (2015) 1-12.
6. Nguyen Anh Thuan (2014), Evaluation of the quality of teaching and learning management of
the Principal of the Middle School, Doctoral Thesis in Educational Management, Institute of
Science and Education of Vietnam - Ministry of Education and Training.
CONTENT OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN VIEWPOINT OF AUTONOMY
AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
Nguyen Thi Hue
Abstract: One of the important issues of the fundamental and comprehensive reform of higher education
is to innovate the management of financial activities in universities. Public universities increasingly have a high
degree of autonomy in the use of state budget sources and in the exploitation and use of revenues. The fact that
the State is gradually reducing the recurrent budget for higher education in order to improve the competitiveness
of universities, forcing universities to promote the potential of their units to expand their scale and diversify their
activities to meet social needs. The article mentions some contents in the management of financial activities at
public universities from the point of view of independence and accountability, from there as a theoretical basis to
help universities have solutions to exploit and manage more effectively the financial resources of the university in
the context that the state is assigning high autonomy to the development of educational activities.
Keywords: finance, financial operations management, autonomy, financial autonomy, accountability.
1. INTRODUCTION
In public universities, the state budget is the main source of finance, allocated by the state to carry
out the professional tasks of the institution. However, at present, the use of this financial resource is not
really effective and still causes waste. The autonomy not only helps the Government reduce the burden
on the state budget but also opens up opportunities for universities to promote their initiative, creativity
and innovation in education, training and scientific research. at the same time, encourage universities to
improve the quality of their staff and teaching, and push them to be more dynamic to be able to meet the
requirements of change.
Financial management in the direction of increasing autonomy will create favorable opportunities
for organizations in mobilizing and using financial resources effectively to improve the quality of
training services, in order to produce high-quality human resources. On the other hand, it forces schools
to increase their accountability to society and learners.
2. OVERVIEW OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES FROM THE POINT OF
VIEW OF AUTONOMY AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Most authors have studied and shown that finance is an integrated reflection of economic
relationships in the distribution of financial resources through the creation or use of monetary funds to
meet the requirements of accumulation or consumption of subjects in society [18].
In terms of form, it reflects the movement and transformation of financial resources in the process
of using monetary funds. In essence, they are financial relationships that manifest in the form of value
arising in the process of forming and using cash funds to serve the operations of the entity.
Financial activity is the activity of distributing total social products in the form of value among
economic actors. In order for financial activities to be effective, economic relationships between entities
must be well resolved.
Financial management is the management of activities: mobilizing, allocating and using financial
resources by an integrated method of many different measures based on the application of objective
economic laws-finance in a way that is suitable to the conditions of the country’s socio-economic
renewal process. Financial management is the process of distributing financial resources to meet the
needs of economic entities [17].
According to author Era Solomon, “Financial management is the use of information that accurately
reflects an organization’s financial position, to analyze its strengths and weaknesses and make plans to
use financial resources, fixed assets and future labor needs to achieve specific goals that add value to the
organization [3].
In the current trend for universities, many authors have studied financial management towards
autonomy and accountability. The financial management requires aiming to improve the quality of
training, the quality of the staff, towards achieving the goals and missions of the universities.
In their research, Don Anderson and Richard Jonson (1998) emphasized the relationship between
national government and higher education institutions, especially the degree of government influence
over activities. of the university. According to the authors, in countries with a high tradition of university
autonomy, the government intervenes in universities according to the model of state supervision. In contrast,
countries with less tradition of high university autonomy tend to adopt a state-controlled model [2].
The author Phung Xuan Nha and colleagues (2012) have studied the tuition fee policy in the
context of renovating the financial mechanism, towards an advanced and autonomous higher education.
According to the authors, it is necessary to develop and approve a school-based financial autonomy
project to implement the reform of tuition fees and the mechanism of state budget allocation. At the
same time, the state needs to give higher financial autonomy to schools. [21].
3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Researching the theoretical basis of financial management in public universities from the point of
view of autonomy and accountability, in order to help universities have solutions to exploit and manage
financial resources more effectively, in the context that the state assigns a high degree of autonomy
towards the development of educational activities.
Research documents, texts, scientific topics were used to build a theoretical basis for the research
problem. Analyze, synthesize, and systematize documents were used to determine the content of the
research problem, make hypotheses and build a theoretical framework for the research.
5. THEORETICAL ISSUES OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
5.1. Objective and principle of financial management from the point of view of autonomy in
public universities
* Target:
Financial management aims to ensure the mobilization and use of financial resources in accordance
with regulations, for the right purposes and with high efficiency to serve the development and
improvement of the training quality of the institution.
* Rules:
Achieving the objectives in financial management requires the institution to adhere to the following
basic principles:
Principle 1: Balance enough resources
Financial management requires the provision of a sufficient resource with the minimum amount
required for all learners. This helps the manager to estimate the required amount of input for each
discipline. Inputs can include learning materials, learning equipment, qualifications of teachers, family
circumstances of learners, learning ability and learning outcomes of learners.
Principle 2: Fairness
Financial management must ensure that sufficient basic resources are provided so that all
learners have the same opportunity to receive a basic, high-quality education. Students with different
learning needs will receive commensurately different degrees and resources. Financial management
must contribute to the realization of equity in education, ensuring that everyone has the opportunity
to learn. This is a requirement for countries when the distribution of wealth in society is increasingly
concentrated on a small part of the population, making the opportunity to enjoy education unequal
among the people living in one country. Thanks to its distributional function, the state can increase
investment or promulgate mechanisms and policies to create favorable conditions for the poor to access
education. Thereby reducing inequality in education, making an important contribution to creating
equity in society.
Principle 3: Open, transparent and effective
Financial management in education should promote the effective use of resources in an open,
transparent and responsible manner. In addition to providing and overseeing finances, financial management
in an organization must ensure that resources are converted into learning opportunities for all.
The financial policies related to the transfer of resources, significantly affect the quality of
education of each institution. Financial management must ensure to improve the quality of training,
the quality of human resources and promote scientific research activities, which create the brand and
reputation of the university.
5.2. Contents of financial management in public universities from the point of view of autonomy
and accountability
* Revenue management in public universities:
Revenue sources in public universities include: state budget sources, non-business revenues and
other sources of revenue.
- Sources of state budget, including:
+ Funds to ensure regular operation to perform functions and tasks for non-business units cover
part of operating expenses themselves;
+ Funds for implementation of scientific and technological tasks;
+ Funds for the implementation of the training program for cadres and civil servants; national
target programs.
+ Funds for performing tasks ordered by competent state agencies;
+ Funds for performing unexpected tasks assigned by competent authorities;
+ Capital construction investment capital, expenditures for procurement of equipment, repair of
fixed assets in service of non-business activities according to projects approved by competent authorities;
+ Reciprocal capital for the implementation of projects with foreign capital sources approved by
competent authorities;
+ Other expenses (if any)
- Income from non-business activities, including:
+ The portion left over from the state budget tuition and fee revenues as prescribed by law;
+ Revenue from service activities;
+ Dividends from joint ventures, associates, interest on bank deposits.
+ Income from other non-business activities (if any);
- Other sources of income:
+ Revenues from sponsorship projects, aid, gifts.
+ Borrowed capital from credit institutions, mobilized capital from officials and employees.
+ Capital sources for joint ventures and associations of domestic and foreign organizations and
individuals according to the provisions of law.
- Requirements in the management of revenue sources of public universities:
+ Revenue sources must be fully managed in terms of form, scale and determinants of revenue.
Without comprehensive management, it will lead to the loss of resources, affecting the financial
management efficiency and operations of the Public University:
+ Revenue sources must ensure social justice. This is an element that represents common equity
for all activities of the State.
+ Revenue sources must ensure the strict and correct implementation of policies and revenue
regimes promulgated by competent agencies. Public Universities: Not allowed to arbitrarily set revenues
as well as rates.
+ Revenue sources must be planned, collected correctly, fully and properly organized in the
collection process.
+ The revenue sources must ensure consistency in each unit and the whole system, which is an
appropriate requirement for units with multiple sources of income.
- Revenue management process:
+ Make a revenue estimate:
With regard to revenue sources, organizations shall base themselves on their plans for training,
scientific research and non-profit activities as a basis for making revenue estimates.
Specifically, for the state budget: make an estimate based on the enrollment quotas allocated by
the state budget every year and the state budget norms for their group of universities as a basis for
determining revenue and expenditure sources. In addition, based on scientific research activities assigned
by the State, other target programs and tasks are ordered by the State.
For non-business and other revenue sources, based on the state’s revenue norms and contracts for
training, research and development and other revenue-generating activities, to make a revenue plan.
+ Organizations that comply with revenue estimates:
For the state budget: based on the university’s estimate approved by the competent authority for
the financial year. Universities shall make detailed plans on a monthly and quarterly basis to serve as
a basis for the allocation and receipt of funds through the State Treasury that the organization opens a
funding limit account.
For non-business revenues and other revenues: based on training plans, scientific research activities,
association activities and other revenue-generating activities, to organize the management of revenues
according to the regime.
+ Finalization of revenue:
Management of public universities’ revenue sources requires proper identification of revenue
sources according to state regulations and plans to exploit state budget and other non-business and other
revenue sources. to meet financial needs.
* Expenditure management in public universities
The use of financial resources by the Public Universities includes regular operating expenses, non-
recurring expenses and other expenses.
- Regular operating expenses:
Recurring operating expenses include state budget allocated for regular operations, performing
tasks ordered by the State and non-business revenues of organizations, including:
+ Spending on people
+ Professional expenses
+ Expenses for procurement and repair
+ Other recurrent expenses.
- Irregular expenses:
+ Expenses for performing scientific and technological tasks.
+ Expenses for implementation of training programs for cadres and civil servants; national target
programs
+ Expenses for performing tasks ordered by the State
+ Reciprocal capital expenditures for the implementation of projects with foreign capital sources
according to regulations.
+ Expenses for performing unexpected tasks assigned by competent authorities.

+ Expenses for capital construction investment, equipment procurement, major repair of fixed
assets for implementation of projects approved by competent authorities.
+ Expenses for joint venture and association activities.
+ Other expenses as prescribed (if any)
- Other expenses
Expenditures from grants and aid projects of international cooperation activities in the fields of
training and scientific research, expenditures from student scholarships, gifts, etc.
Requires expense management:
+ Ensure sufficient financial resources for universities to complete assigned tasks. To fulfill this
requirement, it is required that each university needs to develop a cost estimate, establish a priority order
for expenditures to allocate funds accordingly.
+ Ensuring savings and efficiency: This is the leading principle of financial management. Resources
are always limited, but demand is often unlimited. Therefore, it is required that in the process of allocating
and planning expenditures, it is necessary to calculate so that the financial costs are the lowest but bring
the highest educational efficiency.
+ Ensure expenditures are in accordance with the norms, regimes and policies of the State and the
organization’s internal spending regulations.
Organizations need to develop accurate and scientific expenditure norms. This is both a basis for
building a spending plan and a basis for controlling expenses. The expenditure norms must ensure
compliance with regulations and ensure compliance with the specificity of each organization. The
construction norms must be highly practical, suitable to the funding needs of the activities. Only when
the norms meet such requirements will the norms become the standard for budget management.
Expense management process:
+ Set up a cost estimate:
For the expenses of the organization, based on the arising nature of the expenditures in the
organization to build a cost estimate.
Expenditures of the nature of regular consumption are promulgated by the State into a system of general
expenditure norm standards arranged according to the specified items of the state budget index system.
Personal payment expenditure is one of four groups of recurrent expenditure. In the university, individual
payments include wages, salary allowances, student and student scholarships, and collective welfare.
Expenditure on development investment includes: investment in purchase of fixed assets and
investment in capital construction. This is the expenditure task of the state budget.
It is necessary to select the priority order for activities to ensure that the total expenditure is limited
but the workload is still completed with the highest efficiency. To achieve this, the organization needs to
have different ways of distributing and using funds. On that basis, select the optimal plan for the process
of estimating, allocating and using funds. Develop a strict and reasonable expenditure allocation process
in order to minimize the negatives arising in the allocation process, creating favorable conditions for the
control of expenditure by competent authorities.
+ Organizing the implementation of cost estimates

Organizing the implementation of cost estimates in the organization is to ensure adequate and timely
financial resources of the organization for the university’s activities, implementation of the tasks and plans
set out. The essence of the implementation of cost estimates in universities is to organize the use of funding
sources in the most effective and economical way and to ensure compliance with state regulations.
To achieve that purpose, universities need to make payments to subjects in accordance with the
standards and norms prescribed by the State. Regularly review and adjust outdated norms that are no
longer suitable with reality, and issue new norms to ensure scientific and appropriateness to the actual
situation. Ensure the payment for departments and individuals in the university in accordance with the
approved plan and estimate.
+ Finalization of cost
* Check, control, implement openly and transparently
- Check and control financial revenue and expenditure:
Financial inspection and supervision is the inspection and supervision of the mobilization and use
of financial resources for education. One can inspect and monitor educational institutions on a regular
basis, continuously on a large scale. Through inspection and supervision, managers can quickly grasp
the operation status of educational institutions. Financial supervision helps educational institutions to
propose situational solutions as well as strategies to use resources invested in educational development
in a reasonable and effective way.
The inspection and control in the university can be done through the internal audit of the
organization, the state audit and the inspection and approval of the final settlement of the governing
body. In essence, this is a measure to maintain and improve management quality through the use and
application of regulations and norms, which are specified in financial management documents. From
there, financial discipline will be maintained and the quality of financial management will be improved.
- Implement openly and transparently:
The publicity and transparency in financial statements will increase the self-responsibility of the
university, especially the head (Principal). Autonomy and accountability are seen as two parallels in
universities. The more autonomy the university has, the greater the responsibility of the principal. The
more transparent financial management is, the more it will help the university affirm its position and brand.
* Decentralization of financial management in public universities
Budget management decentralization is considered a core content in state management
decentralization and it is a matter of great concern in reforming public sector operations in most countries
around the world. State budget laws of all countries have regulations on how to divide budgetary tasks
and powers among different levels of government in the state apparatus.
Financial management decentralization is essentially to promote the optimal efficiency of resource
mobilization. With the concept that decentralization will create revenue for the education system by
taking advantage of local tax revenue and reducing operating costs. The goal of this model is to shift the
financial burden on education from central government to local governments, community organizations
and parents. According to this model, the active participation of many organizations and social groups
will lead to an increase in resources devoted to education.
Thus, it can be seen that the overall goal of decentralization and decentralization in educational
financial management is to make the education system work more effectively, in order to meet the
innovation requirements of society. In universities, the decentralization in Financial Management can
be done in the direction of assigning contracts to organizations to increase the initiative in using funding
sources to bring about high efficiency.
6. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

*/Revenue management
Universities are charged tuition fees according to state regulations. Currently, the Ministry of
Education and Training, together with the Ministry of Finance, periodically issue guidelines on the
amount of tuition fees allowed to be collected at public universities. Under this regulation, universities
have the right to determine their own tuition rates but must report their total annual revenue to the
governing body responsible for overseeing the university’s operations. Fees may also be charged for
special services such as enrollment, testing, boarding and graduation. In addition, universities can also
enter into contracts for training, scientific research activities, and other services. Revenue arising from
this clause is tracked and collected during the contract performance and according to the schedule
of revenue estimates for the financial year. For revenues related to external funding of individuals,
organizations are usually collected during the year on the basis of signed sponsorship commitments.
Grant revenue is often the source of revenue for investment in university facilities and student support
(through scholarship funding). This revenue can exist as cash value.
- The process of complying with the university’s revenue estimates also means improving the
propaganda of policies and collection regimes to help learners clearly see their responsibilities in
fulfilling their financial obligations to the university.
In order for the implementation of revenue estimates to ensure high efficiency, the university must
perfect the organization of the financial and training apparatus. Renovate and perfect the collection
management in accordance with the estimates and the State’s regulations, urge the collection and
payment and make statistical accounting of the revenues. Strengthening professional training for staff
in charge of collection and management of the organization’s revenue; at the same time handle the
relationship between functional departments related to the organization’s collection activities.
State budget revenues are allocated to universities through the State Treasury system and paid
to universities according to the annual budget estimates prepared and approved by the universities.
The management of state budget resources is complied with the provisions of the Budget Law and
is monitored, checked and compared by the accounting system in the university and the authorities
according to the assignment and decentralization of the housing management agencies. superior country.
Tuition revenue sources comply with the state’s regulations on tuition fees in public universities [14],[15];
For public higher education institutions that self-finance all recurrent expenditures, they can determine
their tuition fees by themselves. The determination of the tuition fee must be based on the economic
and technical norms according to the correct calculation route, fully calculating the training costs [19].
Revenues from the provision of training, scientific research, consulting, and technology transfer services
shall be decided by the head of the organization on the basis of correct and sufficient calculation of
training costs; Revenues from loans, aid, grants and other revenues as prescribed by law [16].
*/Expenditure management
The development of internal spending regulations in the direction of autonomy aims to help the
university manage and use financial resources more effectively. Through the Internal Expenditure
Regulations, it will implement centralized management, unify revenue sources, maintain and encourage
the expansion of revenue sources, ensure uniform spending throughout the university, implement thrifty
spending, effective. Regulations on internal spending must be developed to increase the autonomy of
the head of the organization in financial management and spending; Create the right to take initiative
for university officials and employees to complete their tasks; It is the basis for controlling, inspecting,
monitoring and managing the use of financial resources efficiently, economically and creating fairness
and transparency.
The State stipulates a number of expenditures in establishments as follows [16]:
- For organizations that self-finance recurrent and investment expenditures; self-financed recurrent
expenditure: The salary payment must comply with the regulations of the State and the organization must
ensure its own funding. Organizations are entitled to decide the level of expenditure for professional
activities and management activities according to the financial regulations of the organization.
- For organizations that cover part of their recurrent expenditures themselves and those whose recurrent
expenditures are guaranteed by the State: The salary payment shall comply with the State’s regulations and
be funded by the State budget. Organizations may decide the level of expenditure for professional and
management activities, but the maximum cannot exceed the ceiling prescribed by the State.
- For non-recurring expenditures, expenditures shall be made in accordance with the provisions
of the State Budget Law and current laws on expenditure levels, standards, norms, regime of per diem,
conferences and seminars...
Management of university expenditures is to manage the allocation and use of financial resources
in the most reasonable, effective and economical way to ensure the stability of long-term and short-term
financial resources. Financial performance goals of the university must be based on revenue sources
to make spending plans so as to ensure sufficient revenue to cover expenses and accumulate. In order
to perform well the spending tasks, it is necessary to clearly define the expenditure items in the public
universities. For recurrent expenditures, public universities are entitled to use state budget sources and
non-business revenues of the organization to spend. Expenditure content must be for the right purposes,
in accordance with regulations, economically but must be effective and improve the training quality of
the university.
*/Implement openly and transparently
The organization of the university management apparatus in an open direction with the participation
of the University Council and related subjects. This is the fundamental difference in the financial
management apparatus in the direction of autonomy and accountability with the financial management
apparatus under the centralized management mechanism. The participation of the University Council and
related subjects in university financial management not only strengthens and strengthens the university
management apparatus, but it also helps ensure financial information become more transparent, more
responsive and have a direct connection between the university and state management agencies as well
as related organizations and parties. The construction of the financial management apparatus in an open
direction aims to use financial resources effectively to best serve the set educational goals and towards
the principle of “effective supervision”.
*/Decentralization of financial management

Currently, the decentralization in the direction of increasing autonomy for universities has created a
high-level democratic environment, helping universities to be more active in participating in the financial
decision-making process to improve quality. education. The decentralization in financial management
will promote the dynamic and creative process of each university, increase the initiative and positivity
in financial management of the university, and help save and efficient use of resources.
Decentralizing financial and budgetary management not only creates financial resources but also
motivates universities to maximize their potential.
Renovating the decentralization of financial and budgetary management in the direction of
increasing the initiative rights of ministries, branches, localities, organizations and individuals, coupled
with the rectification of discipline, discipline, thrift practice, and anti-waste fee. Expand the powers
and responsibilities of ministries, localities and budget-using organizations through regulations on
organization of making and synthesizing budget estimates, allocating estimates and adjusting estimates
when necessary; budget expenditures according to the assigned estimates, in accordance with the
progress of task performance and in accordance with policies, regimes, norms and standards; approve
the settlement of affiliated organizations. Clearly define the responsibilities of finance agencies at all
levels in presiding over the synthesis of budget estimates and organizing the implementation of the
budget. The head of the organization, the head of the finance-accounting organization must take full
responsibility before law for the management and use of the assigned budget and assets.
CONCLUSION
Managing financial activities in public universities from the point of view of autonomy, self-
responsibility on the one hand requires managers to comply with and strictly abide by the regulations
and principles in financial management, on the other hand. Others must thoroughly implement
decentralization and decentralization in management to help organizations bring into full play their
intrinsic strength in order to find and expand resources and allocate resources in the most effective
way to achieve their goals. educational goals of the university. The greater the autonomy within each
university, the greater the university’s accountability.
REFERENCES
1. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2003), Thông tư 21/2003/TTLT/BTC- BGD&ĐT-BNV ngày 24/3/2003
hướng dẫn chế độ quản lý tài chính đối với cơ sở giáo dục và đào tạo công lập hoạt động có thu, Hà Nội.
2. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2005), Đề án Đổi mới GDĐH Việt Nam giai đoạn 2006 - 2020, Hà Nội.
3. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2006), Đổi mới cơ bản và toàn diện GDĐH Việt Nam giai đoạn 2006
- 2020 đáp ứng yêu cầu CNH, HĐH đất nước, Báo cáo tại Hội nghị Hiệu trưởng các trường đại
học, cao đẳng.
4. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2010), Báo cáo tổng hợp phân tích hiện trạng về quản lý tài chính
trường đại học, Hà Nội.
5. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo, Bộ Tài chính, Bộ Lao động, Thương binh và Xã hội (2010), Thông tư
liên tịch hướng dẫn thực hiện một số điều của Nghị định số 49/2010/NĐ – CP ngày 14 tháng 5
năm 2010 của Chính phủ quy định về miễn, giảm học phí, hỗ trợ chi phí học tập và cơ chế thu, sử
dụng học phí đối với cơ sở giáo dục thuộc hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân từ năm học 2010 – 2011
đến năm học 2014 – 2015, Hà Nội.
6. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2012), Báo cáo Hội nghị Ban chỉ đạo về đổi mới cơ chế hoạt động của
tổ chức sự nghiệp công lập, Hà Nội.
7. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo, Đề án đổi mới cơ chế tài chính giáo dục giai đoạn 2009- 2014, 5/2009.
8. Bộ Tài chính (2006), Thông tư của Bộ Tài chính số 71/2006/TT-BTC ngày 09 tháng 8 năm 2006
hướng dẫn thực hiện nghị định số 43/2006/NĐ-CP ngày 25/4/2006 của Chính phủ quy định
quyền tự chủ, tự chịu trách nhiệm về thực hiện, nhiệm vụ, tổ chức bộ máy, biên chế và tài chính
đối với tổ chức sự nghiệp công lập, Hà Nội.
9. Bộ Tài chính và UNDP (2011), Kỷ yếu Hội thảo Đổi mới cơ chế tài chính đối với cơ sở giáo dục
đại học công lập, Hà Nội.
10. Các Mác và Ăng ghen (2001), Ăng ghen toàn tập, tập 48, Nxb Chính trị Quốc gia.
11. Chính phủ (2005), Nghị quyết số 14/2005/NQ-CP ngày 20 tháng 11 năm 2005 về đổi mới cơ bản
và toàn diện giáo dục đại học Việt Nam giai đoạn 2006-2010, Hà Nội.
12. Chính phủ (2006), Nghị định số 43/2006/NĐ-CP ngày 25 tháng 4 năm 2006 quy định quyền tự
chủ, tự chịu trách nhiệm về thực hiện nhiệm vụ, tổ chức bộ máy, biên chế và tài chính đối với tổ
chức sự nghiệp công lập, Hà Nội.
13. Chính phủ (2012), Quyết định số 711/QĐ-TTg phê duyệt chiến lược phát triển giáo dục 2011 -2020,
Hà Nội.
14. Chính phủ (2010), Nghị định số 49/2010/NĐ-Cp ngày 14 tháng 5 năm 2010 quy định về miễn
giảm học phí, hỗ trợ chi phí học tập và cơ chế thu, sử dụng học phí đối với cơ sở giáo dục thuộc
hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân từ năm học 2010 – 2011 đến năm học 2014-2015, Hà Nội.
15. Chính phủ (2015), Nghị định 86/2015/NĐ-CP ngày 02 tháng 10 năm 2015 quy định về cơ chế
thu, quản lý học phí đối với cơ sở giáo dục thuộc hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân và chính sách miễn,
giảm học phí, hỗ trợ chi phí học tập từ năm học 2015 - 2016 đến năm học 2020 – 2021
16. Chính phủ (2015), Nghị định 16/2015/NĐ-CP ngày 14 tháng 2 năm 2015 quy định cơ chế tự chủ
của tổ chức sự nghiệp công lập.
17. Phan Văn Kha (2017), “Phân cấp quản lý dịch vụ theo hướng tăng quyền tự chủ và chịu trách
nhiệm xã hội của các cơ sở giáo dục”, kỷ yếu hội thảo Khoa học quốc tế Phát triển năng lực cán
bộ quản lý giáo dục Việt nam trong bối cảnh cách mạng công nghiệp 4.0, NXB ĐHKTQD, 2017.
18. Phạm Đỗ Nhật Tiến (2013), Tự chủ và trách nhiệm giải trình của các cơ sở giáo dục đại học,
Giáo dục đại học Việt Nam – Những vấn đề về chất lượng và quản lý, sách chuyên khảo, NXB
ĐHQGHN.
19. Quốc hội, Luật số 34/2018/QH14 Luật sửa đổi bổ sung một số điều của Luật Giáo dục đại học.
20. Trường Đại học Kinh tế Quốc dân (2002), Giáo trình Kinh tế Chính trị học, NXB Thống kê, Hà Nội.
Tài liệu nước ngoài

21. Alan, R. (1979), Public Finance in Theory and Practice, 6th edition, Weidenfeld and Nicolson
Publisher, London, the United Kingdoms.
22. Ezara Solomon (1963), “The theory financial management”, New York and London Columbia
University Press.
23. Holley, U. (2007), Public Finance in Theory and Pracetice, 2nd edition, South –Western College
Publisher, Califonia, the USA.
24. Malcolm, P.&Eric, M.,(2005), Financial Management and Control in Higher Education, Routledge
Publisher, New York, USA.
25. Marianne, C.&Lesley, A.,(2000), Managing Finance and Resources in Education, Transaction
Publisher, New Brunswich, NJ, USA.
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN FINANCIAL AUTONOMY
AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION
AND IMPLICATION FOR VIETNAM
Nguyen Thi Huong, Nguyen Thi Hue
Abstract: Education is a part of the social structure and has a significant influence on the development of
each country. Education investment has definite targets and must achieve specific requests. Financial resources
exert an important and direct impact on educational development. Normally, countries with mechanisms and
policies to mobilize a lot of financial resources to invest in education build their own developed education
systems and produce educational outputs which are of high quality and able to fulfill more and more demanding
requirements of the labor market. Coordinating or allocating more financial resources for a particular discipline
or a level of education will help that discipline or level of study develop, which creates synergies to promote the
development of the entire education system. Studying and applying international lessons in financial management
of higher education in autonomy in Vietnam will help schools improve financial management efficiency to boost
their development. The article mentions some experience in financial management and financial autonomy of
some countries around the world, namely China, Thailand, Japan, and the United States, based on which, lessons
learned can be apply to state-owned universities in Vietnam.
Keywords: financial management, financial autonomy, higher education finance; experience of financial
management.
1. INTRODUCTION
University autonomy is becoming a popular trend all over the world. Autonomy creates motivation
for the sustainable and effective development of higher education institutions, contributing to improving
education quality. University autonomy is implemented on all levels: academic autonomy, human
resource autonomy, financial autonomy. However, financial autonomy is still a problem that needs to
be researched because of the importance of financial resources in each school. Expanding financial
autonomy will help schools find, exploit and make more efficient use of resources. Furthermore, it
supports mobilizing and diversifying revenues, reducing the tuition revenue rate, increasing revenues
from training activities, services, scientific research activities, collecting from donors to share budget
burdens, and creating competitive motivation among universities.
In most countries, the government grants directly the largest source of funding for university
operations or indirectly. These financial resources are granted for regular expenses, scientific research,
campus construction, equipment procurement. Besides the budget, universities also have other significant
sources of revenue from tuition fees, training service contracts, loans, and other income.
Vietnam is also on the path to financial autonomy. However, currently, implementing financial
autonomy still has many obstacles. Therefore, the article studies some countries’ experiences and
proposes strategies to implement autonomy in Vietnam better. It will contribute to promoting a growing
education to meet the requirements of international integration trends.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
By studying the experts’ experiences in financial management and autonomy in higher education,
this study proposes some lessons that can be applied to Vietnam. The proposal aims to improve the
efficiency of financial management in universities to meet their development goals.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
The article uses traditional research methods such as synthesis, interpretation, analysis, and
statistics based on secondary sources from some countries’ financial management and autonomy
experience. Then generalizing and combining with personal perspectives to suggest lessons that can
be applied for Vietnamese universities to bring high efficiency, contributing to improving the education
and training quality.
4. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE
*/ Experience of China
Universities in China operate under the Education Law, Higher Education Law, Teachers Law,
Vocational Education Law and Education Promotion Law.
The State bases on the needs, the priority and features of regions to support their development
of higher education. The State guarantees the freedom for scientific research activities, literary and
artistic composition and other cultural activities in universities under law. At schools, scientific research
activities and other cultural activities must also comply with the provisions of law.
The government budget allocated to universities is based on the number of students. Universities
receive additional grants for scientific research through a competitive mechanism. For scientific
activities, the Chinese government invests funds for research universities to create products. After the
product is completed, the proceeds from the school product sale will be retained by 30%, the rest paid to
the research team. The state does not recover investment for research activities [8].
The level of government funding for universities is different. Universities selected by the
government receive more funding than the rest of the school group.
The out-of-budget revenue from university tuition fees is legalized under the Higher Education
Law of 1998. The university determines tuition rates according to the principle of sharing among the
state, the university, and learners. The government budget pays tuition fees to students who are subject
to the policy.
In China, higher education tuition rates are determined based on a certain percentage of the annual
student training costs. Different regions, different majors and different school rankings result in different
tuition rates. The proportion of tuition fees in annual student training expenses is jointly decided by
the National Education Commission, the National Planning Commission and the Ministry of Finance
of China. Currently, the tuition fees of higher education institutions in China account for no more than
25% of the annual student training costs, the specific percentage can be adjusted based on the economic
development and acceptability of the people.
The provincial people’s government is the unit that approves the higher education tuition rates. The
provincial education management agency makes the proposal, then the provincial price management
agency and the financial management agency base on the development, teaching conditions and
acceptability of people in the area for approval. After the proposal of tuition fees is submitted and
approved by the provincial people’s government, the official tuition fee rate is put into effect by the
education management agency. In case tuition fee rate has to be adjusted, it is also done by these three
agencies. The plan to adjust the tuition fee is based on the price increase and the income of people in the
area and is also submitted to the provincial people’s government for approval.
For private schools operating under the schools proposal China’s Private Education Promotion
Law, types of fees and rates of fees for students of different training levels and then submitted to the
relevant management agency for approval and publication. In 2002, the National Development and
Reform Commission, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Education promulgated the “Public
education fee collection regime”. This regime is applied to all kinds of schools of different levels
throughout China. The education management agency, the price management agency and the financial
management agency of the province or city or district must approve the public content on the cost of
education services.
With the policy mentioned earlier, higher education in China is developing strongly. By far, the
number of university students in China has increased by 300% and is now outpacing major powers such
as the US, India, Russia and Japan. China’s prestigious universities are rising to compete with those of
the West.
The government of China implements financial autonomy to encourage universities to diversify

their sources of income. In addition to state funding packages, universities also seek private revenue
from alumni, social grants, scientific research and tuition fees to facilitate their activities. The reduction
in state budget support allows universities to actively seek revenues and improve the efficiency of
spending management.
*/Experience of Thailand
Higher education management in Thailand in the early 1970s was highly centralized and bureaucratic.
Higher education operates under state control. The Ministry of Education, as the state management
agency for education in general and higher education in particular, has the exclusive right in formulating
higher education policies, setting up training programs for higher education institutions, and distributing
and managing resources for higher education. After 1970, the management of higher education has
experienced a significant change. Educational management gradually promoted the autonomous role
of higher education institutions and entities really involved in higher education activities. This change
was due to a change in awareness of the coordination relationship among the State, the market and
educational and training institutions.
In 1972, a specialized management agency for higher education was established, which is the
Ministry of Universities. The Ministry of Universities had the function of exercising centralized control
over policies, finance and management of higher education. It supported and coordinated the relationship
among training institutions. It appointed principals and deans of state-owned universities. In addition,
the Ministry was in charge of approving training programs of schools and supervising general enrollment
in higher education institutions. It was also responsible for over 80% of the university’s revenue.
Thailand started implementing the university autonomy mechanism in the early 1990s with the
expectation that universities can improve the quality of education and reduce tuition fees.
The government funds higher education directly based on specific policy frameworks. The
government budget grants students through scholarships and household income-based loan programs.
The universities themselves set tuition fees. Public schools often have much lower tuition fees than
private schools.
In Thailand, autonomous universities receive the state budget through a package allocation system,
and are independent in determining the management mechanism and personnel. The schools can decide
on its own the salary rates and human resources. They receive funding from the state but operate out
of the government bureaucracy and are under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Autonomy
helps schools increase revenue, but it does not help reduce learning costs.
Autonomy of a school is reflected in the mobilization and allocation of financial resources or the
recruitment/fire of teachers, and the valuation system of autonomy and responsibility of schools and
teachers for learning outcomes. Thailand allows school principals to manage budgets, but they also have
an evaluation system to ensure schools are accountable.
*/Experience of Japan
The higher education system of Japan has changed drastically since 2004. Higher education in
Japan comprise 3 levels: bachelor, master and doctorate with a training period of 4 years, 2 years and
5 years. Universities are classified into three categories: national universities, state-owned universities
and private universities. National universities are established in almost all localities as local research
centers. These institutions operate as corporations or companies with a high degree of autonomy, helping
improve the quality of education and research activities. The government allows national universities
to become independent, with a high degree of autonomy in deciding on personnel and budget issues.
State-owned universities are established and managed by local governments. These schools operate to
provide education opportunities for local people. Private universities in Japan account for about 80% of
the total number of universities in the country. These schools play an important role in the educational
development of Japan.
The state budget granted for higher education in Japan includes essential expenditures, competitive
budgets for faculty research activities, financial support for students.
Japan applies a policy of budget allocation based on the competition among universities through
funding sources. Therefore, universities are required to speed up reforms and develop projects to apply
for funding from the government of Japan.
The budget allocation to universities is implemented as a one-time grant, which includes salaries of
staff. The government allocates the budget based on the medium-term plans developed by the schools.
With the allocation, schools have the initiative in using the funding according to the approved plan.
In the process of autonomy, the regular support budget is reduced, forcing universities to cut costs
and reduce payrolls. Instead, funding packages are geared toward specific goals. According to Nguyen
Trong Hoai, from 2004 to 2009, the ratio of government funding to total university revenue decreased.
Revenue from fees accounts for 60 percent of private universities’ revenues, while government funding
accounts for only 12 percent [7].
For national universities, tuition fees are considered their own sources of income. From 2004,
Universities have been allowed to decide on the level of revenue to ensure sufficient budget, but the
increase in tuition fees can not exceed 10% compared to the government regulation. The government of
Japan sets a standard rate of tuition fee.
In fact, the tuition rates of universities rarely fluctuate. Because once a university increases
tuition fees, it means that the regular budget to support operations is reduced. Therefore, state-owned
universities keep tuition fees at the level set by the government. Universities are not autonomous in
deciding on salaries for staff, they have to comply with government regulations instead.
In implementing autonomy, the regular operating budget is often reduced, forcing universities to
cut down on costs and reduce staff. In fact, increasing tuition fees autonomously has almost no impact.
*/Experience of the US
American education is the federal concern, the responsibility of each state and the function of each
locality. Management responsibility is attached to the financial autonomy of each state.
Outstanding features of the education system in the United States are the decentralization of
management, the democracy in implementing educational policies, the diversity of types of schools and
training methods, and the extensive application of the advances of modern science and technology in
management, teaching and learning activities.
The highlight of this country’s education and training development strategy is that they pay
great attention to the accreditation of higher and postgraduate education. Because of its diversity and
flexibility, along with the outstanding development of science and technology, the education system is
considered having very high accreditation quality. In the US, there is an obvious distinction between
accredited universities and degree/diploma mills. It is popular belief that being accredited means
quality is guaranteed, government funding is accessible (financial aid and research projects), students in
accredited institutions can transfer between each other, and build trust among employers. Non-accredited
schools will not be affiliated with accredited schools and students from non-accredited schools do not
have an advantage when looking for work.
The United States is one of the leading developed countries in the world both in terms of economy
and education. Education in the US is associated with the financial mechanism to create high-quality
training outputs. The budget spent on education in the US is very large, accounting for over 91%.
Funding for higher education is allocated in three levels: federal government, state government,
and local government. Federal government funding is spent on student support and scientific research.
Universities that want to participate in financial aid programs will have to comply with requirements set
by the federal government.
The allocation of state funds to schools is based on the number of inputs (students enrolled, number
of faculty, staff) and the performance of the university (completion rate of their course, completion rate
of credit, completion rate of degrees) [5].
However, in the current context, the allocation of budgets based on the number of inputs is said to
be no longer appropriate. The shift to activity-based budget allocation is less intensely pressurized and
more mixed. The states are the public units responsible for allocating funds to American schools, but
about a quarter of states have switched to activity-based allocation, which, however, is only a fraction
of the total funding.
In the U.S., tuition is determined at the state or local level. There is a significant difference in
tuition fees between public and private universities and among regional institutes. Universities provide
student grants based on financial demand and their academic results.
With the diversity of education levels associated with quality, there is a diverse correlation among
funding sources: suitable for most students’ financial capacity through many different funding methods.
This includes student loans, grants, school scholarships, paid work-study programs, state grants and, of
course, family financial support.
5. THE LESSONS FOR VIETNAM
Nowadays, financial autonomy is becoming an inevitable trend of countries. Depending on the
economy and culture of each country, there are different ways of autonomy. Therefore, it is not possible
to copy a financial management model of any country, and we can only select and learn their superiorities
to apply to universities in Vietnam.
Based on the experiences of some countries in the world and the region on financial management
in higher education, the author draws on six solutions that can be referenced for Vietnam as follows:
First, it is necessary to continue to maintain budget supported for public universities.
In fact, the priority of the State in terms of funding is the hallmark of most public higher education
systems of the countries. This role of the State is rooted in economic, political and social circumstances.
In rapidly increasing social demands, it is vital to change and strengthen the financial base of universities.
The state budget continues to play a key role in maintaining the foundation for higher education, ensuring
strategic development purposes such as constructing infrastructure, training teachers, investing in key
schools, and ensuring social equality.
Second, the Government needs to create a legal mechanism for universities to expand their revenues.
Along with the state budget, countries pay close attention to exploiting non-state budget financial
sources to meet the spending needs of schools. Off-budget sources are mobilized in many ways and at
different degrees depending on each country’s context; and its proportion in the total financial resources
is different among schools, disciplines and groups of disciplines.
All countries have policies to encourage diversification of financial sources for investment
in education and training generally and higher education in particularly. Financial diversification is
an important element of the strategy to improve the financial capacities of universities. In addition
to encouraging the diversification of financial sources, the State also promote initiative of training
institutions in the process of using and allocating financial resources. The State is responsible for central
and macro management based on promulgated legal documents.
Third, the Government needs to renovate the method of funding from government budget
sources to universities.
In the context of increasing demands and limited financial resources, to improve quality, the
renovation of the budget allocation mechanism is considered very important. The method of government
funding from the state budget for schools is mostly based on student inputs, or student outputs. To
become more effective, the funding formula to support the core budget for schools needs to be clearly
established, considering standard costs across different disciplines, different curricula and even the sizes
of training that varies among schools.
The allocation of the State budget to institutions must be associated with the efficiency of using
previous financial resources. The government needs to change the budget support for all academic
disciplines to only support for priority industries, associated with the needs of using human resources
of the state. Funds are provided to the institutions according to the target program to be able to monitor
effectively.
Fourth, it is necessary to make bidding for training funding from the government budget.
Budget resources will be allocated by the state to training institutions with quality, efficiency, and
reasonable costs. This will promote healthy competition among training institutions in accessing the
state budget.
Fifth, it is essential to have appropriate and incentive tax policies to encourage investment.
Almost countries also use different financial instruments such as taxes to encourage investors to
contribute to building schools and provide scholarships for students.
State-owned higher education institutions seek and expand income sources through training services,
technology transfer, scientific research, and policy consultations with companies and enterprises due to
available advantages in terms of human resources and facilities. Mobilizing resources from organizations,
individuals, alumni, and businesses helps support the school’s training activities. To develop this resource,
one of the important contents is tax incentives for organizations, individuals and businesses when they
invest. Therefore, it is necessary to have a preferential and appropriate tax regime and regime, creating
favorable conditions for businesses and individuals when they invest in training and scientific research
activities of the university.
Sixth, it is necessary to increase autonomy right in mobilizing and using financial resources to
reduce the burden on the government budget.
The assignment of financial autonomy should be associated with academic autonomy and
personnel autonomy and synchronization in the implementation of the autonomy mechanisms of
state-owned universities.
CONCLUSION
In the context of globalization and international integration, state-owned higher education
institutions that want to survive and develop are required to have strong financial resources, effective
management mechanisms and use of those sources. Through research from some countries’ experience,
it has been shown that universities not only rely on state budget support but also have to make full use
of their internal resources to seek and exploit external resources as well as improve the efficiency of
financial resources use to develop school activities.
Based on the experience of China, Thailand, Japan and the US on financial management of higher
education, including the allocation of the state budget, the policies on tuition fees, the policy on seeking
external resources, state budget, as well as the use of resources in higher education, the author draws
necessary lessons for Vietnam’s state-owned in the ways to achieve the most effective financial management.
REFERENCES
Vietnamese References
1. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2005), Đề án Đổi mới GDĐH Việt Nam giai đoạn 2006-2020, Hà Nội.
2. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2006), Đổi mới cơ bản và toàn diện GDĐH Việt Nam giai đoạn 2006-
2020 đáp ứng yêu cầu CNH, HĐH đất nước, Báo cáo tại Hội nghị Hiệu trưởng các trường đại
học, cao đẳng.
3. Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2010), Báo cáo tổng hợp phân tích hiện trạng về quản lý tài chính
trường đại học, Hà Nội.
4. Bộ Tài chính và UNDP (2011), Kỷ yếu Hội thảo Đổi mới cơ chế tài chính đối với cơ sở giáo dục
đại học công lập, Hà Nội.
5. Đặng Quốc Bảo, Nguyễn Thị Huệ (2018), Năm điều bàn luận về thực hiện quyền tự chủ và giải
trình trách nhiệm của các nhà trường, Hội thảo Tự chủ trong giáo dục đại học những vấn đề đặt
ra, Liên hiệp các hội khoa học và kỹ thuật Việt Nam, Hà Nội, tháng 9.2018.
6. https: //tcnn.vn/news/detail/45861/ Trao- quyền -tự -chủ- đại- học- của- Nhật- Bản- và- kinh-
nghiệm- đối- với- Việt- Nam
7. http: //nhan dan.com.vn//dien-dan-giao-duc/tu-chu-tai-chinh-bai-hoc-tu-dai-hoc-cua-nuoc-ngoai:332672
8. Phạm Đỗ Nhật Tiến (2018), Kinh nghiệm quốc tế và một số vấn đề đặt ra trong việc thể chế hóa
tự chủ đại học ở nước ta, Hội thảo Tự chủ trong giáo dục đại học những vấn đề đặt ra, Liên hiệp
các hội khoa học và kỹ thuật Việt Nam, Hà Nội, tháng 9.2018.
9. Phùng Xuân Nhạ và các cộng sự (2012), Đổi mới cơ chế tài chính hướng đến nền giáo dục đại
học tiên tiến, tự chủ, Kỷ yếu hội thảo Đổi mới cơ chế tài chính đối với giáo dục đại học, Ủy ban
tài chính – ngân sách của Quốc hội, Bộ Tài chính UNDP, Hà Nội, tháng 11/2012
English References
10. Alan, R. (1979), Public Finance in Theory and Practice, 6th edition, Weidenfeld and Nicolson
Publisher, London, the United Kingdoms.
11. Ezara Solomon (1963), “The theory financial management”, New York and London Columbia
University Press.
12. Fengliang, L (2012), “Financing higher education: lessons from China”, Irish Educational Studies.
13. Malcolm, P.&Eric, M.,(2005), Financial Management and Control in Higher Education,
Routledge Publisher, New York, USA.
THE EFFECT OF ACCREDITATION ON THE PERCEPTION
OF LEADERS AND LECTURERS ABOUT QUALITY TRAINING
Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc, Le Huy Tung
(Hanoi University of Science and Technology)
Pham Thi Thanh Hai
Abstract: Accreditation has served as a viable means of monitoring and legitimizing university quality,
accountability, and improved quality training in the international integration context. Based on qualitative
research methods, domestic and foreign publications have been studied from 2000 to now and Semi-structured were
conducted with 20 leaders and lecturers at Hanoi University of Science and Technology (HUST) who were directly
involved in the accreditation program process. The study results showed that the perception of educational quality
accreditation according to the respondents of leaders and lecturers is influenced by several factors including
strategic policy changes, continuous improvement programs, and continuous improvement in quality teaching.
Keywords: accreditation; effect studies, quality improvement; quality teaching; programme.
1. INTRODUCTION
The United States Congressional Research Service recorded educational quality accreditation with
a history of formation and development in the United States in 1905, at a time when higher education
was facing many problems. Difficult problems, higher education institutions cannot control the quality
and training does not meet the needs of society, accreditation in higher education developed as a part of
the evolution of the American higher education system (Congressional Research Service, 2017). Over
100 years of development, accrediting activity has made appropriate improvements and is considered
a useful tool to ensure the quality of education. Accreditation is described as a public affirmation of
educational quality, intended to recognize that certain standards have been met in training (Campbell
et al., 2000). Accreditation and its future growth is expected to be very significant all over the world
and has become a common trend of education systems in the process of global integration, including
Vietnam (Nguyen Huu Cuong, 2017).
In 2005, the concept of “educational quality accreditation” was officially brought into the Vietnam
Education Law in chapter 1, article 17, and then Amended Law in 2009. 2012, 2018 and 2019. By law,
institutional accreditation is compulsory for all higher education institutions with a five-year cycle and if
not granted may have the consequence of stopping recruiting students (Law on Higher Education, Article
49, Clause 2). Vietnam has made many efforts to form a system of quality assurance and accreditation,
after over 16 years of official implementation, the system of quality assurance and accreditation of higher
education has achieved initial important achievements (Le and Nguyen, 2019). The results of higher
education accreditation have helped the institution, programme to identify strengths and weaknesses and
then have plans to improve quality based on accreditation score (Ta, 2015). The results of accreditation
are publicly announced for the society to know and monitor (Education Law, 2005).
The Ministry of Education and Training advocates encouraging institution to register for educational
quality accreditation according to regional and international standards. Among the sets of foreign
standards for accrediting higher education quality, AUN-QA (ASEAN University Network - Quality
Assurance) that covers 11 standards and 50 criteria is the most widely used in Vietnam. The Ministry
of Education and Training has also standardized this set of standards into a set of national accreditation
standards, promulgating regulations on standards for assessing the quality of programme at higher
education levels (Circular No. 04/2016/TT-BGDĐT). According to statistics of the Vietnam Education
Quality Management Agency there are 241 programs that have been accredited of five accrediting
Agencies in Vietnam and 173 programs have been accredited by the AUN-QA standards until July 31th,
2021 (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020).
Hanoi University of Science and Technology (HUST) became an associate member of the AUN-
QA network in 2015. Since then, HUST has focused on promoting the accreditation and 12 programs
accredited according to AUN-QA standards from March 2013 to March 2021. The results of educational
quality accreditation have confirmed the HUST’s prestige and position and its integration into the global
education system. This article studies the effect of accreditation on the perception of leaders and lecturers
about training quality.
In this section, we provide a detailed investigation of the effect of accreditation on the perception of
leaders and lecturers about training quality:
2.1 The influence of accreditation on the formation of quality culture, staff perception of higher
education institution
Lemaitre (2004) researched on the development of external quality assurance schemes and showed
evidence of a positive impact of external quality assessment on quality culture. Hedrick, et al, (2010)
in the study of the influence of accreditation on the formation of quality culture and the change from
awareness to action about quality culture. The perception of leaders and lecturers, who are directly
involved in quality accreditation activities, plays a very important directional role in organizing teaching
activities and improving training quality (Johnson, 2012).
The international interest in accreditation is reflected in the UNESCO Global Forum on
International Quality Assurance, Accreditation and the Recognition of Qualifications (UNESCO, 2008
and Stella, 2006), which presented the accreditation process plays an essential role in quality education
and professional development change from awareness to action about quality culture. The reports
identify the quality improvement problems and processes, the effects on quality, and the formation
of a quality culture (Alsete, 2004; Hedrick, et al., 2010; Jackson, et al, 2010; Boonen et al., 2013;
Palardy & Rumberger, 2008). Accordingly, many studies have been conducted to evaluate the influence
of accreditation on the formation of a quality culture in which everybody in the organization, not just
the quality controllers, is responsible for quality and understands the meaning of what needs to be done
and tries to do things right the first time and every time (Woodhouse & Meade, 2000; Lemaitre, 2004).
In Vietnam, building a quality culture in each institution has been encouraged by the Ministry of
Education and Training (MoET) along with the introduction of a new approach to higher education,
quality assurance and accreditation after nearly 20 years of development. T.H. Pham (2018) reviewing
related literature on the impacts of external quality assurance has identified certain positive impacts and
presented three key contributions of external quality assurance include a cultural change in management
and evaluation, improvements as a result of external recommendations, and engagement of various
stakeholders in quality conversation.
Most of the earlier studies in quality management focused on quality accreditation activities
have greatly influenced the perception of lecturers and leaders. The reports show that lecturers and
administrators are aware of the importance of quality in higher education, and are aware of the roles and
obligations of each individual in contributing to the quality of education. Since then, a quality culture
has been formed and quality accreditation is considered an effective tool to maintain and improve quality
(Hartle, 2012). Studies have analyzed the effects of quality assurance as leaders have changed strategic
policies, specific quality policies, monitoring and evaluation tools, and improved teaching and learning.
Yet, all members such as leaders, management staff, lecturers, staff and students operate in accordance
with the values, standards, processes and commitments.
2.2 Quality accreditation activities help leaders and lecturers review the curriculum and plan to
improve the quality of teaching and learning
A study by Nguyen and Tong (2019) decribes quality accreditation activities make leaders
and lecturers review the curriculum, plan to improve the quality of teaching and learning. Lecturers
participate in improving the training program and the activities of the Faculty/Institute such as improving
English proficiency, professional qualifications, testing and evaluation methods & updating the latest
developments in the field of science and technology. In addition, the lecturers asked the higher education
institution leaders to create conditions to learn new things and integrate into the international educational
environment; Paying more attention to the “pedagogical philosophy” and methods of testing and
assessing learning outcomes that are appropriate to the training industry/speciality. In the same opinion,
Le and Trinh (2018) and Lucy et al., (2020) state that lecturers presente their wish to participate in the
development of human resource training strategies, foster the development of individual professional
capacity, participate in training and certification.
After accreditation or external assessment, opinions of employers, alumni and students show
that the need of improvements in student competency after graduation. Harvey (2006) make the point
that accreditation has a good influence on the formation of training quality. Especially, improving the
capacity of lecturers (Lucy et al., 2020) and Harriet (2020) considered lecturers play an important role
in the process of implementing quality accreditation to ensure academic integrity and self-regulation
are aware of improving their professional and professional qualifications, foreign languages, and
informatics to integrate into the international educational environment. They also revealed quality
accreditation activities have an impact on higher education institutions: improve teaching and learning
records, increase the prestige of education development centers, stimulate professional development,
encourage cooperation between lecturers and educational institutions, strengthen scholarship and
research in teaching and learning. This research showed that the effect of accreditation has been higher
than the number of lecturers who have achieved teaching quality and/or professional recognition prior
to accreditation. Notably, 58% reported that they mentioned relevant changes to learning incentives
to meet goals, and lecturers updated their specialized knowledge and social development trends. The
results of scientific research are used to improve teaching and learning. Being recognized as a quality
accreditation, learning and teaching is an important strategy for higher education institutions, lecturers
and students understand the importance of change for better teaching quality and learning outcomes to
meet the quality standards (Sabrina, 2016; Gynnild, 2017).
In order to enhance the quality of student learning, constantly improve the quality of teaching, a
good lecturer can help his students be more successful (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2017). Lecturers are
high-level intellectuals who are the key force determining the quality through the direct transmission
of ideas, orientations, knowledge and good life values to students - the young generation. To prepare
for the accreditation, lecturers often have to participate in many discussions or training seminars on
building curriculum, developing and adjusting output standards, updating modern teaching methods,
and assessing international standards. This will help lecturers improve their professional qualifications,
quality cultural awareness, and be responsible for contributing to the quality of training programs. In
addition, the author affirms that post-accreditation activities often require teachers to periodically update
their knowledge and improve skills to help teachers regularly receive professional training (Nguyen
&Tong, 2019).
Indeed, higher education institutions have a mechanism to encourage lecturers to write articles
published in journals/scientific conference proceedings, statistics on articles increase year by year in
some criteria of the set of evaluation criteria. Besides, lecturers guide students in scientific research
and implementation of scientific research projects, linking and implementing projects, projects and
topics. The results of scientific research are used to also improve teaching and learning (Gift and Bell-
Hutchinson, 2007; Carr, Hamilton, & Meade, 2005).
2.3. Leaders and lecturers make plans to overcome weaknesses to improve training programmes.
Outcomes scores of program accreditation status have significant influence on many aspects of
higher education institutions (Pham, T.H, 2018). It helps improve the training programmes, then its
policies, processes and core functional areas, such as research, academics, teaching-learning and so on
(Dattey et al,. 2017).
In many countries, accreditation, a powerful tool of quality assurance, is used to assess the national
system of higher education, involvement in accreditation is believed to be beneficial and considered
an important element in quality improvement activities (Braithwaite et al., 2006; Cuong Huu Nguyen
và Mahsood Shah, 2020). When discussing improving training programmes, Johnson (2017) analyzed
the impact of education quality accreditation according to the AUN-QA standards set on the quality of
programs in three countries, Vietnam, the Philippines and Indonesia, it was concluded that the standards
have been improving the quality of programs. The research based on the evaluation results using the
average value (medians) of each criterion in the set of criteria from 2007 to 2012 and pointed out that the
results of the evaluation of programs follow the daily trend. This improvement can be attributed to the
fact that the educational institutions have clearly understood the contents of the standard and especially
have improved the quality of training programs and made many adjustments in the training process to
satisfy stakeholders and meet the AUN-QA standard set of standards.
CHEA (2010) emphasized the value of accreditation and its benefits to stakeholders. “Accreditation
Status” means that an institution or programme has satisfied the standards/minimum requirements. In other
words, students and parents gain confidence that the degree has some value or recognition. This results in
improvement of student success, i.e. attainment of learning outcomes, graduation rates, and better career
progression through transfer of credits, and enhancing employability. Stakeholders gain benefited from the
analysis and information of higher education institutions (Sinha and Subramanian, 2013).
An accreditation process impacts quality of faculty, curriculum and assessment of learning
outcomes (Johnson, 2017). Strengths and weaknesses of higher education institutions are observed for
initiating appropriate actions, leaders plan to improve the weaknesses such as attainment of learning
outcomes, graduation rates, student support, and better career progression through transfer of credits,
and enhancing employability (Pham and Nguyen, 2020; Le et al,. 2017). Thus, the accreditation is not
only to ensure the school is accountable to stakeholders for the quality of its training, the continuous
improvement of the program as well as the quality of other activities (Godwin, 2011;Vincenzi et al,.
2018; Buwalda et al,. 2018; Gerbic & Kranenburg, 2003; Burris, 2008; Nguyen et al,. 2017).
Numerous researchers have demonstrated that the perception of accreditation according to the
respondents is influenced by several factors including strategic policy changes, continuous improvement
programs, and continuous improvement in quality teaching. Lecturers are aware of the importance of
the lifelong learning and development, which requires teachers to constantly improve not only their
professional skills but also to continuously update their skills and knowledge of foreign languages,
information technology, and economic - political - social that are able to adapt to the continuous
development of digital technology.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
The purpose of this study is to show the influence of accreditation on the perception of leaders and
lecturers on the desire to adjust higher education policy, continuously improve training programs. The
research question is “What effect does higher education (HE) accreditation have on the perception of
leaders and lecturers at Hanoi University of Science and Technology?’’.
Based on the main research question and the literature review, the research team has developed the
content related to the problem including: (i) The influence of accreditation on the formation of quality
culture, staff perception of higher education institutions, (ii) Quality accreditation activities help leaders
and lecturers to review the curriculum and plan to improve the quality of teaching and learning (iii)
Leaders and lecturers make plans to overcome weaknesses to improve training programs.
Data collection methods: The authors researched domestic and international documents, published
from 2000 to the present, related to higher education accreditation and Vietnam’s accreditation activities,
results of accreditation of programs at Hanoi University of Science and Technology.
In addition, the authors interviewed 20 leaders and lecturers (06 leaders and 14 lecturers) of Hanoi
University of Science and Technology. This study uses semi-structured interviews because they are
suitable for qualitative research (Punch and Oancea, 2014) and allow to find things that cannot be easily
observed such as feelings, thoughts, ideas decisions and behaviors (Patton, 2015).
The population for this study is leaders and lecturers from schools and the sample for the study
consisted of 20 leaders and lecturers that took part in assessment of AUN-QA (see Appendix A). A study
questionnaire was developed to garner information from the teacher participants. The questionnaire
included 10 questions on the School Accreditation Process to determine the effect of accreditation on
the perception of leaders and lecturers about quality training (see Appendix B) concerning the influence
of accreditation on the formation of quality culture, staff perception of higher education institutions,
quality accreditation activities help leaders and lecturers to review the curriculum and plan to improve
the quality of teaching and learning and leaders and lecturers make plans to overcome weaknesses to
improve training programs. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim and analyzed using
qualitative thematic analysis

The purpose of this qualitative research was to investigate how leaders and lecturers’ perception
take part in the accreditation process at HUST. Some key findings from the survey are pointed out below:
HUST currently has 36 undergraduate programmes. There are 15 undergraduate programmes
accredited by AUN-QA and CTI, 12 undergraduate programmes according to AUN-QA at programmes,
version 3.0. In addition, 8 programmes are prepared to be assessed in September and December, 2021
by AUN-QA. All 20 leaders and lecturers that are chosen participated in activities of acreditation at
program level according to the third version of AUN-QA criteria.
4.1. The influence of accreditation on the formation of quality culture, staff perception of higher
education institutions
During and after the accreditation, the formation and development of a quality culture is both
natural and can be built proactively, with a plan, with a time of evaluation to change and create new
values in building culture quality. Consequently, Every lecturer knows how their work according to the
plan improves and can be implemented with the self-discipline. It helps to improve the quality of HE
through improving its policies, processes and core functional areas, such as research, academic, teaching-
learning. From there, quality culture is oriented towards quality assurance and quality improvement,
while accreditation activities are aimed at continuous improvement, so participating in accreditation
activities creates the basis for building the quality culture.
Most participants agreed that the culture of quality presents common beliefs, values, attitudes and
expectations related to certain behaviors of the people belonging to the university. For example, some
lecturers stated:
All innovation starts with awareness. The purpose of quality accreditation is to continuously improve
quality, when the leaders and lecturers are determined to innovate, a culture of quality is surely
formed in the school and university. Accreditation activities are based on indicators and standards,
therefore, this information help staff better understand their work and those of stakeholders.
I have taken part in the process of accreditation, I realise that quality accreditation activities form
culture of quality of school and university. Accreditation needs to be done right from the beginning
and right at all times, everyone participates in the implementation of the planned goals with the
spirit of initiative and self-discipline. So, the role of leaders in building and developing a culture of
quality in schools is very important.
Many participants agreed that accreditation outcome scores effect the perception of lecturers:
Accreditation is a new activity, which requires a lot of time and efforts. Therefore, it is necessary
to form a positive and self-conscious attitude towards accreditation activities for lecturers. This
attitude is formed first of all from perception but that is only a necessary and sufficient condition
for the bringing to the school.
The awareness of the position and importance of educational quality assurance activities of the
Board of President, leaders of units as well as individual lecturers and staff in the whole university
was improved, thereby creating consensus and determination to successfully fulfill the requirements
of quality assurance to meet the requirements of society.
After participating in the accreditation process, lecturers’ awareness also changed compared to
before participating in accreditation. Leaders’ perception of the importance of quality accreditation in
education and its impact on quality improvement. Building a quality culture in HUST has been an
interest of not only by the Board of President but also staff, leaders and lecturers.
It can be said that the quality accreditation activities that have been implemented in the past time
have created the strong change in the awareness of the management team. Moreover, the requirements
in the standards of the program and the results of accreditation have provided the management staff
to make decisions about quality management.
4.2. Quality accreditation activities help leaders and lecturers to review the curriculum and plan
to improve the quality of teaching and learning
Quality accreditation programmes have an effect on improving the capacity of lecturers who have
made changes in the methods of testing and assessing course learning outcomes in accordance with the
majors/disciplines. There are always innovative initiatives in teaching, reflected in the application of
new teaching skills, the use of new assessment methods, which are appropriate to the level of students.
Besides, lecturers are able to apply specialized knowledge to teaching specialized English. Some
interviewees noted:
The Institute has enhanced training activities for lecturers, from which lecturers will have access
to current educational methods, improve teaching skills to match reality, and enhance their own
capacity, not only in terms of teaching but also in terms of scientific research and activities with
businesses.
Extra workshops have been organised by the University on themes such as online learning
platforms and quality assurance. Lecturers are encouraged to participate in many discussions or seminars
on building a curriculum, developing and adjusting expected learning outcomes, updating teaching
methods. For example, they shared that:
Taking part in many seminars and workshops helps lecturers have perception on concepts such as
expected learning outcomes, program framework, CDIO etc as well as the role and importance of
improving training quality.
Staff are provided with the opportunity to demonstrate their talent with others and share good
practice, lecturers in fostering constructive alignment, a variety of assessment methods should be adopted
and be congruent with the expected learning outcomes. Lectureres may measure the achievement of all
the expected learning outcomes of the programme and its courses.
I am very careful in the selection of content, tools and methods of assessing students’ learning
outcomes. Besides, receiving student feedback, and collecting opinions from businesses and alumni
that help to think about improving teaching activities after each lesson.
There is a lot of difference from the lecturers who are really trying, who are upgraded, who are
really working on their educational methods, going to conferences who knows what make works
better.
Accreditation of programme has an effect on improving the capacity of lecturers. The lecturers have
made changes in the methods of testing and assessing learning outcomes in accordance with the training
majors/disciplines. What is more, to improve the capacity of lecturers, University/Faculty encourage
lecturers and students to publish in journals:
The university also has a policy to encourage lecturers to carry out school-level scientific research
projects that are accepted, and lecturers to participate in writing articles published in journals,
domestic and foreign scientific conference proceedings.
As mentioned above, most lecturers agree that the accreditation process impacts the quality of
programmes, the adjustment of the training program, improving the capacity of lecturers such as,
innovative initiatives in teaching, new teaching skills and new assessment methods and scientific research
projects. Students go to school to make more progress. The school today is better than yesterday, the
only tool to help students and the school to make continuous progress is continuous improvement.
4.3. Leaders and lecturers make plans to overcome weaknesses to improve training program
Respondents were asked “What has your university done to overcome weaknesses to improve
training programs?’’ Most respondents felt that the impact of accreditation on improving training
program, as one respondent noted:
Accreditation is very important – people know their strengths, their weaknesses and how to
overcome it.
Yet, accreditation is a tool for improvement used by educational institutions helps leaders look
back at all activities, strengths, and weaknesses to adjust according to certain standard.
Thanks to accreditation, many policy guidelines are formulated and implemented for the academic
and administrative functioning of HEIs.
Accreditation activities have an impact on improving the quality of programme, the institution
sets out regulations to periodically review the curriculum and adjust the curriculum to meet the needs
of stakeholders, organization and society. After receiving the assessment report including strengths,
weaknesses or areas for improvement and score, school has planed and implemented several
improvements to the program, regarding to continuous improvement. Some interviewees noted:
Continuous improvement is to maintain improvement and relate to the existence of the institutions,
not to stop offering the best, and to make it a daily approach within the institution’s culture by
all its stakeholders.
Most participants admitted that thanks to the recommendation of the external review team, step
by step, schools make continuous progress that leverages strengths, overcome weaknesses, change has
frequently been described as inevitable, recognizing the weaknesses shows a strength of character and
resolve. Some respondents stated:
Twelve programs are accredited by AUN-QA standards. This is a successful step for the institution,
the school as well as the lecturers who undertake the task of internal quality assurance and the
team writing self-assessment reports with the motto that quality is the fulfillment of goals and
satisfaction of stakeholders.
The school’s human resource development plan is specifically formulated in the medium-term
strategic plan, based on the university’s medium-term strategic plan, with many policies to
support the school’s staff in improving their qualifications, professional expertise, participating
in conferences and seminars both domestically and abroad. HUST has implemented a system of
assessing staff capacity according to the KPI (Key Performance Indicators) with specific evaluation
criteria. The results of the KPI evaluation are used to reward competent staff and make good
contributions to the university.
The above is a summary of some interviews with 14 lecturers from 05 schools who have programs
accredited by AUN-QA at HUST. Over a long period of time, this perception has had many fluctuations,
changing views, all lecturers believe that accreditation affects the quality of programs and especially
aware of the role and the purpose of accreditation.
Based on the analysis of documents, semi-structured interview results, the leaders and lecturers
who participated in the accreditation process. The above results show that accreditation strongly
influences the perception of leaders and lecturers. This is reflected in strategic policy changes, continuous
improvement of programs and emphasis on teaching quality improvements.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the era of globalization, economic integration is an inevitable trend for all countries, including
Vietnam. With the goal of “Accreditation for continuous improvement,” HUST must constantly pay
attention to and improve quality, which is an essential requirement for survival and development. From
there, the effect of accreditation has been seen globally through its results, not only in showing the
strengths, weaknesses and suggesting solutions for improvement but also in profoundly changing from
the perception of leaders and lecturers.
Participating in accreditation activities, the perception of lecturers and leaders have changed
compared to before accreditation. The quality of teaching plays a decisive role in ensuring and improving
the quality of education. Therefore, the development of teaching staff is considered a breakthrough
solution in improving the quality of human resource training with solutions to improve the quality
of university lecturers to meet training requirements created according to AUN-QA standards in the
context of industrial revolution 4.0.
REFERENCES
1. Alstete, J.W. (2004), Accreditation matter: Achieving academic recognition and renewal, San
Francisco, CA: Wiley Periodicals, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 30(4) 1-26.
2. Boonen, T., Van Damme, J., & Onghena, P. (2013), Teacher effects on student achievement in first
grade: which aspects matter most? School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 25(1), 126–152.
doi:10.1080/09243453.2013.778297.
3. Braithwaite, J.W. Pawsey, M., et al (2006), A prospective, multi-method, multi-disciplinary, multi-
level, collaborative, social-organizational design for researching health sector accreditation.
BMC Health Services Research, 6, 113-123. doi:10.1186/1472- 6963-6-113.
4. Burris, R. T. (2008), An analysis of accreditation processes, quality control criteria, historical
events, and student performance, University of Central Florida. ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses, available at: http://search.proquest.com/docview/89139040?accountid=28180. doi:
CFE0002052
5. Campbell, C. & Rozsnyai, C. (2002), Quality assurance and the development of course programmes,
Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES.
6. CHEA (2010), The value of accreditation, available at: https://www.acpeaccredit.org/pdf/
ValueofAccreditation.pdf .
7. Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., Gardner, M. (2017), Effective Teacher Professional

Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.
8. Congressional Research Service (2020), An Overview of Accreditation of Higher Education in the
United States, Updated October 16, 2020, available at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43826.pdf .
9. Godwin, U. (2011), Demonstrating quality: Evaluation of institutional and programme accreditation
in Ghana. International Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 3(8), 135-142.
10. Gynnild, V. (2017). Quality assurance reconsidered: A case study. Quality in Higher Education,
13(3), 263-273.
11. Hartle, T. W. (2012), Accreditation and the Public Interest: Can Accreditors Continue to Play a
Central Role in Public Policy? Planning for Higher Education, 40(3), 16- 21.
12. Harvey, L. (2006a), Understanding quality, Section B 4.1–1 of Introducing Bologna objectives
and tools, in L. Purser (ed) EUA Bologna Handbook: Making Bologna work (Brussels: European
University Association and Berlin, Raabe).
13. Hendrick, D.W., Henson, S.E., Kreig, J.M., & Wassell, C.S. (2010). The effects of AACSB
accreditation on faculty salaries and productivity. Journal of Education for Business, 85, 284-
291. doi: 10.1080/08832320903449543.
14. Jackson, R.S., Davis, J.H., & Jackson, F.R. (2010), Redesigning regional accreditation: The
impact on institutional planning. Planning for Higher Education, 38, 9-19.
15. Johnson, C. A. (2012), A quantitative comparison of Pennsylvania high school student
achievement by middle states association’s accreditation status. (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (992951224)
16. Johnson, O. C. B. (2017), The Impact of ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-
QA) Assessment on the Quality of Educational Programmes, In Theory and Practice of Quality
and Reliability Engineering in Asia Industry (pp. 87-97), Springer, Singapore.
17. Law on Vietnam Education (2005), Article 17, National Assembly No: 38/2005/QH11, June 14, 2005.
18. Lemaitre, M. J. (2004), Development of external quality assurance schemes: An answer to the
challenges of higher education evolution. Quality in Higher Education, 10(2), 89-99. doi:10.10
80/1353832042000230581.
19. Le My Phong and Nguyen Thai Son (2019), Overview of the quality assurance and accreditation
of higher education in Vietnam, Proceedings of the national scientific conference: Quality
assurance and accreditation of higher education in the world and in Vietnam.
20. Le Van Thang and Trinh Huu Trang (2018), The practice and impact of the inspection quality
education to training quality at Nam Dinh College of Padagogy, Tạp chí Giáo dục (Vietnam
Journal of Education).
21. Lucy Spowart, Rebecca Turner and Harriet Dismore (2020), Assessing the impact of accreditation
on institutions, Project report, University of Plymouth Enterprise Ltd.
22. Ministry of Education and Training (2020), List of accredited programme, (Data updated until
July 31, 2021), available at: https://moet.gov.vn/giaoducquocdan/khao-thi-va-kiem-dinh-chat-
luong-giao-duc/Pages/Default.aspx?ItemID=7471
23. Nguyen, H.C (2017). Impact of international assessment and accreditation on the Vietnamese
education system, Journal of Education and Society, No. 77(138), pp. 57-60.
24. Nguyen Huu Cuong, Ta Thi Thu Hien, Nguyen Thị Thu Hương (2017), Achievements and Lessons
Learned from Vietnam’s Higher Education Quality Assurance System after a Decade of Establishment,
International Journal of Higher Education. ISSN 1927-6044 (Print) ISSN 1927-6052.
25. Nguyen Huu Cuong và Mahsood Shah (2020), Quality asurance in Vietnamese Higher Education,
policy and Practice in the 21st century, Palgrave Macmillan.
26. Nguyen Phuong Nga and Tong Thanh Trung (2019), Higher education quality accreditation
policies, mechanisms and results, pp. 9-20, Proceedings of the national scientific conference:
Quality assurance and accreditation quality of higher education in the world and in Vietnam.
27. Palardy, G. J., & Rumberger, R. W. (2008), Teacher effectiveness in first grade: The importance
of background qualifications, attitudes, and instructional practices for student learning.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 30(2), 111–140.\
28. Pham, T.H. (2018), Impacts of higher education quality accreditation: a case study in
Vietnam, Quality in Higher Education, 24(2): 168-185. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/135383
22.2018.1491787.
29. Phạm Thị Hương và Nguyễn Vũ Phương (2020), Tác động của đánh giá chương trình đào tạo
theo bộ tiêu chuẩn AUN-QA: Quan điểm của giảng viên. Tạp chí Khoa học Đại học Mở Thành
phố Hồ Chí Minh, 15(2), tr.3-18.
30. Patton M.Q (2015), Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and
practice; 4th ed, London.
31. Punch and Oancea (2014), Introduction to Research Methods in Education. London: Sage publications.
32. Sabrina, E. L (2016), Perceptions of University Faculty Regarding Accreditation in a College of
Education, Dissertation, College of Education University of South Florida.
33. Sinha V. and Subramanian K. S. (2013), Accreditation in India: Path of Achieving Educational
Excellence, Business Education & Accreditation, 5, p.107-116, available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2239206
34. Stella, A., 2006. Quality assurance of cross-border higher education, Quality in Higher Education
12, 257–276.
35. Ta Thi Thu Hien (2015), Accreditation policy and its effects on the management of training
programs at Hanoi National University and Ho Chi Minh City National University, Education
Magazine, May 2015 special issue, p. 230-233.
36. UNESCO Global Forum on International Quality Assurance (2008), Accreditation and the
recognition of qualifications, Available at: http://portal.unesco.org/ education/en/ev.php-URL_
ID=41247&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201. html.
37. Vincenzi, A., Garau, A., & Guaglianone, A. (2018), Has the quality of teaching and learning
processes improved as a result of the implementation of quality assurance coordinated by the
state? Quality in Higher Education, 24(1), 55-65. doi:10.1080/13538322.2018.1426382.
38. Woodhouse, D., & Meade, P. (2000), Evaluating the effectiveness of the New Zealand
academic audit unit: Review and outcomes, Quality in Higher Education, 6(1), 19-29.
doi:10.1080/13538320050001045.
Appendix A. Table 1: Leaders and lecturers invited to interview

at Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Number of
No Falcuty/school Noted
Interviewees
1 Leaders of school of Biotechnology and Food Technology 2
2 Leader of school of Chemical Engineering 1
3 Leader of school of Mechanical Engineering 1
4 Leader of Academic Affairs Office 1

5 Leader of Quality Management office 1 Prepared and participated
6 Lecturers of school of Biotechnology and Food Technology 4 in the assessment process
of AUN-QA
7 Lecturers of school of Chemical Engineering 3
8 Lecturers of school of Mechanical Engineering 3
9 Lecturers of school of electronics and Telecomuniacations 2
10 Lecturers of school of Material Science and Engineering 2
Total 20
Appendix B
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Dear Sir, Madam!

In order to evaluate the effect of accreditation on the perception of leaders and lecturers in higher
education institutions. We look forward to receiving your honest, objective and constructive opinions
through the following discussions.
We commit that your opinions will not be used for any other purpose other than research to provide
information to propose useful solutions to improve the quality training.
1. Do you participate in accreditation activities at institution level or program level?
2. Have you ever participated in accreditation activities of programs according to AUN-QA at HUST?
3. In your opinion, do quality accreditation activities create a culture of quality?
4. In your opinion, do accreditation activities affect the quality improvement of programs?
5. In your opinion, how do accreditation results of the educational training program affect the
quality of teaching?
6. In your opinion, how do the results of the quality accreditation effect the perception of the lecturers?
7. In your opinion, Is accreditation effect the improvement to lecturers’ capacity?
8. What has your university done to overcome weaknesses to improve training programs?
9. Please, give your personal feelings about the effectiveness of accreditation activities at your school?
10. Would you have any further comments about the accreditation of higher education in Vietnam
that have not been mentioned in today’s interview?
REINFORCING THE ADVISORY ROLE OF FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTS
IN DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AT UNIVERSITIES TODAY
Pham Duy Vu
(Academy of Politics)
Pham Minh Phong
(Political Officer)
Abstract: On the basis of Directive No. 16/CT-TTg on strengthening access to the 4th Industrial Revolution,
and the National Digital Transformation Program with provision for 2025 and with orientation to 2030 according
to Decision No. 749/QD-TTg signed on June 3, 2020 by the Prime Minister, higher education is undergoing
positive changes thanks to digital transformation. However, “digital transformation” in Vietnam higher education
there still are shortcomings, especially the ability to apply information technology in teaching, database operation,
education management system, ability to Digital data mining and psychological barriers for both lecturers
and learners. One of the reasons for this situation is the advisory role of the functional bodies at colleges and
universities. The discussion focuses on researching, assessing the current situation of this issue, and proposing
solutions to improve the advisory role of relevant departments in “digital transformation” at universities, in order
to make the ends meet i.e. tertiary education can answer the requirements of the Industrial Revolution 4.0.
Keywords: enhance the advisory role; the authorities; colleges; universities; digital transformation.
CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW
In recent years, the term “digital transformation” has been mentioned in every walk of life,
including education. Currently, there are many conceptions of “digital transformation”. According to
Mai Ngoc Tan, digital transformation “is to move our activities from the real world to the virtual world
on the network”1. Consequently, in the network environment, educational institutions will manage and
create interaction between teachers and learners, and at the same time, both teachers and learners can
access to information more easily and quickly, and efficiently in comparison with traditional methods.
The tendency of digital transformation in tertiary education, which is facing up to globalization and
international integration, especially, 4th Industrial Revolution, has become more and more commonplace
not only amongst universities but worldwide as well.
1 Mai Ngoc Tan (2020), “The importance of digital transformation for education and training in the current period”;, http://
truongnoivu-csmn.edu.vn/khoa-khoa-hoc-co-ban-chinh-tri-hoc/tam-quan-in-court-chuyen-doi-so-doi-elephant-Giao-duc-
dao-tao-in-death-doan-hien-nay.html
According to Dr. To Hong Nam, digital transformation plays an important role in education and
training innovation as “Digital transformation will support educational and training innovation in the
direction of reducing mentoring and transferring knowledge to boosting learners’ ability, stimulate
self-study, create learning opportunities anytime, anywhere, personalize learning process, contribute
to creating a learning society and lifelong learning. The explosion of technology platforms, such as,
IoT, Big Data, AI, SMAC (social network – mobile network - big data analysis - cloud computing) is
forming the digital education infrastructure”1. Especially, the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic
have promoted the trend of digital transformation to an urgent need of education in general, and higher
education in particular. However, it is a challenging problem, which has not had a suitable answer for
Vietnamese colleges and univeresities in the digital transformation process to ensure quality or enhance
the teaching quality. The most urgent thing for effective digital transformation lies in possible and
scientific action plans of every college and university. And, to achieve this, it is necessary to enhance
the advisory role of the functional units in each educational institution. Because, divisions, such as:
Science and Technology Department, Information Administration Department, Library & Information
Center, Personnel Organization Department, General Department, Rector bureau (Director office) are
not proactive, active and creative in proposing, recommending and giving suggestions to the Board of
Directors (Directorate), the School Board of Directors on the plans for digital transformation at their
schools, it can be impossible for this trend to be put into practice. Therefore, studying the current situation
and proposing some solutions to improve the advisory role of relevant agencies in digital transformation
at universities in Vietnam is of significant importance.
2. BASIC FEATURES IN DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AT UNIVERSITIES IN VIETNAM TODAY
Looking back at the digital transformation process at universities in Vietnam through reports
and analysis by the Ministry of Education and Training as well as some scientists and experts, some
outstanding features can be drawn.
Firstly, the digital learners. It is clear that digital transformation at universities in Vietnam is always
learner-centered. Therefore, learners need to actively adapt well to digital transformation with knowledge
of digital transformation, and skills in mastering information technology, being able to exploit and use
software, digital data system.
Secondly, the digital teachers. This is a characteristic that clearly reflects the process of “digital
transformation” in higher education. Because, the teacher and the learner are still the two central
factors of the teaching process. In today’s higher education, teachers need to have knowledge, skills,
experiences, and creativity to apply and use the huge benefits of “digital transformation” in teaching and
research. Especially, the digital teachers need to have skills in using simulation software and multimedia
environment to improve teaching quality.
Thirdly, the digital learning data. The trend of digital transformation in higher education requires
each university to create a digital learning data to meet the needs of teachers and learners. Therefore,
each university needs to have a good information infrastructure and a team of good technicians and staff
to design and build a digital learning system.
1 To Hong Nam (2020), “Digital transformation in the field of education and training: Current situation and solutions”,
Journal of Information and Electronic Communication, accessed on 10/8/2021 at https://ictvietnam.vn/chuyen-doi-so-
trong-linh-vuc-Giao-duc-va-dao-tao-thuc-trang-va-giai-phap-20200522150010574.htm
Finally, the smart learning environment. This is a characteristic that reflects the difference of digital
transformation in higher education today. It is an environment created synchronously between the way
of management and operation in all stages of the educational process. It’s also the environmentan that
encourages dynamism, sensitivity, adapts to new and breakthroughs and creates the best opportunities
for both teachers, learners and management staff. Moreover, it’s also an environment that emphasizes
the application of research to the practice of social life. However, in reality, the current higher education
environment in Vietnam has not basically met this characteristic. In fact, there are a lot of training
institutions which have revealed limitations in terms of prestige, resources, and slow promotionm digital
transformation”. Therefore, a lot of universities in Vietnam should not create the ability to attract talented
lecturers and scientists and be less attractive in options for learners.
3. THE REALITY OF THE ADVISORY ROLE OF FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTS IN DIGITAL
TRANSFORMATION AT UNIVERSITIES IN VIETNAM
Currently, digital transformation in universities in Vietnam is taking place with various nuances,
levels and characteristics. For technical universities, this process is generally more favorable. This,
first of all, is explained by the nature of their technical training progammes, which have been updated,
digitized, and new technology has been applied to the teaching process right from the Scientific and
Technological Revolution 3.0. Therefore, this is a golden opportunity for technical schools to promote and
boost the digitalization in all their education and training activities. And at technical schools, functional
agencies, such as, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Information Administration,
Library & Information Center have actively advised, proposed and recommended to apply successfully
the outcomes of science and technology in education and training. Thus, technical schools, such as,
Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Hanoi
University of Industry, etc., have shown their interests in digital transformation and push this trend
into their education and training process, and a result, primary achievements have been gained thanks
to the peak efficiency of the learning management system (LMS), database for lecturers, database for
students, tools integrated in the system such as cliqr (student feedback system), Bubbler (microblog
tool) or Meetings (online workshops) are operated relatively smoothly by lecturers, students, and
educational management agencies on software (software), and platforms. This achievement comes from
the initiative of the Science and Technology Department and the Information Management Department
in advising on digital transformation projects, plans and routes. More importantly, these schools have
drawn up thouroughly detailed and scientific plans in organizing the implementation, especially, training
and equipping all officers, lecturers, staff and students with technical skills, as well as ability to use
and operate softwares, datas, and learning management system (LMS). The process of digitalization in
engineering schools continues to be strong, with many breakthroughs, with the application of intelligent
technology (IOT), artificial intelligence (AI), and software applications with simulation technology.
In contrast to promising results, reflecting the efficiency and quality of the digital transformation
process in technical and engineering schools, the digital transformation in the colleges of social
sciences and humanities studies, for instance, colleges of laws, languages, is still left behind. In these
schools, functional agencies, such as, Science and Technology Department, Information Administration
Department, Library & Information Center passively and reluctantly perform their advisory role and
they are sometimes underactive to propose projects, plans, and implementation routes. Therefore,
many officials, lecturers, staff, and even students initially expressed their confusion and were afraid
to renew their way of thinking in accessing modern technology such as, LMS, other useful tools and
software, including Database for lecturers, databse for students, tools integrated in the system such
as cliqr (students feedback system), Bubbler (microblog) or Meetings (online workshops); There are
still stumbling blocks in the exploitation and application. This is not only reflection of the challenges
in terms of obsolete facilities poorly equipped technical and technological infrastructure, the lack of
highly qualified IT technicians, not keeping up with the pace of the 4th Industrial Revolution, but,
primarily, it is also the elevation of the advisory organisations especially the Department of Science
and Technology, the Department of Information Administration, The Library & Information Center
in recommendations, proposals, plan-making and implementation routes. Accordingly, the tasks of
proposing and recommending projects, developing plans and implementing progress fullfiled by the
relevant agencie do not bring about real effectiveness. Moreover, those tasks have shown passiveness,
particularly when all onsite teaching activities are interrupted, as a result, replaced with online lessons
because of Covid-19 pandemic. Despite designed training, retraining and implementation procedures,
the outcome have not as good as expected. There still are lecturers who have not been fluent in student
management skills via online teaching softwares, accessment and monitoring as well as online testing
skills, which impinge on teaching quality. This has proved that the digital transformation at a number
of universities is still fragmented and has not synchronized. Digital transformation still lies in the
slogan and does not really work, hence, the results do not reveal the nature of the trend, namely, digital
transformation is at slower pace compared to skyrocketing development in science and technologies.
In fact, the reality of “digital transformation” conducted by most universities in Vietnam has a
common convergence in the aspect of teachers’ and students’ awareness of the usefulness provided
by online tools, regardless of being engineering or humanitarian studies, such as laws, languages etc.
colleges and universities. A survey conducted by Do Thi Ngoc Quyen and her research team on “the
readiness for online learning” among lecturers and undergradutes has shown that learners are of much
lower readiness to learn online than teachers. More than 76% of student-participants (in various industries
and different provinces and cities) were not prepared for online learning for many reasons. Apart from
technical reasons, such as, equipment and telecommunications infrastructure, there are concerns about
the teaching methods and techniques of the lecturers, which were not convincing”1.
4. SOLUTIONS TO HIGHLIGHT THE ADVISORY ROLE OF RELEVANT DEPARTMENTS IN DIGITAL
TRANSFORMATION AT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN VIETNAM TODAY
From the above mentioned issues, it can be seen that the process of “digital transformation” of
universities in our country today is still coping with a series of hardships and challenges, and there
are also plenty of potential risks of being left behind due to lack of synchronic technical facilities, in
addition, the process of transformation is passive due to low likelihood of a feasible plan and route. In
other words, if the role of advisory department is not upheld drastically, effectively, proactively and
creatively, it is hard for the digital transformation process at universities to come to the end. Thus,
to eliminate challanges, Vietnamese colleges and universities should improve the advisory role of
functional departments in realising “digital transformation” based on the following solutions:
First and foremost, raising the awareness and responsibility of the preferrable units in the process
of “digital transformation”.
1 Do Thi Ngoc Quyen (2021), “Transferring arguments in education: Challenges and risks”, Electronic Beam Magazine,
on February 5, 2021, at https://tiasang.com.vn/-Giao-duc/Chuyen-doi-so-trong-Giao-duc-Nhung-thach-thuc-va-nguy-
co-26836
This is a radical solution, which is a prerequisite for other upcoming solutions since it directly
affects the enhancement of the advisory role and responsibilities of the assigned departments in “digital
transformation”. Furthermore, it has been proved both theoretically and practically that all human
activities are rooted deeply in perception and awareness to form a basis for right actions. On the contrary,
ambiguous concepts, or shallow awareness of Science and Technology Department, Information
Administration Department, Library & Information Center leads to their responsibility in carrying out
Minnnistry of Training and Education’s “digital transformation” policy. This ends up to the fact that
advisory tasks become incomplete, mechanical, and dreamy when it comes to digital transformation
steps at tertiary level. In regard of evaluation of the pivotal role of awareness in the National Digital
Transformation Program toward 2025, with a vision to 2030, the Government has clearly stated its
number one viewpoint: “Consciousness is a decisive factor in digital transformation”. Besides, raising
awareness for functional agencies in digital transformation at universities today is a purposeful, proactive
and self-conscious activity of all officials, lecturers, employees, staff, and students, and different beholders
working for each school, therefore, it must be based on accurate and scientific perception.
In order to raise awareness and responsibility of the nominated departments in digital transformation
pathway at universities today, it is essential to focus on launching the following measures:
In the first place, leaders of functional agencies have to be fully aware of their responsibility about
the importance of awareness and responsibility of authorities in digital transformation at higher education.
Accordingly, leaders of assigned agencies including Science and Technology Department, Information
Administration Department, Library & Information Center must comprehend the trend and policy of
digital transformation in higher education today; master the guiding viewpoints by the Directorates. As
a result, these leaders constantly uphold the role model in both awareness and their actions; they are to
regularly study, exchange and discuss within the agency in pursuing single-mindedness and determination
among officials. This is followed by the effectiveness of approaching recommendations.
Secondly, it is useful to launch a propaganda and education campaign in forming proper awareness
among officials and employees in the agencies of their departments’ advisory role, which helps
university rectors to successfully implement the digital transformation policy. Therefore, all officials
and employees of the departments, including Science and Technology Department, Information
Administration Department, Library & Information Center must be conscious and well-prepared to
perform their advisory tasks, which consist of steps and measures of digital transformation policy.
Thirdly, raise awareness about the situation and tasks of digital transformation in higher education
is unavoidable. Accordingly, heads of functional agencies and all working staff need to be well-informed
about initial achievements in digital transformation, the effectiveness of the agencies. They need to have
an insight into the limitations, shortcomings and barriers in implementation, as well as their culprits.
Thence, awareness will undergoes changes, determination to implement the plan will surely be made
and digital transformation policy is on the way. Moreover, lazy thoughts will be eradicated.
The second measure is strengthening the leadership and direction of Party Committees (Standing
Committees), Boards of Directors (Managing Boards) of universities to enhance the advisory role of
relevant departments in “digital transformation”.
Strengthening the leadership and direction of Party Committees (Standing Committees), Boards of
Directors (Managing Boards) of universities is a steady basis for promoting the power of departments
concerned in “digital transformation” in each university. In response to the current task of implementing
“digital transformation” in education defined in the Government’s National Digital Transformation
Program to 2025, with orientation to 2030: “Developing a teaching support and distance learning
foundation, digitalizing documents and textbooks; lay a foundation to share teaching and learning
resources in both face-to-face and online forms. Developing technology is for education, and towards
individualized training programmes.
100% of educational institutions implement distance learning and teaching, including testing
programs, which allow students to study online at least 20% of the content. Applying digital technology
to assign homework and check students’ preparation before class”1.
Accordingly, strengthening the leadership and direction of Party committees (Standing Committes),
Boards of Directors (Managing Boards) of colleges and universities to enhance the advisory role
of departments concerned is a content which needs to be conducted regularly, and in specific forms
and measures including strengthen leadership and direction by thematic resolutions; by assigning
party members (members of standing committees) of colleges’ party committees to monitor and take
reponsibility; by the leadership and direction of Party Committees (standing committes), Directors
(Principals) with the task of “digital transformation” of each college, summarizing results of the
implementation of “digital transformation” task corresponding to each stage defined in plans and routes
submitted by relevant departments; by setting examples of the collective of Party committees (standing
committes), Directors (Principals or rectors) of universities in the process of leading and directing the
implementation of “digital transformation”, especially in terms of the advisory role of departments: Science
and Technology Department, Information Administration Department, Library &Information Center.
Regularly strengthening organizations, and cultivate and improve the quality of technical human
resources is considered the third solution.
This has become a really crucial solution to enhance the advisory role of relevant departments in
implementing the policy of “digital transformation” at universities these days. This is becauseregular
reconstructure and improvement of the quality of technical human resources is significantly important
and necessary in order to improve the advisory role of each department,particularly of Science and
Technology Department, Information Administration Department, Library &Information Center.
Accordingly, colleges need to do well in these following contents:
First, regularly strengthening structure ofrelevant departments, especially of highly qualified
technicians posts. Universities need to instruct Human Resources Departments to review and advise Party
Committees (standing committees), Directors (Principals) on the possible measures. It is encouraged
to propose and recommend to recruit highly qualified technicians graduated from Hanoi University
of Science and Technology, Academy of Posts and Telecommunications Technology, FPT University,
etc., or technicians with good qualifications, experience in designing, applying and managing database
systems, software, digital platforms, etc.
Second, relevant departments need to proactively recommend and send staffs to domestic and
overseas training courses specializing in providing them with knowledge and skills to set up, apply
1 Prime Minister (2020), Decree number 749/QĐ-TTg June 3, 2020 on National Digital Transformation Programme approval towrd 2025,
orientating to 2030, Hà Nội, access at http://www2.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/noidungchuongtrinhquocgiakhac?_
and manage, operate database, learning management software, interactsoftware in teaching, mining
information and learning resources on digital platforms.
Third, nominated agencies, particulary Science and Technology Department, annually need to consult
withcollege leadersinlaunching training workshops, which help applyskills, exploit information technology
on digital platforms. In reference to the quality and effectiveness of implementing “digital transformation”
after each academic year, the Science and Technology Department acts as the central one to coordinate
with the Information Administration Department, the Library &Information Center, General Department,
Principal’s office (Director) to plan, propose and conductworkshops for all staffs, lecturers and students
on how to gain knowledge and skills to master information technology, educational management systems,
teaching software, methods to collect data, learning resources, etc., latest applications and software to
improve the quality of implementation of “digital transformation” in each university.
The fourth measure is providing mechanisms and policies to encourage and motivate departments
at colleges and universities to enhance the advisory role in putting “digital transformation” into full play.
This is an important answer, contributing to promoting the effectiveness of the advisory role in triggering
“digital transformation” by departments at universities nowadays. Therefore, colleges and universities ought
to investigate and promulgate rules and regulations to encourage and motivate departments to enhance
their advisory roles on the basis of regulations stated in legal documents of the Ministry of Education
and Training, Government and National Assembly on “digital transformation”, “autonomy” in education.
Mechanisms and policies of each university need to create a driving force to promote determination and
motivation of officials and staffs of relevant departments, making them dedicated to research, be proactive
and creative in consulting, proposing and recommending optimal solutions tofullfiling the policy of
“digital transformation” in tertiary education. Simutaneously, it is crucial to have a favorable mechanism
for finance and human resources to conduct research, assessment, and proposals on upgrading information
technology infrastructure, digital platforms, and technology in educational management, etc for relevant
departments; eradicate all lack of interest, or negligencetoward departments’ recommendations.
5. CONCLUSION
“Digital transformation” in Vietnam higher education today turns out to be not only a trend but
also an objective necessity, which is in line with the development of educational practice impacted
by the Revolution Industry 4.0; standpoints, goals and solutions in the Government’s National
Digital Transformation Program towards 2025, orientating to 2030. Although the process of “digital
transformation” in higher education still faces many difficulties and challenges, the advisory role of the
authorities, the effectiveness will be increased when the universities pay more attention to those. The
quality of this trend will respond to the movement and development trend of higher education practice,
which is under the impact of the Industrial Revolution 4.0. Therefore, each college or university needs
to improve its role of autonomy and self-responsibility, and it is necessary to synchronously implement
the above mentioned solutions to enhance the advisory role of relevant units in “digital transformation”.
REFERENCES
1. Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Government Resolution No. 26/NQ-CP dated
April 15, 2015 promulgating the Action Program to implement Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW
dated 01// 7/2014 by the Politburo on promoting IT application and development to meet the
requirements of sustainable development and international integration; 17/NQ-CP dated March
7, 2019 on a number of key tasks and solutions for the development of e-Government in the
period of 2019 - 2020, with a vision to 2025.
2. Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Decision No. 117/QD-TTg dated January
25, 2017 approving the Project “Strengthening IT application in management and supporting
teaching-learning activities, Scientific research contributes to improving the quality of education
and training in the period 2016-2020, with an orientation to 2025”, Hanoi.
3. Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Directive 16 of the Prime Minister, dated May
4, 2017 on strengthening accessibility to the 4th Industrial Revolution, Hanoi.
4. Communist Party of Vietnam, Resolution 52-NQ/TW dated September 27, 2019 of the Politburo
on a number of guidelines and policies to actively participate in the 4th Industrial Revolution.
5. To Hong Nam (2020), “Digital transformation in the field of education and training: Current
situation and solutions”, Journal of Information and Electronic Communication, available at
https://ictvietnam.vn/.
6. Do Thi Ngoc Quyen (2021), “digital transformation in education: Challenges and risks”,
Electronic Spark Magazine, February 5, 2021, accessible at https://tiasang.com .vn.
7. Mai Ngoc Tan (2020), “The importance of digital transformation for education and training in
the current period”, visithttp://truongnoivu-csmn.edu.vn.
8. Prime Minister (2020), Decision No. 749/QD-TTg dated June 3, 2020 on approving the National
Digital Transformation Program to 2025, with orientation to 2030, Hanoi, accessed at http://
www2.chinhphu.vn.
COLLABORATION IN TRAINING BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND INDUSTRY
TOWARDS MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE CURRENT LABOR MARKET
Pham Thi Thanh Hai

Nguyen Huu Nang
(Van Lang University, HCMC)
Abstract: In the era of globalization and international integration, the quality of human resources is regarded
as the key to the success of every country and economy. In that context, university and industry collaboration
(UIC) in human resource training is becoming a vital issue. To date, there have been several studies on this.
Using qualitative research method, the article reviews and analyzes some studies on collaboration in training
between university and industry in 2 main categories (i) some studies on related policies and (ii) some studies
on collaboration between university and industry. These research results aim to identify important factors in
the collaboration between university and industry, contributing to advancing the quality of human resources,
affirming the training role of universities in today’s context.
Keywords: management of curriculum, collaboration in training, university, industry, labor market.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, Vietnam’s economy has been making great strides with many remarkable
achievements. The Asian Development Outlook 2021 Report by Asian Development Bank forecasted that
Vietnam’s economic growth will be driven by export-oriented manufacturing, increased investment, and
expanding trade. Growth momentum is anticipated to be maintained buoyed by reform programs aimed
at improving the business environment and Vietnam’s participation in many free trade agreements with
most developed economies. Vietnam’s economy is embarking on the process of high-speed development,
followed by the expansion of production scale, the size of the enterprise, and increasing requirements
for human resources. Education and training are among the sectors that need immediate changes to
adapt to the fourth industrial revolution (Hue, 2017). Currently, a large number of the labor force in
Vietnam have been trained, but there still exists a shortage of employees that meet the needs of society
and industry. Facing the requirements of national development and international integration, this human
resource is still bearing limitations in knowledge, practical skills, critical thinking ability, and foreign
language competency as well as dynamism, the ability to apply knowledge to production and life (Khanh
& Huong, 2010). According to experts, the key reason is the lack of collaborating between schools and
the business sector in training and using labor resources. To some extent, collaboration activities have
been promoted, however, they are still fragmented and perfunctory. The work of future forecasts has
been enhanced, but there is still a shortfall in interoperability, job information, and interruption in the
domestic labor market….
In the era of globalization and international integration, the quality of human resources is regarded
as the key to the success of every country and economy. In that context, university and industry
collaboration (UIC) in human resource training is becoming a vital issue. There are a number of research
results pointed out this topic and the related issues, such as labor market requirements, cooperation in
training cooperation of universities with enterprises, mechanism of action, the university’s management
apparatus for joint training activities with enterprises.
Requirements of the labor market: One of the urgent requirements in human resource training
today is that the training must be based on the requirements of the labor market. This is a social issue,
aiming to achieve the balance between labor resources and the needs of society. The collaboration
between university and industry is not out of the orbit to reach that aim. To meet the demands of the
labor market, universities need to be more flexible in changing training programs and objectives to
catch up with socio-economic change, and the requirements of labor users and survive and thrive in
the increasingly competitive trend. Particularly, it requires universities not only to carry the mission of
training human resources to meet current needs but also to develop a training strategy to catch up with
the development trend. To accomplish this task, the connection with the business community and the
guideline of the authorities is indispensable. Therefore, the effective UIC will necessitate theoretical
studies and situation assessments to jointly propose a system of viable solutions for the management of
collaboration in training activities. This is the best shortcut to bridge the gap between schools and the
world of work, solving critical issues in Vietnam’s current structure of labor force (Lan, 2014).
Collaboration between university and industry: Studies on operational mechanism and the
governance apparatus of universities for training collaboration with business sectors were once
mentioned in the study of (José, 2013). Notably, researches on policy platforms were mentioned by
Drew & et al., (Drew & et al., 2010). According to Rohrbeck & Arnold (Rohrbeck & Arnold, 2006), the
motivation for collaboration between university and industry/ business sectors includes (i) Enhancement
of teaching; (ii) Funding/ financial resources; (iii) Source of knowledge and empirical data; (iv) Political
pressure; (v) Enhancement of reputation; (vi) Job offers for graduates. Research on higher education
responsiveness through partnerships with industry and the advancement of science and technology and
the knowledge-based economy was mentioned in a study by Leydesdorff & Meyer (Leydesdorff &
Meyer, 2013).
In Vietnam, research on higher education responsiveness through partnerships with industry was
mentioned in a study by Hoa (Hoa, 2013). There are several other studies on UIC, such as a study on the
perception of school officials - lecturers - staff of UIC (Trang, et al, 2019); studies on the responsiveness
of university through partnerships with industry (Hang, 2012; Hoa, 2013), a study on the advancement of
science and technology and the knowledge-based economy (Luan & et al., 2020), a study on international
integration and competitive partners (Hai & et al., 2020).
Studies on UIC have been widely discussed, however, so far there has not been any of such in Ho Chi
Minh City. Therefore, this article summarizes some publications related to (i) operational mechanism,
governance apparatus of the university for training collaboration with industry, and (ii) UIC with an aim
to identify the core factors in UIC, meeting the requirements of the current labor market.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
The article uses groups of theoretical methods such as analytical methods, and synthetic methods
to explore scientific information from relevant documents. They range from documents issued by the
Party and State on areas like Education and Training, human resource development; documents about
UIC; books of all kinds, newspapers, journals, documents on management science, economy, and
other matters related to the research topic; to guidelines on socio-economic development in the current
period. This is to arrange them into a theoretical system for the research. In addition to research on
policies related to UIC, this article also looks at UIC in the following aspects (i) perception of school
official- lecturers - staff of UIC, (ii) the responsiveness of university through partnerships with industry,
(iii) the advancement of science and technology and the knowledge-based economy, (iv) international
integration and competitive partners. The theoretical research method functions as a baseline to clarify
the theoretical basis of UIC.
Using qualitative research method, the article reviews and analyzes some studies on collaboration
in training between university and industry in 2 main categories (i) some studies on related policies and
(ii) some studies on collaboration between university and industry. These research results aim to identify
important factors in the collaboration between university and industry, contributing to advancing the
quality of human resources.
4.1. Operational mechanism and governance apparatus of the university for training collaboration
activities with industry
Collaboration between educational institutions and the business sector was initiated by the German
philosopher Willhelm Humboldt. The university, in addition to its training function, must conduct research
and cooperation activities with the industry. Scientific research in modern schools demonstrates their
function in promoting social knowledge innovation. UIC is understood as direct or indirect interaction,
personal or non-personal transactions between educational institutions and businesses to benefit the two
parties. This includes cooperation in research and development, personnel exchange (scholars, students,
and experts), commercialization of research and development results, development and dissemination
of training programs, lifelong learning, business development, and governance.
The operational mechanism and governance apparatus of the university on UIC have been studied
by many authors. In 2013, José carried out a notable study entitled “Promoting University-Industry
Collaboration in Developing Countries”. According to the author, one of the criteria to enhance the
quality of university graduates is to promote stronger collaboration between university and industry. Hue
(2017) pointed out that, like the issue of autonomy in training institutions, the issue of strengthening the
connection between human resource training institutions and human resource-using enterprises needs
to be accelerated.
A study on institution and policy by Drew & et al., (2010) mentioned the strategic partnership
between parties such as individuals; family; community; volunteer organizations; private training
institutions; state training institutions; laborers and organizations; managers and organizations;
government. etc. These authors indicated that the key point in that partnership is to make every party
feel comfortable and willing to collaborate. Huang (2011) stressed that there must be mutual promotion
and cooperation between industry and university to conduct training to meet the pre-set requirements.
The government serves as a “midwife”, creating the legal framework and support, catalyst, and
mechanisms to implement UIC. This is an inevitable trend and an inner need offering long-term benefits
to the parties involved (Toan, 2016). In Vietnam, UIC, and more recently, university start-ups have been
attached with great interest, however, these activities are still very limited: types are not diverse enough,
in-depth collaboration has not been reached, potentials of the parties have not been brought into full
play. Industry and university need policies and mechanisms to unleash their own resources. Moreover,
entrepreneurship in university and innovation, creativity in industry need to be encouraged and fostered.
4.2. Research projects on collaboration between university and industry
In response to the trend of integration and development, universities need to be flexible in changing
their training programs and objectives to adapt to the change of socio-economic situation and the
requirements of labor recruiters. At the same time, the implementation of scientific research activities
must meet and match the requirements of practice, the application and transfer of technology must meet
business needs and be in line with the movement and development trend of the society. To survive and
thrive in the increasingly growing competition, it requires universities not only to carry out their mission
to train human resources to meet the current needs but also to develop a training strategy to catch
up with the development trend. To accomplish this task, the connection with the business community
and the guideline of the authorities is indispensable. Cooperation between educational institutions and
businesses will bring about synergistic benefits to the parties, including cooperation in research and
development; personnel exchange; commercialization of scientific research results through technology
transfer activities; development and dissemination of training programs, lifelong learning, business
development, and management. Enterprises must serve as an “extended arm” in training activities,
creating “what the market will need”, at the same time, helping students catch up with the world of work
right after graduation, accessing the latest technology, and exploit resources for the training process.
To bridge the gap between training institutions and businesses, there should be incentives offered to
businesses that sign contracts with training institutions; and training institutions under enterprises should
be supported (Hue, 2017).
There have been various studies on UIC and the management of UIC, within the scope of this
study, the following studies are mentioned:
Perception of school officials - lecturers - staff of UIC: Urayaa (2001) argued that lecturers play
an important role in UIC. They act as facilitators who direct and stimulate the collaboration process.
They conduct the joint coordination and enable the process to run smoothly, and ensure the overall
balance of this process. At the same time, they guide and support students to participate in the training
process. They are purposeful promoters of the collaboration process, helping students achieve better
learning results and better exploitation of equipment and other training resources. They not only take
part in training human resources for universities but also directly determine the effectiveness of UIC.
The competency of managers at universities and businesses, together with the knowledge, skills of
lecturers and instructors have a direct impact on the content and method of managing UIC. A research
on the perception of school officials - lecturers - staff of UIC by Trang & et al., ( 2019) accentuated the
lecturers’ role in innovating teaching methods and the school leaders’ role in directing and supervising.
According to the authors, UIC is a popular trend in the world and is highly regarded for its crucial role
in ensuring and enhancing the quality of university graduates - those then become human resource input
for the industry.
Higher education responsiveness through partnerships with industry: A study entitled “Innovation in
the training of Human Resource Management at National Economics University to meet the needs of
society” in 2011 mentioned shortcomings of university in training that lead to passive graduates, and force
enterprises to retrain them before using them (Nha, 2008). Building and strengthening the relationship
between university and industry in human resource development is an urgent imperative, and a mandatory
task that requires the attention of the leadership of schools as well as businesses. However, according to
the International Labor Organization, less than 20% of Vietnam’s labor force has specialized training and
skills that do not match the requirements of the market. Businesses need high-quality workers, while the
number of graduates has not met the requirements and expectations of industry (Khanh & Huong, 2010).
This is a great challenge for businesses and schools.
UIC plays a vital role, however, in realities, the university’s ability to respond to industry also
has a certain degree of influence. This is because the university possesses a host of lecturers who are
competent and have expertise in advanced technology, and they will receive feedback from industry on
training program reform. A study on higher education responsiveness through partnerships with industry
was conducted by Hoa (2013) in which the author believed that: The development of human resources,
especially the issue of education quality and vocational skills of graduates to meet the requirements of
industry and society attracts great attention of employers, politicians, businessmen, and researchers.
The central point of human resource development efforts rests on the main theme “learning and
improving quality for the sake of job performance”. In the United States of America, in the 1970s,
vocational educators and trainers relied on task performance to access learners’ abilities and labor
needs. This issue was further developed to a new level in the 1990s in many other countries such as the
UK, Australia, and New Zealand (Cedefop, 2011). This is because many scholars and practitioners on
human development have seen this as the most powerful, and the most strongly supported approach,
(Compe, 2008) to balance education, training and labor market requirements (José, 2013) and as “a way
to prepare the workforce for a globally competitive economy”. Due to the characteristics and advantages
of training based on labor market requirements, training models targeting the labor market have been
built, developed, and used as tools for the implementation of various educational programs, training, and
development around the world (Compe, 2008). Another research by Hang (2012) on “Management of
vocational training based on the needs of society” introduced the theoretical basis of training management
in the direction of meeting the needs of society, including concepts of training in the market mechanism,
training towards meeting the needs of society, and the content of training management towards meeting
the needs of society.
Studies on the current status of management of UIC: The general studies or the suggestive studies
mentioned above, have all analyzed, assessed the current status of UIC.
The advancement of science and technology and the knowledge-based economy: The updated
impacts and application have made the vocational training process adapt to the fluctuations of the labor
market when the service production process has been upgraded and developed rapidly by technology.
This helps the university catch up with a part of the trend, vocational training needs and even know
for sure some requirements to make appropriate adjustments in the vocational training process in the
direction of focusing on quality improvement, especially the quality of moral education, lifestyle, creative
ability, employability to meet the requirements of industry. This, on the one hand, serves socio-economic
development, promote industrialization and modernization of the country, safeguard national defense-
security. On the other hand, it is necessary to satisfy the development needs of each learner, especially
that of gifted ones. The advancement of science and technology and the knowledge-based economy were
mentioned in the research: “University-industry collaboration in human resources training for socio-
economic development in Vietnam: current situation and solutions” (Luan, 2015). In this research, the
author analyzed the current situation of human resources and the current situation of connection between
schools and businesses. Based on these situations, the author gave out recommendations related to the
role of state management, the role of the school, the role of business, and the role of learners in enhancing
the collaboration between university with industry today. In the same vein, he contended that businesses
need to understand the benefits of competition and innovation as a result of the technology transfer
process. Therefore, UIC is essential to design training programs that are suitable for future development
needs. Besides, ordering tasks at the university is necessary. To accelerate technology transfer, it is
mandatory that industry encourage internal research. To this end, industry and university need to closely
collaborate in training and guiding their employees in research and transfer new technologies.
The collaboration between the 3 parties (the state, university, and industry) also faces many great
challenges posed by the advancement of science and technology and the knowledge-based economy.
According to Hai & et al., (2020), there is a big gap between research orientations of university and
industry. Completely different perspectives of university and industry on scientific application and
technology have become one of the major barriers affecting this relationship. Moreover, industry seems
to solely wish to quickly commercialize research results, meanwhile, university wants to carry out
foundation researches and publishes them in prestigious journals. Thus, it is a big challenge to settle the
differences and satisfy all parties. The second one is the cost factor, it often takes much money in the
initial stage of cooperation without producing instant profit. At present, the link between the user and
the producer in developing countries is still weak. Apart from that, the science and technology market is
too small and the parties only carry out research projects from the budget. Besides, the backwardness of
domestic science and technology is another barrier affecting this relationship, therefore, instant profits
from the transferred technologies cannot be achieved easily.
According to a study on advances in science and technology and factors that affect joint training
activities by Leydesdorff & Meyer, (2013), university often lacks financial resources to invest in facilities
and research, while the school’s main source of revenue is tuition fees. This leads to insufficient attention
to the development of scientific and technological research because the cooperation and development
of technological research require a large amount of funding. Another issue is that young lecturers at
university often lack experience in collaborating with industry whereas, experienced professors often
focus on conducting state-funded projects rather than developing technology products.
International integration and competitive partnership: This factor brings about many opportunities
but also poses many challenges for universities, especially in terms of recruiting, education programs,
policies, scholarship, overseas study, education quality, employability after graduation. However, if
universities can take advantage from the opportunities, it will help them determine their own position,
value, and brand not only on a local scale but also on a regional and global scale; at the same time, it
will create a bridge to take full advantage of valuable opportunities in the collaboration process, training,
and transferring technology, provide access to advanced vocational training programs with domestic and
international businesses and competitors.
The factor of international integration and competitive partnership also exerts a great impact on
UIC. Dung (2020) pointed out that: In the era of integration and development, the fourth industrial
revolution is making profound impacts on societal life and the production environment of enterprises.
It has terminated many occupations but also created many new jobs that require highly qualified human
resources to work in that environment. The training process should have a training program associated
with the development of technology in the production process and scientific and technological activities
in practice. Therefore, the collaboration between schools and enterprises in human resource training
activities goes in line with actual needs in production activities. Along with the development of the
industrial revolution 4.0, technology transfer between university and industry plays a key role in the
strategic development of the parties and the socio-economic development process. This study focuses on
analyzing the direct and indirect relationship between university and industry in terms of enhancement
of training high-quality human resources, promotion of research, technology transfer, and knowledge
transfer in line with business activities. Thereby, the study proposes some directional recommendations
to build the relationship between school and business sector to faster integrate into and accelerate the
fourth industrial revolution (Hai & Bich, 2020).
Business sector plays a crucial role in the training activities of university because the business and
production environment will facilitate learners with work experience and assist university to adjust its
training program. Besides, this helps to solve the experience problem for fresh graduates when they
apply for a job.
5. CONCLUSION
University-industry collaboration in training human resources is an inevitable trend. Moreover, it
has a direct impact on the quality of highly qualified human resources, especially in the current context,
when the measure of product value is based on knowledge content. The direction of UIC is considered
as a breakthrough solution in the strategy of developing high-quality human resources. This study has
reviewed several publications to consolidate two factors directly affecting the development trend of UIC,
they are (i) operational mechanism and governance apparatus of university for UIC and (ii) collaboration
activities between university and industry. These research results help to identify important factors in the
collaboration between university and industry, contributing to advancing the quality of human resources,
affirming the training role of universities in today’s context.
REFERENCES
1. Asian Development Bank (2021), Asian Development Outlook 2021 Report.
2. Cedefop (2011). The benefits of vocational education and training. Publications office of the
European Union, Luxembourg.
3. Competency-based training, TAFE Queensland, 03 December 2008, http://www.tafe.qld.gov.au/
courses/flexible study/ competencv.html.
4. Croissant, J.L., Smith-Doerr, L. (2008). Organizational Contexts of Science: Boundaries and
Relationships between University and Industry. In: Hackett, Edward J.; Amsterdamska, O.,
Lynch, M., Wajcman, J. (eds.): The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, 3rd edition.
Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2008, 691-718.
5. Drew, G., Joanne, R. & David, C. (2010). University-industry collaboration: a CoPs approach to
KTPs. Journal of knowledge management, 4, 625-647.
6. Dung, D.T. (November 2020). Developing vocational education according to the model of
university-industry collaboration. Financial Journal Volume 1.
7. Hai, D. T. M., & Bich, D. T. N. (July 2020). Theoretical research on the relationship of technology
transfer between university and industry in Vietnam in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Journal
of Industry and Trade - Results of scientific research and technology application, 16.
8. Harris, R., Guthrie, H., Hobart B., & Lundberg, D. (1995). Competency-based education and training:
Between a Rock and a Whirlpool, South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia, 1995.
9. Hue, T. T. B. (2017). The Fourth Industrial Revolution with the development of human resources
in Vietnam. Vietnam Journal of Social Sciences, 8.
10. Hang, N.T. (July 2012). Managing vocational training towards social needs. Journal of
Educational Sciences, 82.
11. Hoa, N.P. (9/2013). Proposing a model of collaboration in training between vocational training
centers and industry in HoChiMinh City. Journal of Education Science, 96.
12. Huang, W. (2011). IPR Barriers in Collaboration between University and Engineering Industry in
Sweden. Master Thesis in Economics, School of Industrial Engineering and Management Stockholm.
13. Jones, L., & Moore, R. (1995). Appropriating competence, British Journal of Education and
Work, 8(2), 78-92.
14. José, G.B. (2013). Promoting University-Industry Collaboration in Developing Countries, The
Innovation Policy Platform.Competency-based training, TAFE Queensland, 03 December,
2008, from http://www.tafe.qld.gov.au/courses/flexible study/ competencv.html.
15. Khanh, N.V., & Huong, H. T. (2010). Training high-quality human resources in Vietnam today:
Current status and prospects. Journal of Human Studies, 1.
16. Lan, L.C. (November 2012). Adjust the curriculum towards recruitment requirements in line
with the trend of education development. Journal of Educational Science, 86.
17. Lan, V. T. N. (June 2014). University-industry collaboration in the vocational training sector in
Vietnam. Journal of Educational Science, 105.
18. Lan, N.T. (2015). Managing collaboration in training between vocational colleges and
enterprises in Vinh Phuc province meeting the requirements of human resource development
(Ph.D. Dissertation in Educational Science, Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences).
19. Leydesdorff, L., & Meyer, M. (2013). A reply to Etzkowitz’s comments to Leydesdorff and
Martin (2010): Technology transfer and the end of the Bayh–Dole effect. Scientometrics, 97(3),
927-934.
20. Luan, N. Đ. (5-6, 2015). University-industry collaboration in human resources training for socio-
economic development in Vietnam: current situation and solutions. Journal of Development and
Integration, 22.
21. Minh, H.C. (2010). Education and Training in HoChiMinh City: integration into advanced
education. Hanoi: Education in Vietnam.
22. Nha, P. X. (2008). “Training models based on the demands of the business sector”, Journal of
Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Economics and Business, 25, 1-8.
23. Rita, N., & Christian, E. (2011). The Links between Vocational Training and Higher Education
in Switzerland, Austria, and Germany, Presentation at the ECER 2011 Conference in Berlin.
24. Rohrbeck, R. & Arnold, H. M. (2006). Making university-industry collaboration work - a case
study on the Deutsche Telekom Laboratories contrasted with findings in literature. ISPIM Annual
Conference: “Networks for Innovation”; 2006; Athens, Greece.
25. Shirley, F. (1995). Designing Competence-based Assessment in the Professions in Australia,
Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 1.
26. Toan, Đ.V. (2016). university-industry collaboration in the world and some suggestions for
Vietnam. VNU Science Journal: Economics and Business, 32(4), 69-80.
27. Trang, P. T. T., Thuy, B. T., & Thuy, N. T. T. (2019). Promoting university-industry collaboration:
A case study at the University of Economics, Hue University. Science Journal of Hue University:
Economics and Development; ISSN 2588–1205, 128(5A), 79–91; DOI: 10.26459/hueuni-jed.
v128i5A.5224.
28. Urayaa, E. (2010). Conceptualizing the Regional Roles of Universities, Implications, and Contradictions,
European Planning Studies, 18 (8), 1227- 1246.
MANAGING UNIVERSITY BRANDS IN THE CONTEXT
OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND GLOBAL INTEGRATION -
A CASE STUDY ON PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN HANOI, VIETNAM
Hoang Thi Minh Hue, Nguyen Trung Kien

Abstract: This research explores the level at which digital transformation contributes to the knowledge and
interactions for brand management activities in private universities in Hanoi, Vietnam. We identify challenges
and requirements for digital transformation in order to create deep insights for brand management activities.
From these insights, we propose the contents for digital transformation, linking theory with execution of brand
management activities in a university. A qualitative case study is performed to provide a full understanding of
the effect of digital transformation on brand management activities. In 2021, online interviews were conducted
to confirm our results from the previous research phases. Our results show that digital transformation and global
integration both play a role in executing brand management activities in universities, especially private universities
in Hanoi. The protocols and decisions made during brand management, as well as the level of interaction in brand
management, greatly depend on the effectiveness of digital transformation on campus and the administrators’
willingness to integrate globally. This paper adds to the literature of deploying brand management activities, with
theoretical and practical values for improving understanding about the effect of digital transformation and the
need to integrate globally in university brand management.
Keywords: brand management, university brand, university education, digital transformation, private
university, global integration.
1. INTRODUCTION
As countries move toward a more marketized education system, brand management is becoming
an increasingly popular strategy for universities to stand out to their competition. Branding in university
education is identified as an important field in modern branding theory. However, the complexity and
quirks of Vietnam’s current university education make brand management within digital transformation
a challenging endeavor. At the same time, these challenges open up opportunities for change in order
to adapt to digital transformation and global integration for Vietnam universities, especially private
universities in Hanoi. This paper demonstrates the effect of digital transformation and global integration
on the process and decision making of brand management activities in private universities in Hanoi.
The ongoing digital transformation at private universities in Hanoi shows the necessity of achieving
specific milestones in digital transformation to perform brand management processes coherently, giving
value to such activities when making brand management decisions. In addition, these milestones allow
personnel to more clearly see the effectiveness of these activities, through gathering digital data and
social interactions in digital transformation and global integration. In this research, we define brand
management as “activities performed on campus to ensure the university’s brand reflects the school’s
values and meets students’ expectations”.
Data in the digital transformation environment should aid personnel during brand management
activities. Digital data can thus be considered a valuable asset for universities, and a key element when
performing brand communication. An important point in increasing digital transformation effectiveness
in private universities in Hanoi is providing educational service products to the community through
digital platforms. Digital transformation can change how educational products are distributed: students
may still need to attend classes, communicate with peers and be instructed by lecturers, but many aspects
may change or become inverted. The ratio of educational content received online will likely increase. In
fact, during COVID-19 lockdowns, all educational content must be conveyed online. Similarly, students
may receive lectures virtually at their homes, and go to class for group assignments. The education
experience will also shift from generalized to personalized content. More flexible educational methods
and syllabus will adapt to each student’s learning level, instead of forcing students to adapt to the
syllabus (Digital transformation handbook, Ministry of Information and Communications, page 61).
Providing digital education services is also an important step in the global integration roadmap for
schools’ brand management strategies.
Indeed, digital transformation is especially important in universities. All data across campus can
be digitized, as well as business processes. These digitized data are further processed with AI, Big Data
and IoT technologies, leading to changes in the school’s management models and operations. Data from
digital transformation can act as insights to the school’s brand and help administrators direct the brand’s
activities. By looking into the state of digital transformation in Hanoi’s private universities and taking
testimonials from brand management personnel, this research provides a current look at theoretical and
practical aspects of the effect of digital transformation on a university’s brand.
Thus, this research addresses the following goals:
1. To explore the level at which digital transformation contributes to the deployment of brand
management activities, define know-hows and interactions with digital transformation and global
integration to each activity and campaign within brand management.
2. To identify challenges for brand management activities when performed during the digital
transformation process, and acknowledge the important role of administrators during digital
transformation and global integration.
3. To identify advantageous elements for brand management activities after successful digital
transformation and global integration.
Thus, this research provides an overview on what administrators at Hanoi’s private universities
need to have in terms of strategy in order to cultivate digital transformation at their own universities.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND STUDY CONTEXT
2.1. Brands and brand management at private universities in the context of education reform and
global integration in Vietnam
In the past decade, the explosion in the number of universities in Vietnam has created a highly
competitive market. From 174 universities in 1991, Vietnam now has 236 universities and academies
(excluding those belonging to the military sector), including 171 public universities, 60 private universities,
5 of which are 100% foreign funded. This massive increase combined with the self-sufficient mantra
from Vietnam’s government (Edict 16/2015/ND-CP on 14/02/2015) has lessened the gap between
public and private universities and facilitated healthy competition. In this environment, the concept of
“University branding” has caught the attention of scholars and policy makers in Vietnam. In 2004, the
Journal of Science from the University of Can Tho published a paper called “University branding in
Vietnam, why not?” from Dao Van Khanh, a seminal work analyzing the state, challenges and solutions
for building university brands in Vietnam. Since then, hundreds of papers on branding in education have
been published in journals and conferences across the nation, discussing the development of university
brands. The international conference “Building brands in university education: Practical experiences in
the global context” was hosted in August 2009, with 50 foreign experts from 25 universities and faculties
from over 100 universities in the country. At the conference, many agreed that “building a brand is a
necessity for existence within the competitive local markets as well as regionally and internationally”.
The conference “Evaluating - ranking universities in Vietnam” hosted by the Coalition of Universities
of Vietnam and Hue University in April 2010 also saw the participation of 280 universities nationwide,
discussing the importance of ranking universities and important metrics for doing so. The Ministry-level
research topic “Measuring the brand asset for the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City” from Chu
Nguyen Mong Ngoc Msc. (PI), code CS-2011-32 has also seen results after deployment from August
2011 to August 2012.
Brand development is a familiar concept in many Western countries, however this is still a relatively
new activity in Vietnam and has only gained traction within the last 5 years. Developing and advertising
brands in university education is not a new issue, with many universities taking part in international
work since their founding and focusing on receiving international students. These international activities
help build the school’s brand, boosting sales and international admissions. Building, developing and
advertising the brand is a frequent concern for leaders and administrators in developed nations. A search
for “university brand building” on Google gives 1.2 billion results in 0.62 seconds. These references
include plans for developing brands by various universities, many of which have highly established
brands. Globally, universities are actively advertising their brands through many means.
Business principles have made their way to university education. The market is highly
acknowledged among universities (Zemsky, 2001). Universities with high amounts of exchange students
are called “export businesses” (Gatfield, 1998); classes are called “education products” (Adler, 1998),
new learning methods like online learning are dubbed “delivery mechanisms” (Gatfield, 1998), while
other universities are considered “competitors” (Landrum et al., 1998). Similarly, potential students are
considered “customers” (Browne et al., 1998), and the evaluation of student satisfaction is linked to
“customer satisfaction” (Licata and Maxham, 1998).
Beneke (2011) considered the goal of marketing in education includes 2 parts: (1) attract the best
students and at a lower level, the best faculty members; and (2) attract funding from governments,
businesses and the community. To achieve these goals, many consider the main task for education
marketers to be building and advertising the school’s brand, similar to the business world where brand is
considered one of the greatest assets. Educational brand is the combination of impressions, evaluations
and recognition of the final product of an education system, such as teaching results, scientific works,
and graduate quality.
Private universities in Hanoi include the following: (1) Hanoi University of Business and
Technology; (2) Thang Long University; (3) Phuong Dong University; (4) Dai Nam University;
(5) Phenikaa University; (6) Thanh Do University; (7) Nguyen Trai University; (8) Hoa Binh
University; (9) FPT University; (10) Bac Ha International University; (11) Hanoi Financial and
Banking University; (12) East Asia University of Technology; (13) University of Technology and
Management; (14) RMIT University Vietnam; (15) Asia University of Industrial Arts; (16) British
University Vietnam. For private universities in Hanoi, the pressure of maintaining a sustainable cash
flow and the freedom of students selecting their education has made their faculties highly aware of their
brands. The competition between schools includes competition for students talented faculty members,
research funding, collaborations with prestigious organizations and investors,... This competition is a
testament of the business aspect in education.
While the importance of university branding is well acknowledged as universities start their global
integration process, there is still a lot of confusion on how to evaluate and build a university’s brand.
Several conditions motivate the development of university brands with focus on international integration:
- Vietnam aims to build one or several central universities at international scale, able to serve local
students and attract foreign admissions.
- The government needs to strongly invest into multi-disciplinary universities, forming the basis of
creating high-quality universities.
- The university system needs a ranking system moderated by quality assurance centers for
continued improvements.
- Increase in self-sufficiency for universities.
- Vietnam’s universities need strategies for self improvement through evaluation, to reach
international standards.
- The Ministry of Education and universities need to change mindsets: students are true customers
of the education service.
- Brand development enforces and builds prestige, improving quality and self-sufficiency is the
path to sustained development for Vietnam’s universities.
For a brand to have value, schools need to create new methods and ideas for solving problems,
improve their service quality and most importantly be adaptable to changes. Change does not stop at
learning qualities, it also applies to management methods, commercializing research or connecting with
businesses and other educators. Brand management helps private universities affirm their direction such
that it is suitable to the current process of change and global integration.
2.2. Current state of digital transformation at private universities in Hanoi, Vietnam
Digital transformation is an inevitable, fast moving trend within the current Industrial Revolution
4.0, through which people can have more access to information, communicate across vast distances and
save valuable time.
In the global integration, Vietnam in general and the education system specifically cannot stay
out of the world’s movement, and must quickly get on board the fourth Industrial Revolution to reap
its benefits. Aspects of digital transformation relating to university education, such as requirements
for success, current state, achievements and problems,... need to be evaluated as a means to propose
directions for the future.
Application of digital transformation in university education
Digital transformation can help universities in several ways, including: shifting from lectures to
developing students’ skillsets; improving self-study capabilities; allowing learning anywhere, anytime;
personalizing the learning process; creating a learning society and promoting lifelong learning. The
explosion of IoT, Big Data, AI, SMAC (Social networks - Mobile - AI - Cloud) has formed the basis
of a digital education system. Accordingly, several smart education models are being developed on top
of ICT technologies. These models aim to help personalize learning by automatically finding optimal
syllabuses and schedules for each individual; enable easy access to vast knowledge repositories; and
allow near-instant communication between family members, faculty staff and students.
Digital transformation in private universities in Hanoi are focusing on two primary aspects:
transforming administration and transforming teaching, learning, testing and scientific research. The
transformation of administration tasks include digitizing administrative data, creating large federated
databases, deploying public online services, applying AI, blockchain, data analysis,... to streamline
administrative processes. The transformation of teaching, learning, testing and scientific research
include digitizing syllabuses (lecture notes, test questions,...), building digital libraries and virtual labs,
deploying e-learning systems and cyber classes, and digitizing scientific results.
The current state of digital transformation in private universities in Hanoi
To date, most private universities have determined that applying ICT is a central mission for
successfully undergoing digital transformation. In several schools, policies for encouraging digital
transformation have been passed, completing legal frameworks such as rules for applying ICT in
administration, online teaching, rules for remote university education, rules for administering and
operating databases, models for connecting ICT applications, and instructions regarding ICT-related
missions for faculties.
For administration, all 16 schools have performed digitization and construction of databases for
all departments. All current data have been digitized and identified. Such databases are useful tools
for recruitment and reporting; helping administrators pass more effective policies. The schools’ digital
administrative systems are interconnected with over 300 other universities and colleges nationwide,
with the Ministry of Education as the moderator for continued operation.
For teaching and learning, lecturers are encouraged to contribute their syllabuses to the school’s
repository and to the Digitized Vietnamese Knowledge base, helping to build a learning society.
Specific policies are in place to train ICT personnel. Most private universities in Hanoi offer an ICT
specialization, as well as collaborations with businesses and international organizations for additional
resources, associating education with the needs of businesses and the public.
However, there are issues in the execution of digital transformation at Hanoi’s private university
that needs addressing, including:
- Network infrastructure and ICT equipment are largely nonuniform and inadequate for full digital
transformation. This is partly the reason why applications of AI, Big Data, IoT,... on current databases are not
yet complete, leading to patchy results.
- Digitizing, building and updating digital resources require large investments in human resources
and financially to ensure a complete, high quality repository that can serve the needs of students in all
levels and specialization. For now, the construction of such repositories are mostly self-supported and
unstructured, making it difficult for quality control.
- The gathering, sharing and mining of data require a common legal framework: laws on copyrights,
intellectual property, information security, digital transactions, data sharing consent. More specifically,
these laws include copyrights for digital lectures (in what conditions can they be used, partially or fully),
regulations for data mining (who can mine what data, at which level, regulated by whom), and legal
guidelines for digital files and especially digital grade sheets. These frameworks would help develop a
sufficiently large database for universities and adequately serve their needs in the digital transformation.
However, data fragmentation is still existent in most private universities in Hanoi.
- It is necessary to complete guidelines regarding online education, specifically: Rules on online
learning content, duration, online evaluation, inspecting and accrediting online learning quality,
classroom organization (short-term and long-term) alongside other legal bindings during the digital
transformation process.
Conditions for successful digital transformation in private universities in Hanoi, Vietnam
Most administrators of private universities in Hanoi are focused and determined to successfully
perform digital transformation. Below are several conditions required for this endeavor as stated in these
universities’s documents:
- Awareness of digital transformation needs to be communicated and agreed upon throughout each
department and individual of the faculty. There needs to be consensus that digital transformation is an
inevitability, thus requires adequate preparation and investment.
- Rules, policies and legal frameworks need to be completed in order to facilitate campus-wide
digital transformation in all activities. Such policies include ensuring copyright and intellectual property
registration; relating to online teaching quality such as information security; relating politics, ethics such
as protecting personal information; and relating to conditions of online teaching as well as inspection
and accreditation of online learning.
- ICT and other types of infrastructure need to be provided uniformly throughout campus to ensure
administration, teaching and learning can be performed smoothly between departments, connections
are stable and information is secured. This requires adequate financial investments for high-quality
equipment and software solutions.
- Finally, personnel (including administrators, lecturers, and students) need to be well educated
on topics relating to digital transformation. These topics include IT skills, knowledge of information
security, and the ability to effectively use support tools for teaching and learning.
2.3. Brand management trends for universities in the context of digital transformation and global
integration in Hanoi, Vietnam
The new trend in development for university education worldwide is building the university brand
through specific activities, such as: expanding facilities; increasing international scientific collaboration;
diversifying partnerships among schools and businesses; building educational centers to attract foreign
investors; recruiting experts on brand development and financial investments for developing the brand;
developing the brand on social media… These are activities that enhance the school’s brand, creating
prestige in the community. The trend in brand management with digital transformation and global
integration manifests in several ways:
(1) Creating a difference for the brand
Branding in education is very important as students and parents have many choices to choose
from. A research from Milward Brown shows that people tend to buy from brands they believe to be
meaningful, different and able to stand out. Such qualities are directly correlated to how people choose,
pay for and commit to brands. Hence, private universities need to create brands that evoke positive
emotions from students, parents and the public by creating meaningful differences to their competition.
To create sustainable competitive advantages, a brand needs good recognition, and its marketing
needs to reflect and heighten that difference. Meaningful differences start from the brand’s benefit.
Different brands are clear in their intent - they need to provide what students want or need, and what
other competitors cannot copy.
School brands in university education help students tell one university from the other. For private
universities, it is not enough to only have brand directions for the school, but also for each specialization
it offers. This type of brand direction is suitable for private universities at this time, whose educational
qualities are not yet recognized by the public and media. A focus on branding for a particular major will
bring a strong and distinct signature to the overall brand, creating good impressions and prestige among
educators and society in general.
(2) Brands serving the students’ needs
Becoming a student-oriented brand can help brands become a necessity and gain students’ attention,
increasing sentiment and student loyalty through school pride. When a university’s brand is accepted
by students, it brings the school tangible benefit, including easier access to the market even for new
specializations.
(3) Bringing the brand experience to students
By providing positive experiences to students, universities can find loyal students, people who
will recommend the brand to others. This is what maintains the brand’s strength when faced with
competition. Impressions from students and parents are created through various events as part of the
brand’s marketing campaign. Each of these events need to provide a consistent impression of the
experience the brand provides to students to avoid creating gaps that negatively affect brand perception.
By creating a strong experience both online and on-campus, schools can facilitate recommendations and
loyalty, thus improving the brand’s value.
From a business perspective, education is considered a service industry, provided by schools to
students as their customers. Similar to a business environment, growth requires universities to actively
advertise their brands, images and names to students instead of passively waiting for them. This applies
even for publicly funded facilities. Thus, “brand development” in education is a major issue.
This research is based on gathering qualitative data from three sources: (1) archived records, (2)
semi-structured interviews and (3) recurring unstructured conversations with personnel involved in
brand management at private universities in Hanoi. We perform our data collection in three phases.
The first phase starts in October 2020, in which we gather public records from various sources on the
scale, organization and reviews of private universities in Hanoi. The goal for this phase is evaluating the
context of our research, and gaining data regarding the current state of brand management during digital
transformation for private universities in Hanoi. Our most valuable source of data is archived records,
including documents on universities’ activities, policy documents and evaluation reports related to digital
transformation processes: brand management at private universities; Application of digital transformation
in university education, The current state of digital transformation in private universities, Conditions
for successful digital transformation in private universities in Hanoi; And brand management trends for
universities in the context of digital transformation and global integration in Hanoi, Vietnam.
The second phase uses a qualitative method to evaluate the effects of digital transformation to
brand management, in the form of a case study on private universities in Hanoi:
- Methodology: we use theories and viewpoints from brand management in economics as our basis
for creating methods, determining our scope and selecting methods for addressing the problem.
- Theoretical methods: we gather scientific information from existing documents on brand
management in education and logical deduction to come to our conclusions, including:
+ Method for classifying and organizing theories: we group documents on branding and brand
management by facets, authors, problem natures and development paths. We then organize these groups
into an overall theoretical model;
+ Method for analyzing and summarizing theories: we analyze different documents by breaking
down the branding and brand management topic into different sub-topics. To summarize them, we link
these different sub-topics into a unified model to describe brand management in private universities
within the context of digital transformation and global integration of Vietnam.
We initially planned phase three of our research in July and August of 2021. This phase includes semi-
structured interviews and conversations with administrators and personnel involved in brand management
as well as digital transformation in private universities. However, due to the COVID-19 lockdown in
Hanoi, our direct interviews had to become online interviews. We conducted several candid interviews to
verify our findings. Online surveys and discussions are our most important sources in this phase.
Brand management in university education in Vietnam still requires more research and analysis
based on scientific evidence and deduction to identify specific factors affecting brand development.
In the context of digital transformation and global integration, universities need brand management
strategies that are suitable to their situations and scientific methods to execute them: Establishing values
and positioning for the brand; Planning and executing brand marketing programs; Measuring and
explaining brand effectiveness
The digital transformation and global integration process in university education in Vietnam is
happening alongside the transformation and integration of the entire economy. Digital transformation
in education is essentially bringing all educational activities to the digital environment, changing how
educational activities operate with 4 primary aspects: teaching activities, learning activities, research
activities, and administrative processes.
Brand management activities for a private university in the context of digital transformation and
global integration of Hanoi, Vietnam
Entering a new phase of building and developing the economy with increased globalization and
more scientific advancements than ever, scientists and education experts agree that it is crucial to have a
healthy, honest and modern education system. The system must be adept at creating meaningful change
in general literacy, developing human resources, fostering talent and taking part in building Vietnam’s
culture and people. Government regulations on education and administering educational facilities need
to have suitable definitions of commercialization in education in the current global context. In this
section, we present our findings and analysis of brand management activities in a private university in
the context of digital transformation and global integration of Vietnam.
University brand management is the combination of all solutions and resources dedicated to
fulfilling the school’s quality commitment to the public. University brand management is the execution
of the school’s mission and vision; the construction of the school’s core values, through which the
brand’s position to the public is asserted, via evaluations on education quality and university rankings,
as well as related third parties. Brand management means analyzing and planning so that the brand
is recognized on the market. In other words: brand management is the process of controlling every
aspect of how the brand is perceived. Brand management for private universities within the context of
digital transformation and global integration includes:
a. Establishing values and positioning for the brand
To establish a university brand, it is crucial to determine why students and parents select a
brand. In education, these reasons may include: learning experience, tuition fee, education quality,
recommendations from others, reputation/recognition from the media and the public, position in public
rankings,... Brand positioning is defined by Kohler as: “The act of designing brand products and images
such that it remains in a unique and valuable position in the minds of target customers”. Thus, brand
positioning includes understanding tangible and intangible properties of the university. The process of
brand positioning for universities consists of the following five steps: (1) Determine potential students;
(2) Analyze schools with similar properties; (3) Research and evaluate opportunities to position the
brand; (4) Set up the brand positioning map, the goal of which is establishing the brand’s core differences
and properties, especially compared to competitors; (5) Decide the positioning plan.
Determine and establish the brand’s value: Brand value is the financial value that potential students
are willing to spend in tuition to receive an education at the university behind the brand. For each school,
brand value is a guarantee for forecasting demand. It helps the school commit to improving education
quality, improve sales, create distinct styles, habits and cultures. The core value of a brand is its most
powerful, unique difference. The core value is seen as the guiding compass for the brand, as all activities
to build and develop the brand are built around the core value. The brand’s core value needs to be the
first value to be decided on, from which programs, faculties, facilities, administrative models,... are
developed. Additionally, school activities are highly affected by the results of digital transformation.
Thus, universities need to promote important foundations for digital transformation such as: internet
infrastructure (5G, telecom networks,...) and legal frameworks for information security; policies
towards training and improving digital competence; fostering the ecosystem of edutech companies;
focus on using AI, ML, Blockchain,... in education will bring positive results in solving current problems
affecting the education system at private universities in Hanoi, Vietnam. Therefore, universities need
to have creative solutions to promote accessibility and provide quality education to all demographics
regardless of location.
b. Planning and executing brand marketing programs
Planning marketing strategies is the construction of marketing strategies and specific marketing
methods. The first step is determining the brand positioning based on selected student demographics.
Marketing administrators need to care about positioning the brand compared to other competitors on the
market. Positioning is both a goal and a strategic direction for the university’s marketing activities. Brand
positioning helps the brand stand out within the education system, thus having corresponding target
student demographics. Selecting the appropriate brand positioning is tied to the brand’s competitors,
related properties, the competitor’s positioning and market segments. The final choice may either be a
positioning strategy compared against competing schools, with the same target student demographic, or
a new positioning on the market without any competitors.
To successfully execute their marketing strategies, schools need to have a detailed action plan.The
action plan also assigns decision responsibilities and tasks for departments and individuals, with timetables
for tasks and specific milestones to hit.
Digital transformation in universities aim at creating new models for operations, new ways to
experience education services, and improve competitiveness. Digital transformation in planning and
executing brand communication campaigns can be very impactful: delivering information to prospective
students, parents and the public on tuition policies, programs, products, school culture, school resources;
convincing students, parents and the public to positively change their perception towards the school.
Digital transformation affects the choice of communication media - specific channels through which
messages and advertisements are delivered to target students. These messages are designed to change
the perception of students, parents and the public, which motivates the desire to enroll and increasing
trust. A university with a good brand communication campaign can approach many prospective students,
receive positive feedback and expand brand recognition. Digital transformation can help improve
information access, overcome distances and save time in delivering school values and cultures and
increasing prestige.
c. Measuring and explaining brand effectiveness
“Brand capital is the collection of existing and owed assets associated with the brand, its name and
symbol, which increases or decreases the value of products or services provided by companies to their
customers” (Aaker). For a university, the brand capital includes: Brand name perception, experience
quality, brand network, brand assets, value proposition to students, value proposition to the school and
brand loyalty of students and parents.
Building brand capital towards students is the differential effect of brand knowledge on the reaction
of students, parents and the public to the brand’s marketing. Measuring brand capital based on students
includes selecting ways to develop and execute the brand capital measurement system. Brand capital
management is considering ways to evaluate sources of brand capital and their outcomes, ways to create
brand value through marketing, components connecting phases from the source to outcome, and value
multipliers at each phase of brand management.
To effectively measure and explain brand effectiveness, private universities need to ensure
digital transformation has reached changes in administrative methods, processes and school culture
by switching to digital models via Big Data, IoT, Cloud computing and corresponding software.
Digitizing information makes it easier to store, search and share. Applying digital technology in
business processes such as using software can simplify and streamline school activities, aiming
toward the highest level of digital transformation which involves the use of AI, Big Data, IoT to
collect, process, analyze data, measure and explain data, leading to changes to the school’s model and
operations or brand development strategy.
d. Growing and maintaining brand capital

To grow the brand’s capital, the following issues are often focused on:
(1). Creating a meaningful difference: The brand’s innovation must truly be different from its
competition and serve the rational or emotional needs of prospective students.
(2). Maximize usability and ensure the brand is accessible: Omnichannel is a concept involving
the use of multiple channels for admission consulting, ensuring students can easily find and experience
the university’s brand. The brand needs to assure that students realize their expectations can be
satisfied or reach a level of difference where students actively seek them out for admission. The brand
also needs to create experiences in each phase of selecting, applying and enrolling such that they are
cohesive and convenient.
(3). Spreading meaning difference: The brand needs to stress its difference at every point of contact
in order to bond with and motivate students. Aside from actively predicting major/school trends and the
emotional values for students, brands need to stay true to their own promises to students.
(4). Ensure tuition fees correspond to education quality and meet quality requirements: The brand
needs to ensure its difference is worth the tuition fees paid by students while also bringing sufficient
profits for future investments in the brand.
(5). Ensuring difference for the brand: The most common brand asset is the design and logo, but
also extends to successful students, overall image, learning experience, brand rituals, and brand voice.
Consistently integrating these assets into communication channels and experiences can create powerful
emotional connections to students.
(6). Making the brand stand out as much as possible: Considering the massive growth of e-commerce,
digital communication to make university brands stand out has become more important than ever.
Universities need to invest in paid media channels to ensure students and parents keep the brand in mind
when their needs arise.
(7). Maximize returning student ratio: Loyal students help reduce conversion costs for following
majors and education levels. Therefore, university brands need to create memorable and consistent
experiences that correspond to students’ initial impressions. In addition, brands also need to manage and
organize cross-major and cross-level programs. By doing so, students can return for different majors and
education levels without hesitation.
(8).Constantly innovating: Universities need to maintain their brand’s difference and reinforce
students’ experience. Plus, they also have to pay attention to changes in students’ needs and backgrounds
to discover and take advantage of opportunities.
To maintain a strong brand, following society’s needs goes hand-in-hand with maintaining
education quality. The attention and focused investments from the Government in recent years have
been an important motivation for universities in Vietnam to build and maintain their brands. Flexibility,
creativity, activeness in creating international partnerships combined with a focused approach to create
education services fitting to society’s needs instead of what the school has are the foundations to creating
the brands of Vietnam universities. Brand management in universities must be considered an important
mission, requiring financial and human investments, especially for private universities in the context of
digital transformation and global integration.
This research has provided a complete look at the impact of digital transformation and global
integration to brand management activities at private universities in Hanoi. Private universities need
drastic changes in organizing university education, and take responsibility for their students with
their reputation. A suitable brand management strategy is an important factor in improving reputation,
prestige, and trust from students and parents, in order to attract applications. Brand development is not
only private universities’ means to survive, it also shows a sustainable growth direction in the context of
We will actively follow up with several problems raised in this research, namely:
- To effectively manage their brand, administrators at private universities need to allocate resources
to build, advertise and make use of the school’s brand. Brand management strategy needs to be at
the center of the school’s long-term, mid-term and short-term strategy. To achieve the goals of brand
management, universities need ways to organize and analyze primary factors to have suitable plans
for developing the brand in the context of digital transformation and global integration. Solutions will
focus on: selecting the model and process for brand development; analyzing factors affecting brand
development; proposing methods for executing brand management policies; proposing solutions to
improve brand management goals.
- Research training-learning activities, how to organize, administer and operate private universities
for each type of administrative activity.
- Research in detail the brand management solutions at each private university, along with experts
and administrators’ opinions on solutions to brand management at private universities in the context of
5. CONCLUSION
Currently, dozens of countries led by developed nations are reforming their education. This is
because they pursue an unending goal of enriching human resources through multiplying knowledge
potential and creativity for each citizen, on the basis of good ethics, to speed up their development. While
there has been a lot of research on creating brands in university education, few authors have focused on
specific activities in educational branding. Brand management activities are highly affected by effective
digital transformation, as well as Vietnam’s overall global integration. The current change in education
mindset needs to go hand in hand with building a learning society; ensuring conditions for increased
quality; creating a standardized and international education system. This research is suitable with the
digital transformation process and global integration in Vietnam in general and private universities in
Hanoi specifically.
This paper has reported on the process of determining the impact of digital transformation and
global integration on brand management activities - with a case study on private universities in Hanoi. We
have attempted to explain the process of determining and basic properties of brand management within
the context of digital transformation and global integration. We have described properties and values
brought by digital transformation on brand management activities. We demonstrated challenges when
reaching an accurate and concise definition for the problem. We have also discussed the implications
of our findings to building brands for universities. We believe this research asks more questions than it
answers. We have not mentioned many questions on solutions to brand management. Findings in this
research can be used to convince skeptics on the merit of brand management as an administrative tool
in universities. However, a fact remains that there is very little academic knowledge about branding in
education, as there is a lack of experimental research. More case studies will be required, especially
in organizations where brands are approached without an emphasis in consistency and accuracy in
definition. Only then can we provide a deeper look into the usefulness of brand management in a broader
sense. Therefore, brand case studies can expand our knowledge about the difficulties that university-
level education facilities have to face as they try to reach for appropriate education culture, fittingness
for students and financial appropriateness in an increasingly competitive education system.
REFERENCES
1. Aaker, D.A., & Joachimsthaler, E. (2000). Brand leadership. New York: The Free Press.
2. Adler, Alfred.,(1998), What Life Could Mean to You., Hazelden Foundation. Center City,
Minnesota: Hazelden. 58-59.
3. Bang Nguyen, Xiaoyu Yu, T.C. Melewar, Jane Hemsley-Brown (2016), Brand ambidexterity
and commitment in higher education: An exploratory study, Journal of Business Research,
(Source: ScienceDirect)
4. Bennett, R., Ali-Chowdhury, R., & Savani, S. (2008, April). Defining the components of a
university brand: A qualitative investigation. Paper presented at the International Conference of
Higher Education Marketing, Krakow, Poland
5. Beneke, J. (2011). Marketing the Institution to Prospective Students - A Review of Brand (Reputation)
Management in Higher ducation. International Journal of Business and Management, 29-43.
6. Blumenthal, D., & Bergstrom, A.J. (2003). Brand councils that care: Towards the convergence
of branding and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Brand Management, 10, 327-341.
7. Bộ Thông tin và truyền thông Việt Nam(2020), Cẩm nang chuyển đổi số.
8. Browne, M.W. &Cudeck, R. (1993), Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen&
J.S. Long (Eds), Testing structural equation model (pp 136-162). Newsbury Park, CA: Sage.
9. Bruno Broucker, Kurt De Wit, Jelle Mampaey (2020), Brand Communication of Higher
Education Institutions: a Call for Multichannel Communication Analysis in Higher Education
Branding Research, in Higher Education Policy (Source: SpringerLink)
10. Bulotaite, N. (2003). University heritage – An institutional tool for branding and marketing.
Higher Education in Europe, 28(4), 449-454.
11. Bunzel, D. (2007). Universities sell their brands. Journal of Product and Brand Management,
16(2), 152-153.
12. Chapleo, C. (2011). Exploring rationales for branding a university: Should we be seeking to
measure branding in U.K. universities? Journal of Brand Management, 18(6), 411-422.
13. Chu Nguyễn Mộng Ngọc (2012), Đo lường tài sản thương hiệu Trường Đại học Kinh tế TP. Hồ
Chí Minh”, Đề tài cấp Bộ, Mã số: CS-2011-32. - Đại học Kinh tế TP. Hồ Chí Minh, Việt Nam.
14. Dianne Dean, Ramon E. Arroyo-Gamez, Khanyapuss Punjaisri, Christopher Pich (2016),
Internal brand co-creation: The experiential brand meaning cycle in higher education, Journal of
Business Research (Source: ScienceDirect)
15. Đào Công Khanh (2004), Thương hiệu đại học Việt Nam, tại sao không, Tạp chí Khoa học, Đại
học Cần thơ, 163-170
16. Edson Roberto Scharf, Rion Brattig Correia (2015), Identification with a Higher Education
Institution Through Communication of the Brand, in The Sustainable Global Marketplace (Source:
SpringerLink)
17. Gatfield, T. (1998). Examining student satisfaction with group projects and peer assessment.
Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 24(4), 365-337.
18. Jelle Mampaey (2018), Brand Communication in Flemish Higher Education: A Comparison
Between Types of Institutions, in Competition in Higher Education Branding and Marketing
19. Jane Hemsley-Brown, T.C. Melewar, Bang Nguyen, Elizabeth J. Wilson (2016),
Exploring brand identity, meaning, image, and reputation (BIMIR) in higher education: A
special section, Journal of Business Research (Source: ScienceDirect)
20. Jane W. Licata, James G Maxham, Student Expectations of the University Experience: Levels
and Antecedents for Pre-Entry Freshmen, ( 1998), Journal of Marketing for Higher education
9(1):69-91
21. Keller, K.L. (2001). Building Customer-Based Brand Equity: A Blueprint for Creating Strong
Brands. Marketing Science Institute. Retrieved October 10, 2011. http://mktg.uni-svishtov.bg/
ivm/resources/customerbasedbrandequitymodel.pdf
22. Keller, K.L. (2008). Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand
Equity (3rd ed.). Pearson Education
23. Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2009). Principles of marketing (13th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall
24. Kotler P (2005), Quản trị Marketing, [Vũ Hùng. Trans], NXB Thống kê, Hà Nội.
25. Hemsley-Brown, J., & Goonawardana, S. (2007). Brand harmonization in the international
higher education market. Journal of Business Research, 60, 942-948.
26. Hemsley-Brown, J., & Oplatka, I. (2006). Universities in a competitive marketplace – A systematic
review of the literature on higher education marketing. International Journal of Public Sector
Management, 19(4), 316-338.
27. Landrum, R., Turrisi, R., and Harless, C.(1998), University image: the beneits of assessment and
modeling,Journal of Marketing in Higher Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 53-68
28. Temple, P. (2006). Branding higher education: Illusion or reality? Perspectives: Policy & Practice
in Higher Education, 10(1), 15–19.
29. Trần Tiến Khoa (2013), “Quản trị thương hiệu trường đại học trong bối cảnh Việt Nam: từ góc
nhìn theo lí thuyết đặc trưng thương hiệu (brand identity)”, Tạp chí Phát triển Khoa học và Công
nghệ, no. 16, issue Q2 - 2013, 117-126
30. Vo Thi Ngoc Thuy, Hoang Doan Phuong Thao (2017), Impact of students’ experiences on brand
image perception: the case of Vietnamese higher education in International Review on Public
and Nonprof (Source: SpringerLink)
31. Vũ Trí Dũng (2016), “Đầu tư xây dựng thương hiệu cho các cơ sở giáo dục thông qua hoạt động
marketing: Nghiên cứu tình huống CFVG”, Tạp chí Kinh tế & Phát triển, no. 234, 95-102.
32. Vik Naidoo, Linda D. Hollebeek (2016), Higher education brand alliances: Investigating
consumers’ dual-degree purchase intentions, Journal of Business Research (Source: ScienceDirect)
33. Zemsky, Robert - Shaman, Susan - Shapiro, Daniel B (2001), Higher Education as Competative
Enterprise: when markets matter. New Directions for Institutional Research: Vol 2001, No 111
34. Zemsky, R., & Massy, W.F. (2004). Thwarted Innovation. What happened to elearning and
why? Accessed: 24th August 2007 http://www.irhe.upenn.edu.
DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY
FOR LECTURERS IN THE FIELD OF NATURAL SCIENCES
OF RESEARCH-ORIENTED UNIVERSITIES
Pham Van Thuan, Nghiem Thị Thanh
Nguyen Thanh Xuan
(VNU University of Science)
Abstract: Fostering the lecturers of research-oriented universities should focus on the following activities:
fostering lecturers based on the required competencies; based on personal aspiration; through the process of
performing the tasks of lecturers; sending on secondment, exchanging scientific research at home and abroad …
Based on the survey results of lecturers in the field of natural sciences of National Universities, the “very effective”
and “effective” levels of evaluation of the above-mentioned fostering activities are only less than 40%. The article
has proposed 06 solutions that are necessary and highly feasible, most of them reach over 70%. The proposed
solutions are specific, practical and implemented under the orientation of quality-focused viewpoints according to
international standards.
Keywords: professional competency, lecturers in the field of natural sciences, research-oriented universities,
National University.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fostering can be seen as the main way to improve the quality of lecturers in research-oriented
universities. For the lecturers in the field of natural sciences of research-oriented universities, fostering
lecturers has its own specific forms such as: on-the-job fostering, in-service fostering; regularly updating
professional knowledge in domestic and foreign partners; encouraging lecturers to work as visiting
lecturers at high-ranked universities in the world … This article aims to survey the reality of professional
competency development activities of lecturers in the field of natural sciences of National Universities
by the above characteristics; provide solutions and assess the necessity and feasibility of solutions for
development of professional competency of lecturers.
2. OVERVIEW OF PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES OF LECTURERS
OF RESEARCH-ORIENTED UNIVERSITIES
Developing professional competency of lecturers of research-oriented universities should focus
on the following activities:
- Lecturer training and retraining activities are based on the competencies to be satisfied. At the
end of academic year, the Faculty-level and University-level Board of Human Resource will assess the
level of achievement using the set of standards of lecturers, clearly determine the level of competency
of lecturers to continue updating the results as a basis for lecturers to adjust their plans and develop the
next roadmap (Cảnh Chí Dũng, 2015, p. 150).
- Developing lecturer training and retraining plans based on personal aspiration of lecturer: based
on lecturer standards in accordance with research-oriented requirements, the lecturers will self-register
goals to be achieved and recommend ways to achieve the targets in order to develop the development
roadmap within a certain period. Each lecturer will become more effective when he or she feels that
the learning work for the purpose of meeting the prescribed requirements is truly meaningful to the
individual rather than perceived as a mean for the organization to achieve his/her set goals. “Establish
the center for lecturer development support dedicated to monitoring, assessing and supporting lecturer
development programs. This recommendation comes from the fact that the development programs are
all voluntary by the lecturers, so it is necessary to have supportive centers, not mandatory and procedural
functional units that may affect the academic freedom of lecturers. Clearly disseminate requirements,
content of each standard and importance of the set of standards (especially for newly recruited lecturers
at home or abroad). This recommendation aims to motivate and encourage lecturers to voluntarily
develop and implement their own development plans in a oriented way and in line with the goals of
university” (Cảnh Chí Dũng, 2015, pp. 150,151).
- Training and retraining through the process of performing the tasks of lecturers: The view of learning
process should be also changed in comparison with traditional approach: not only from the perspective
of formal learning programs provided by the organization, but more importantly, from the perspective of
informal learning through the working environment; in which voluntariness and strong motivation are
important factors (Cảnh Chí Dũng, 2015, p. 152; Phạm Văn Thuần, 2016) also believes that the strengths
of higher education institutions (especially research-oriented universities) with many leading lecturers
should be taken advantage for on-the-job fostering. Each young lecturer has an experienced staff such as
professor, associate professor, doctor of science, … to guide and help in teaching-specialized activities.
- The lecturers are permitted to send on secondment and exchange scientific research at domestic
and foreign training and scientific research institutions: according to (Trương Quang Học, 2009, p.
24), in the American research universities, the lecturers have 1 – 2 semester(s) for fostering (scientific
research) after 5 years. In accordance with (Tuyên ngôn Hợp Phì, 2013, p. 5), research university is a
part of global network of collaborations among similar institutions, making significant and valuable
contributions to global research efforts. It integrates into the international community because its
recognized excellence is capable of attracting attention, partnerships and support.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF LECTURERS IN THE FIELD OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF RESEARCH-
ORIENTED UNIVERSITIES
According to Đào Trọng Thi et al (2004) and Cảnh Chí Dũng (2015), most research universities
in the world require competency assessment for lecturers based on activities: teaching, research and
service activities; especially require lecturers to be excellent in both research and teaching, in which
scientific research is considered with high weight in the achievement of lecturers.
Research universities often require teachers to have a doctorate or equivalent, trained at the top
universities in the country or in the world. Competitiveness and collectivism are the sense of professors
of research university, as well as the university itself. This scientific community is imbued with a desire
to contribute to science and knowledge, both to scientific progress and to development of career and
prestige. Understanding the importance of collaboration, they work in groups, especially in science. The
international tendency in consciousness and also in work is the characteristic of professors of research
universities. They strengthen cooperation with colleagues around the world and regularly exchange
expertise in different countries; getting jobs in places with the best working conditions, salaries, and
working facilities. In recent years, internationally qualified scientists have worked simultaneously in
many countries, sometimes holding scientific positions in many countries.
Research-oriented universities are multidisciplinary and multi-field universities in training and
scientific research with high-tech specialties based on strong basic research, with emphasis on innovate
research activities. The most important task of the research university is to expand the frontiers of
knowledge, breaking the existing limits in human perception. In some countries, these studies are a
partnership between the private sector and the scientific community. As such, they have a key responsibility
for creating scientific progress. Most research in the field of natural sciences is fundamental and often
very expensive; usually basic research, being the quintessence of the function of community and society
service; no one gains profit directly from basic scientific research. Funding for basic scientific research
has been being a hard problem for many countries (Altbach & Salmi, 2011, pp. 18-21) and (Altbach,
2012, pp. 34-35).
4.1. Research problem
- Establishing a theoretical basis for developing professional competence of lecturers in research
universities: research universities have their own characteristics, requiring lecturers to have the following
qualities: particular ability. How should professional development of teaching staff in research-oriented
universities focus on activities.
- Survey and evaluate the actual situation of professional capacity development activities of
lecturers in the field of natural sciences according to the characteristics of research universities at
national universities.
- Proposing solutions to develop professional capacity of lecturers in the field of natural
sciences in universities in the direction of research and surveying the necessity and feasibility of
the proposed solutions.
4.2. Research design
The research has conducted to survey the actual situation of development of human resources of lecturers
in the field of natural sciences based on the characteristics of universities according to research universities
Scale design: the most used scale is the Likert scale, number of steps 5.
Level: level 1 = ineffective, level 2 = less effective, level 3 = moderate, level 4 = quite effective and
level 5 = very effective; level 0: recognize yes or no)
4.3. Determine the sample size
m
According to Likert, the determination of sample size is based on the formula: n = ∑ k .Pj
j =1
In which: n: minimum number of votes; k: Likert order; P number of groups; m number of

independent variables.
Applying the above formula, we determine at least n=135 votes.
Survey of the current situation and the necessity and feasibility of the solutions was conducted by
questionnaires for teachers at 02 National Universities. The total number of survey votes at 2 Universities
of Science is 351 votes. The percentage of answer sheets collected from University of Science – Vietnam
National University, Hanoi is 186/351, accounting for 53%; from the University of Science – Vietnam
National University, Ho Chi Minh City is 47%.
5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Reality of professional competency development activities of lecturers in the field of natural
sciences of National Universities and proposed solutions
The chart below shows the “effective” level of professional competency development activities of
lecturers in the field of natural sciences having been being developed at National Universities.
Figure 1: The “effective” level of professional competency development activities of lecturers in the field of natural sciences at
National Universities
The chart below summarizes the “very effective” and “effective” levels of professional competency
development activities of lecturers in the field of natural sciences at National Universities.
Figure 2: Summary of “very effective” and “effective” levels of professional competency development activities of lecturers in the
field of natural sciences at National Universities
Through the charts 1 and 2, they show that the effectiveness of carrying out professional competency
development activities of lecturers in the field of natural sciences at National Universities has been still
quite limited. The activities rated as “very good” are about 5%, rated as “good” are all less than 40%,
while the rest are rated as “average”. The content of lecturers who were seconded, exchanged scientific
research at domestic and foreign training and scientific research institutions had the lowest efficiency, the
level of quite good was only 33.6%. It shows that the strategy of professional competency development
lecturers in the field of natural sciences at National Universities has not been appropriate and had many
limitations in fact. Based on the results of the above situation study, the article proposes synchronous
and suitable solutions to the actual conditions of Vietnam.
5.2. Solutions to develop professional capacity of lecturers in the field of natural sciences in
universities in the direction of research
5.2.1. Organizing fostering on teamwork skills

According to Mahla Salajegheh et al. (2020, p. 5), one of the 26 indicators of faculty professional
development is teamwork.
Because it has to go through 4 stages: building, breakthrough, stabilizing, perfecting, at first, it

seems that an active group does not achieve the effectiveness like a working individual (Thuan & Xuan,
2018). As a result, there are a few capable and enthusiastic individuals who have done the work for
the whole group. Consequently, the achievements obtained by the group are only due to the efforts of
a few people, which in turn leads to division and disintegration of the group. On the contrary, after the
breakthrough stage, if the group works in accordance with the principles, the group will stabilize and
promote the strength of teamwork, overcoming the limitations of the individual to achieve the common
goal that everyone can obtain the benefits from the group. A group should have skills: interpersonal
communication within the group, conflict resolution and leadership; skills in using tools for group
administration and management.
5.2.2. Organizing fostering on competency of international cooperation and publication through the
performance of tasks of lecturers and retraining courses
- Take advantage of the strengths of research-oriented universities with many leading lecturers for on-
the-job fostering. Young lecturers also work with experienced staff to guide and help in professional and
teaching activities. Young lecturers must have specific programs, content and goals for each of their fields
and must have specific published products such as articles, specific topics, textbooks, lesson plans, …
- Develop the lecturers through the club of young scientists. Young lecturers have been developing
strongly with many young doctors trained from abroad, this is a form to promote scientific research
activities at research-oriented universities. The club is to help young scientists connect with each other
to generate new scientific research ideas and develop scientific research competency. In particular, the
club will connect policy makers who are capable of supporting resources and mechanisms to help young
scientists develop.
- In order to be able to train and foster, the lecturers in the field of natural sciences develop
professional and scientific research competencies to gradually achieve competency framework:
Identify training and fostering needs. Research-oriented universities should organize assessment
and survey the reality of quality of lecturers in the field of natural sciences; compare with the requirements
of contents in the planning and competency framework; balance the requirements for each working
position with the priority order of contents to be trained and fostered, especially paying special attention
to the criteria having not yet been followed well to serve as a basis for organizing the training and
fostering. The training and fostering needs being very necessary for lecturers in the field of natural
sciences in the current period are:
(1) Intellectual property and commercialization of research results;
(2) Forecasting the science and technology development orientation in the revolution 4.0;
(3) Compilation and development of new training programs.
Research-oriented universities should closely follow the competency framework of lecturers in
the field of natural sciences to identify training and fostering needs for the lecturers. Compared with
the criteria, each individual lecturer identifies his/her weakness and strengths to identify training and
fostering needs.
In order to improve the quality of lecturers in the field of natural sciences, the fostering should be
conducted based on the individual needs of each teacher to ensure the implementation of training and
retraining plan with the desired results.
5.2.3. Professional development through secondment and exchange at domestic and foreign partners
Research-oriented universities actively send their staff to train at home and abroad. This is one of the
ways to quickly improve the professional qualifications of lecturers, and update the actual requirements
at home and abroad:
- Attend scientific conferences, practice and teach abroad;
- Go to graduate school at home and abroad;
- Go to study post-doctoral research and improve qualifications at home and abroad;
Lecturers of research-oriented universities should regularly update their professional knowledge
in domestic and foreign partners, thereby easily adapting to changes in majors. Specific activities such
as: sending to practice teaching, developing lectures, developing programs, experiences in building
laboratories and organization of scientific research at leading universities in the world. Research-oriented
universities should develop policies on encouraging lecturers to work as visiting lecturers at universities
around the world such as: calculating working hours suitable for scientific research activities, using
scientific research hours to have enough working time in the academic year, reducing teaching hours
when there are excellent scientific research achievements …
- Sign for cooperation agreements in training, scientific research and technology deployment with
universities, research institutes, companies and international organizations in or der to encourage and
create conditions for staff and students to have opportunity to be sent to study and work abroad to improve
qualifications and update professional knowledge.
5.2.4. Developing the fund for supporting potential scientific working groups
A scientist after going through basic training and post-doctoral research will begin to enter the
independent research stage. This is the time when the scientist starts looking for funding sources to set up
a scientific working group of his/her own, including funding to build material facilities for the scientific
working group (laboratory, synchronous research equipment, etc.), personnel for the scientific working
group (associates, personnel working under: researchers, students, technicians …) and maintenance
costs for the scientific working group (salaries for personnel, money spent on research activities, etc …).
Therefore, in most of the developed countries in the world, there are always funds available to scientists
to set up the initial steps for their research careers. This fund can be either from the research institutions
themselves, when posting a job for recruitment, the researcher will commit to providing initial funding
for the successful candidates, or from government funds given to candidates in the form of “fellowship”
or “fund”. The university will act as the guarantor of candidates.
For Vietnam, the article proposes to establish a fund for supporting potential scientific working
groups working on the following principles:
- Funding for a scientist with a project within 5 years can be considered as temporary enough to
set up a small scientific working group, with the ability to purchase basic research equipment and cover
maintenance costs for scientific working group activities.
- Research-oriented universities ensure resources in terms of material facilities, support procedures
in relation to human resources, finance and administration.
- Candidates should have enough experience in doing research after obtaining doctorate (for
example, two to three years of post-doctoral research), with a strong scientific background (with good
training process, continuous working experience with the output of scientific product …) plus a strong
enough research plan (or research proposal) for a long-term research direction.
5.2.5. Forming a network of part-time scientists who are foreigners, overseas Vietnamese and Vietnamese
working abroad
In South Korea or China, when they want to push up a certain industry, they find ways to compete
with the strongest centers in the world, invite top experts to work, and build a scientific working group.
Since then, the science industry will grow by itself, creating an international reputation. Scientists in
the same industry will find themselves to work together, and the prestige will increase more and more.
In the context of globalization, attracting good scientists to work in the home country is not easy
due to distance as well as differences in working conditions, income, environment, academic freedom.
This is a difficult task. However, if there are specific solutions with special salary policies, this problem
can be still resolved.
In fact, the talented and advanced programs of some key universities have invited qualified and
experienced professors from foreign universities, including Nobel Prize-winning scientists, to teach and
guide scientific research for students. The advanced program of the Ministry of Education and Training
and the strategic mission program of Vietnam National University have also invited foreign professors to
teach for a short time thanks to the funding of the State. If the State continues to invest, it is possible to
invite foreign scientists to work for a longer time. In addition, most universities around the world apply
the policy of academic exchange to expand their network of cooperation, develop more deeply their own
research directions, as well as enhance their creativity in order to enhance their creativity for the purpose
of forming new research directions and ideas with research lecturers at partner universities.
Research-oriented universities can carry out the following activities:
- Network building and development can be done through many methods such as: international
cooperation in various fields, through the university network abroad; through Vietnam Education
Foundation and similar funds; or through the introduction of scientists abroad.
- Establishing an online association for oversea scientists as well as connecting with domestic colleagues.
Currently, among overseas Vietnamese living abroad, there are many scientists who have been
teaching and doing research at leading universities in the world. Research-oriented universities should
attract these internationally qualified scientists for working and advise policies. Research-oriented
universities can develop policies on encouraging overseas Vietnamese scientists to collaborate in
different ways.
5.2.6. Formation of strong scientific working groups and research centers of excellence
According to Bui Minh Duc et al. (2019, p. 21), the model of scientific research in groups/research
groups has existed for a long time in universities around the world and is being developed in Vietnam
in the recent period.
Therefore, the article recommends the following conditions to form a strong research group:
- Leading scientist with organizational competency and enthusiasm in science; having the
competency to establish a network of domestic and international research cooperation;
- Having a long-term research direction and a strategy for development of such research direction
in each period, in line with international trends and practically serving the development of Vietnam.
- Laboratory operating expenses and support funds for international exchange activities such as
organizing and participating in short-term conferences, training courses and scientific exchanges.
- Gathering a team of enthusiastic and scientifically ambitious staff, especially young scientists,
post-doctoral trainees and fellows. The connection of members in the work requires science and clear
assignment of tasks, because in order to produce a good quality article, there must be a clear working
plan, in which the tasks of each individual must be clearly defined. A strong scientific working group
is completely different from a regular scientific working group. In a regular scientific working group,
sometimes the group leader takes care of most of the work with the support of a few students and fellows.
- Having a strategy on the professional development orientation of the group; Scientific results are
accumulated, developed and widely published in national and international journals.
- Having good partnerships with domestic and foreign agencies;
- The energy source of strong scientific working group is the topics and projects. Therefore, the
ability to participate in the selection of scientific and technological topics in the direction of research
is both a criterion of quality assessment and a decisive factor to the development ability of community.
High expertise, passion for science and ability to organize research are necessary requirements for a
Scientific Working Group Leader. The members of the group are highly qualified lecturers and researchers,
young and dynamic scientists and may include graduate students and fellows. The leadership factor is the
most important in the above criteria, followed by the young, dynamic and scientifically ambitious graduate
students and researchers. Building and developing strong Scientific Working Groups and higher step being
Centers of Excellence or Schools of Science.
5.3. Survey on necessity and feasibility of solutions
5.3.1. Necessity of solutions
Chart 3.1. Level of necessity of solutions for professional competency development of lecturers
in the field of natural sciences of research-oriented universities
Through the above chart, it can be seen that the level of necessity of solutions is quite uniform,
the “very necessary” and “necessary” levels of solutions are far above the opposing group of “less
necessary”, “unnecessary” and “not assessed”. It shows that the assessment of level of necessity
of solutions for professional competency development of lecturers in the field of natural sciences of
research-oriented universities is very high.
The chart shows that the solutions assessed as “necessary” and “very necessary” have very high
indexes. The lowest among the indexes is 69.2% under the solution of Building the Fund for supporting
potential scientific working group; the solution with an index of over 80% is: Organizing fostering on
teamwork skills.
5.3.2. Feasibility of solutions
Chart 3.2: Feasibility of solutions for professional competency development of lecturers

in the field of natural sciences of research-oriented universities
The above chart shows that most of the proposed solutions are very highly feasible, most of them
are over 60.4%. The prominent solution is Forming network of scientists who are foreigners, oversea
Vietnamese and Vietnamese working abroad, which has a feasibility index of over 70%.
6. CONCLUSION
Fostering the lecturers of research-oriented universities play the important role in the human
resources development. The survey results of lecturers in the field of natural sciences of National
Universities, the “very effective” and “effective” levels of evaluation of the above-mentioned fostering
activities are only less than 40%. The article has proposed 06 solutions that are necessary and highly
feasible, most of them reach over 70% which is to promote the active and active role of lecturers,
improve professional qualifications and professional capacity, and at the same time promote the potential
of each individual. To improve the quality of teaching staff in research universities, the training should
be conducted based on the individual needs of each teacher to ensure the implementation of the training
and retraining plan with the desired results.
REFERENCES
Vietnamese references
1. Altbach, P. G. (2012). Đại học nghiên cứu: khẳng định để phát triển (Người dịch: Phạm Thị Ly)
Bản tin Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội, 217-2009, 24-27.
2. Cảnh Chí Dũng. (2015). Phát triển giảng viên theo yêu cầu của đại học nghiên cứu: nghiên cứu
điển hình tại Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội Trường ĐH Kinh tế, ĐHQGHN. Hà Nội.
3. Trương Quang Học. (2009). Đại học Nghiên cứu. Bản tin Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội, 217-2009, 24-27.
4. Đào Trọng Thi và nhóm nghiên cứu. (2004). Nghiên cứu cơ chế quản lý đại học, đa ngành đa
lĩnh vực chất lượng cao theo định hướng đại học nghiên cứu, Đề tài cấp ĐHQGHN, mã số
QGTĐ 03.07.
5. Phạm Văn Thuần. (2016). Bồi dưỡng giảng viên đại học đáp ứng khung năng lực vị trí việc
làm. Journal of science of Hue, EducationalSci., 61(3), 45-55. https://doi.org/DOI:10.18173/2354-
1075.2016-0026
6. Tuyên ngôn Hợp Phì. (2013). Mười đặc điểm về trường đại học nghiên cứu hiện đại (người dịch:
Phạm Thị Ly) Bản tin Thông tin Quốc tế về Giáo dục đại học của Viện Đào tạo Quốc tế, ĐHQG
TPHCM., 14.
English references
1. Altbach, P. G., & Salmi, J. (2011). The road to academic excellence: The making of world-class research
universities. World Bank Publications.
2. Bui Minh Duc, Nguyen Thu Ha, & Nguyen Dinh Duc. (2019). The role of the research team for
international publication in the field of natural sciences and engineering. Journal of Educational
Research, VNU, 35(2), 12-23.
3. Mahla Salajegheh, Roghayeh Gandomkar, & Azim Mirzazadeh and John Sandars. (2020).
Identification of capacity development indicators for faculty development programs: A nominal
group technique study BMC Medical Education, 20(163). https://doi.org/https:// 10.1186/
s12909-020-02068-7.
4. Thuan, P. V., & Xuan, N. T. (2018). Developing Scientific Working Groups for Universities in
Vietnam. American Journal of Educational Research, 6(5), 449-454.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
ON STUDENTS’ SATISFACTION TOWARDS ONLINE COURSES
Le Thi Hoang Ha, Nguyen Phuong Vy
(Faculty of Quality Management, VNU University of Education)
Thanh Anh Minh
Abstract: This study was conducted to explore formative assessment practice in a number of online courses
of undergraduate programs at a university in Hanoi during a social distance period due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
The study’s focus was on assessment strategies that had been said to be effective in facilitating and improving
students’ engagement in learning and the authenticity of the learning. A quantitative method was used to analyze
survey data of 286 respondents who had experienced a period of three months (February to April 2020) as online
students. Research findings showed that the practice of formative assessment strategies had been available in
online courses, possibly be categorized into “facilitating engagement” and “improving authenticity” strategies,
which did have positive impacts on students’ satisfaction.
Keywords: assessment strategy, formative assessment, online course, engagement, authenticity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, online learning has become an inevitable trend as a result of science and technology
developments and the increase in the need for lifelong learning. An online course is understood as
the learning organized and implemented in an online platform through a learning management system
(LMS). In online classes, teaching activities can occur in real-time through a system that supports
meetings/webinars (virtual classroom). Online courses allow students to proactively make and implement
learning plans according to their own needs, abilities, and conditions. However, the lack of face-to-face
instruction makes some challenges to build the teacher-student and student-student interactions. That
also leads to the problem of promoting learning motivation, the active participation of the student.
Assessment activities bring many advantages to students’ learning process. Assessment results give
teachers information about the student’s achievement at some particular periods and help them collect
data about their student’s learning and thinking activities. Therefore, they can make an appropriate and
effective teaching plan. Nitko & Brookhart (2014) showed that in a classroom, the teacher needs to
make a lot of important decisions such as what to teach, how to teach, how to evaluate students’ learning
outcomes... All such decisions must be made based on high-quality information, which the teacher only
has through high-quality assessments (page. 24).
With the various purposes, assessment should not only be conducted by teachers with the tests to
score students’ learning outcomes but also become regular, flexible learning activities with the proactive
participation of both teachers and students. Hence, classroom assessment needs to be a part of the
learning process, vigorously promote the role of assessment for learning and assessment as learning
instead of focusing on assessment of learning (Earl, 2007).
Because assessment plays such a crucial role in teaching process, the online classroom assessment
should confirm the role of promoting students’ learning motivations, engagement, and proactive learning.
This study was conducted at a university in Hanoi, where online learning has been applied for almost
one semester because of the Covid19 pandemic. This university’s training method, which had been
operated in blended learning mode previously, was then shifted to online, applied to all undergraduate
courses, using MOODLE – a platform for learning management system in combination with virtual
classrooms on Zoom software. The study aims to explore the current landscape of applying formative
assessment techniques in online classes and the relationship between the use of these techniques and
student satisfaction. Quantitative methods were used in this study. A survey questionnaire was sent to
collect data from students. The questionnaire collected information on how often formative assessment
techniques had been applied and how satisfied they were with the online courses.
2. A LITERATURE REVIEW
In 1971, Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus formally categorized “assessing students’ learning activity”
into two categories: summative assessment and formative assessment. A summative assessment appears
at the end of a teaching cycle/stage, used for summary purposes such as classifying students, determining
students’ development, or the teaching’s effectiveness. The authors emphasized that the summative
assessment time is at the end of a particular learning stage. In contrast, the formative assessment is
highlighted by the “just-in-time” characteristics. It can happen at any time from curriculum development
to learning practice and aims to improve the training process (Guskey, 2005). Moreover, at the first time
Bloom et al. explained deeply and distinguished “summative assessment “ - “ formative assessment’’,
they emphasized some striking characteristics of formative assessment. For example, it helped find
evidence relevant and meaningful to teaching and learning, improve academic performance by giving
formative feedback, and minimize negative impacts of assessment by keeping negative judgement limited.
Thus, the focus of formative assessment lies in collecting and using assessment information as
evidence of learning for giving feedback to students. Discussing as building a theory for formative
assessment, Black & Wiliam (2009) mentioned three important questions that William & Thompson
(2007) had set out in the teaching and learning process. They are “Where am I now?” (i.e. determining
the level of the student at present); Where am I going? (identifying and communicating learning goals to
students); “How do I close the gap”? (help students choose the most appropriate strategy to reach their
goals). Thanks to the continuous formative assessment techniques used during the teaching process,
teachers can answer the above questions: it is possible to determine the current level of individual
student’s competence, learning demand, learning skills, thereby providing appropriate guidance to
help learners adjust and develop. The two authors conclude that, with proper formative assessment
strategies used, learning becomes an evolved loop of knowledge and skills. Koka et al. (2017) showed
that formative assessment must be added in higher education programs by reducing formal lectures,
where students are passively involved in the learning process. However, formative assessment should be
organized purposefully with self-reflection and communication activities. Those are all critical features to
make the lesson meaningful and help students understand deeply.
William & Leahy (2016) still used the 5-strategy model proposed by (Leahy et al., 2005) to describe
practical classroom formative techniques. The five well-known strategies are:
1. Clarifying and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success.
2. Engineering effective classroom discussions and other learning tasks that elicit evidence of
student understanding.
3. Providing feedback that moves learners forward.

4. Activating students as the owners of their own learning.
5. Activating students as instructional resources for one another.
(p. 11)
Each of them has proved to be effective in online training, too. Firstly, the goals and criteria sharing
strategy is a practical approach to enhancing student engagement in learning. Formative assessment
is not just an assessment, it offers opportunities to promote the interaction of teachers – students and
the participation and engagement of students with the learning process. Sharing and discussing with
students to establish learning goals or success criteria gives students a sense of mastery their own
learning activities (Black & William, 2009). When students take responsibility for their learning, they
can nurture self-directed learning skills that have been widely agreed to be one of the essential skills
needed for lifelong learning.
The second strategy emphasized the power of feedback. Hattie & Timperley (2007) though not
exclusive to the online teaching environment, confirm that feedback based on learning goals will
motivate students to develop effective learning strategies such as setting goals, plan personal learning,
self-monitor and assess the learning process. Feedback, in this situation, should be understood as
techniques of responding formatively to students’ learning, based on information of learning collected
during a assessment process.
The last two strategies specifically deal with self and peer assessment. When joining in self-
assessment or peer-assessment, “learners might reflect their experience of having done what they’ve
done, having presented what they’ve presented, having moderated what they’ve facilitated online, and
so on” (Conrad & Openo, 2018). Topping (2017) value, or quality of a product or performance of other
equal-status learners, then learn further by giving elaborated feedback and discussing their judgements
with peers to achieve a negotiated agreed outcome.” It is organized in elementary (primary indicated that
when students join in peer assessment, both evaluators and receivers can benefit because, in that process,
students can learn from other’s mistakes and understand criteria and standards very well. Furthermore,
learners’ engagement in self-assessment tasks and online tasks have the same feature: they should do it
at their own pace and time, so they need to make a plan by themselves to complete it (Conrad & Openo,
2018).
Currently, the shift in higher education’s goal is leading to the change in the focus and types of
assessment. Educational goals now centered on individualization and personal development (what does it
mean to be alive and human?), cultivating informed and active citizens, developing intrinsically valuable
knowledge, and serving society through the public interest have been limited. The perceived purpose of
educational attainment has since narrowed to serving the community through economic development.
Wall et al., (2014) defined assessment as “a set of activities that seeks to gather systematic evidence
to determine the worth and value of things in higher education” (p. 6), including the examination of
student learning. They strongly argued that assessment “serves an emerging market-focused university”
(p. 6). Besides the change of assessment focus, the assessment types need to change to adapt well to
new requirements and demands. The fact that students were expected to perform a profession at their
university graduation properly drove the assessment toward authenticity. That is a form of assessment
where students can provide direct evidence of applying their learning (Goff et al., 2015). They have to
apply their learned skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes in “the performance context of the intended
discipline” (Goff et al., p. 13). This would help build students an ability to simulate real-world problems
in their profession or future work.
Online learning is widely believed to be created for adult education. Adults have appropriate
characteristics and competencies for online learning. Besides a variety of advantages such as flexibility,
diverse alternatives for students, online learning still raises the problem about the quality of assessment
(Conrad & Openo, 2018). Assessment should focus much more on students’ learning than other training
modes in online courses because lecturers have no other way to observe students. It is ‘an activity assigned
by the professor that yields comprehensive information for analyzing, discussing, and judging a learner’s
performance on valued abilities and skills’ (Huba & Freed, 2000, p. 12). It is used for formative purposes
with some missions like “multiple drafts of written work in which faculty provide constructive and
progressive feedback; oral presentations by students; peer assessment; team projects that produce a joint
product related to specific learning outcomes, and service-learning assignments that require interactions
with individuals, the community or business/industry” (Webber, 2012, p203). When conducting those
activities, the instructors have to give feedback promptly to students, along with students need to engage
in a learning process to collaborate, peer-assess, self reflection… that provide more evidence to prove
students’ development. However, to ensure the quality of evidence, the formative assessment activities
must focus on their authenticity and engagement (Conrad & Openo, 2018).
In summary, formative assessment is a necessary component of training, whatever mode of training
is. In online courses, to ensure the role of enhancing students’ learning, formative assessment should
focus on two purposes: facilitating students’ engagement in learning and improving the authenticity of
learning tasks. Formative assessment has been empirically studied for investigating its influence on students’
achievements. This research explored the influence of the two above focuses of online formative assessment
on students’ satisfaction with the courses.
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS
The study aims to answer the research question: How do online formative assessment strategies
of authenticity improvement and student engagement facilitation influence online learning students’
satisfaction?
Hypothesis: Both strategies of authenticity improvement and student engagement facilitation
positively influence students’ satisfaction towards online courses.
4. METHOD
4.1. Research design
The study uses quantitative methods with data collected from a student survey questionnaire
described in the Research instrument below. The survey was conducted in late May 2020, which is the
last week of a semester. At that time, the university has switched to entirely online training for three
months (February-April 2020) due to the effects of COVID19.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used in this for data analysis. Data was
analyzed with a stepwise multiple regression method to measure the influence of formative assessment
strategies on students’ satisfaction.
The study data included 286 responses, of which female students accounted for 82 percent. Gender
bias in the survey respondents is available as a popular characteristic of pre-service teacher education
programs in Vietnam. Of the 286 participants, 49% were third-year students, while the first-year
accounted for 25%, and the rest were divided equally by the second-year and fourth-year (Table 1).
Table 1. Participants’ Demographic Information
Gender Frequency* %
Female 235 18
51 82
Male
Total 286 100
Year of study Frequency %
Freshman 73 25.5
Sophomore 38 13.3
Junior 140 49.0
Senior 35 12.2
Total 286 100
*
Note. Frequencies are the number of students
4.2. Research instrument (the questionnaire)

A student questionnaire of assessment activities in online learning is built, consisting of 2 main
parts. The first main part has 20 items describing the activities and indicators of formative assessment
that should appear in online courses. A 5-level Likert scale (1 – Very rarely or never, 2 – Rarely, 3 –
Occasionally, 4 – Frequently, 5 – Very often) was used for students to choose how often they meet the
actions or indicators relating to formative assessment in their online courses. The items were designed
based on the theoretical framework for online learning presented in the literature review, consisting of
two constructs: the first comes with activities that can facilitate students’ engagement in the course, and
the second are those that can improve the authenticity of assessment.
Twelve variables were defined in the second main part to measure students’ satisfaction with
online courses. This part focus on typical aspects of online training, such as the communication and
interaction among instructors and students, the availability of learning resources and supports, the
LMS itself, time allocation for online lectures, assessment and teamwork in general, and instructors’
feedback. The scale used the 5-level Likert, too (i.e. 1 – Very unsatisfied, 2 – Unsatisfied, 3 – Neutral,
4 – Satisfied, 5 – Very satisfied).
5. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
5.1. Test of factor analysis and measure scale reliability
EFA (Explore Factor Analysis) was conducted into two phases. The first phase dealt with formative
assessment variables, which had been defined into two factors: engagement facilitation and authenticity
improvement. The second phase was devoted to students’ satisfaction variables.
In the first phase, EFA with principal components analysis and Varimax rotation was used. The
KMO value equaled .939 (≥ .5), and the significance was .000 (≤ .05), indicating that Bartlett’s test
was statistically significant, indicating that the data is suitable for EFA (Keiser, 1974) (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2007).
Table 2: KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .939
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 2754.190

df 136
Sig. .000
After Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization, 17 items related to formative assessment
techniques were categorized into two factors. Factor 1 (named FA1) consisted of 10 variables
representing a formative assessment strategy that was expected to be able to improve the authenticity
of the assessment. Factor 2 (FA2) was made up of 7 variables, expressing a scale that could measure the
possibility of formative assessment to facilitate students’ engagement in online learning. Three variables
(F8, F12, and F14) were eliminated from the two scales due to their factor loading not reaching .5
(F12) or the difference in the factor loadings of items was less than .3 (F8 and F14) (Hair et al., 2014).
Cronbach’s alpha values of engagement facilitation and authenticity improvement were .84 and .92,
respectively, proving the scales adequately reliable for the measure.
Table 3: Rotated Component Matrixa (Formative assessment factors)
FA1 FA2
Items
Authenticity Engagement
F18: Students are instructed to create a portfolio by gathering learning products

.788
to monitor their own learning process.
F16: Students have the opportunity and enough time to complete their
products based on the feedback of instructors and classmates to improve their .736
assessment scores.
F10: The instructor promptly responds to student comments and questions on
.733
the LMS system.
F20: In the course, rubrics are used to assess students’ performance .729
F9: When you have an inquiry, you use the forum on the LMS system to ask for
.721
the answers.
F17: At some stages in the learning process, such as the end of the chapter/
lesson or the middle semester..., students have the opportunity to review their
.710
learned issues such as mindmap, reflection, survey about the learning process,
or self-assessing their level of achieving learning outcomes
F19: In general, through each assessment, you know what you need to do to
.707
improve your learning achievement.
F15: Students are instructed/asked to self-assess their products/assignments
.703
before submission.
F11: Instructor feedback on the LMS helps you understand the problem
.693
thoroughly.
F13: Students are informed about the assessment criteria of essays or projects (if any) .601
F7: Students are given the opportunity to comment, assess the exercise/product of
.717
other classmates or groups (In the virtual classroom or on the LMS system).
F4: In the virtual classroom, the instructor asks questions and calls students to
.696
answer.
F5: In the virtual classroom, the instructor uses many quick assessment
activities such as short tests, surveys, self-reflection about the problem students .684
don’t understand ...
F3: The specific assessment plan (clear regulations on the form and time of
.673
formative and summative assessment) is announced to students.
F1: Course outline/syllabus is published on the LMS system or emailed to
.649
students at the beginning of the semester
F2: The learning objectives/learning outcomes of each lesson/ chapter are
.639
posted on the LMS system.
F6: When performing an assessment in the virtual classroom, the instructor
.575
shows the results immediately after finishing.
Cronbach’s alpha .84 .92
In the second phase, a similar analysis was conducted with 12 satisfaction variables. The KMO
value was .939, which is ≥ .5, and the sig. was .000 (≤ .05). The Bartlett’s test was statistically significant
(Table 4), the data is suitable for EFA.
Table 4: KMO and Bartlett’s Test (Satisfaction)
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .939
Approx. Chi-Square 2116.559
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity df 66
Sig.
.000
Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization analysis applied to 12 items of student satisfaction
brought all the items into 1 group, as having attentively been developed. Cronbach’s alpha value of this
scale is .934, with all corrected item-total correlations are greater than .3 (Table 5).
Table 5: Rotated Component Matrixa (Satisfaction)
Items S
S7: Instructors used presentation relevantly and effectively .820
S10: Discussions operated in LMS forums were useful to learning .808
S2: Online learning strategies and schedules were explained to students clearly. .787
S12: You feel comfortable when learning online because you received companionship and support from
.777
instructors
S11: Feedback you received from instructors on LMS is on time and useful. .766
S8: Assessment was accurate and transparent. .766

S6: Instructors’ use of technology to support teaching was useful. .765
S1: Learning objectives were clarified and helpful in monitoring your learning. .762
S5: The operation of online lectures helped engage students in learning. .760
S3: Students were provided/introduced with learning resources that met the course’s demand. .745
S4: Time allocated to online lectures was relevant to the course’s contents. .722
S9: Team members in the course worked hard, effectively, and were fairly assessed. .964
Cronbach’s Alpha: .934
5.2. Regression analysis to identify the influence of formative assessment strategies on online
learning students
5.2.1. Hypothesis test of the model
The adjusted R square was .523 meant that the two independent variables could explain 52.3% the
dependent variable of satisfaction (Table 6). The statistical F value is equal to 157.041 with sig. value
is .000 (< .05) (Table 7) could help to conclude that the multiple regression was relevant to the data.
The Durbin-Watson statistic was used to detect serial correlation. The value of 1.815 (approximate to 2)
indicated that there was no autocorrelation problem having existed in the data (Gujarati, 2003 as cited
in Sun et al., 2008).
Table 6: Model Summaryb
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .725a .526 .523 .42895 1.815
a. Predictors: (Constant), FA2, FA1

b. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction
Table 7: ANOVAa
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 57.789 2 28.895 157.041 .000b
1 Residual 52.070 283 .184
Total 109.860 285
a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction

b. Predictors: (Constant), FA2, FA1
5.2.2. Assessment of multicollinearity

The research used the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) to assess the existence of multicollinearity
between the two independent variables in the model (i.e. engagement facilitation and authenticity
improvement). The VIF value of 1.984 (less than 2) indicated that no multicollinearity existed between
the two variables (Table 8). Also, with sig. values were .000 (less than .05), all three variables are
significant in the standardized regression model (Allison, 2012).
Table 8: Coefficientsa
Standardized Collinearity Sta-

Unstandardized Coefficients
Model Coefficients Sig. tistics
t
Tolerance
B Std. Error Beta VIF
(Constant) .855 .217 3.948 .000
1 FA1 .450 .052 .498 8.634 .000 .504 1.984
FA2 .345 .070 .283 4.907 .000 .504 1.984
a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction
5.2.3. Regression analysis results

Table 8 shows regression coefficients of independent variables in the model. The β (standardized
coefficients) of both FA1 and FA2 were positive, indicating that both the facilitation of engagement
and improvement of authenticity strategies had a positive influence on the students’ satisfaction. The
constant B equaled to .855; the β between FA1 and S was .498; the β between FA2 and S was .283; and
sig. values of all three coefficients were less than .05. Symbolically, the model can be presented through
a prediction formula as: S = .855 + .498*FA1 + .283*FA2.
Table 9 is the descriptive statistics of the three studied variables. Although FA1 (consisting of
techniques helping to improve the course’ authenticity) had a greater influence on students’ satisfaction
towards online courses than FA2 (those facilitating students’ engagement in learning), the earlier actually
appeared less frequently in online courses than the latter (FA1 mean = 3.99 with SD = .69 compared to
FA2 mean = 4.31 with SD = .51). In general, students were satisfied with the online courses (S mean =
4.14 with SD = .62).
Table 9: Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
FA1 3.99 .69 286
FA2 4.31 .51 286
Satisfaction 4.14 .62 286


Although formative assessment is widely known with five strategies proposed by a group of UK
authors, applying to online training, it should appear to be techniques that could help engage students
more in the learning process and improve the authenticity of a course. Based on these arguments, a model
of online formative assessment with two categories of assessment techniques (coded as FA1 and FA2)
has been developed to measure the frequent use of formative assessment in online courses. The research
findings revealed that both two groups of assessment techniques contributed to making students satisfied
with their online courses. In the surveyed courses, FA1 (authenticity improvement techniques) was
used less frequently than FA2 (learning engagement facilitation), as evaluated by students. However,
the impact that FA1 makes on students’ satisfaction is greater than FA2. These results lead to some
recommendations that: (i) more assessment techniques for enhancing the authentic aspects of online
courses should be planned and implemented by lecturers; (ii) further qualitative research should be
conducted to explore what kind of techniques is suitable and beneficial for individual course, and how
the techniques should be implemented to maximize students’ benefits from them.
References
1. Allison, P. (2012). Logistic regression using SAS: Theory and application. SAS Institute.
2. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational
Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5
3. Conrad, D., & Openo, J. (2018). Assessment Strategies for Online Learning: Engagement and
Authenticity. Athabasca University Press. https://doi.org/10.15215/aupress/9781771992329.01
4. Earl, L. (2007). Assessment - A Powerful Lever for Learning. Brock Education Journal, 16(1),
1–15. https://doi.org/10.26522/brocked.v16i1.29
5. Goff, L., Potter, M. K., Pierre, E., Carey, T., Gullage, A., & Gaste, V. (2015). Learning Outcomes
Assessment A Practitioner’s Handbook. Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. https://
scholar.uwindsor.ca/ctlreports.https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/ctlreports/6
6. Guskey, T. (2005). Formative Classroom Assessment and Benjamin S. Bloom: Theory, Research,
and Implications. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (Montreal, Canada, April 11-15, 2005). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED490412
7. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate Data Analysis.
In Pearson New International Edition (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. https://doi.
org/10.4324/9781351269360
8. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
9. Huba, M. E., & Freed, J. E. (2000). Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses: Shifting
the Focus from Teaching to Learning. Allyn & Bacon.
10. Keiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36.

11. Koka, R., Jurāne-Brēmane, A., & Koķe, T. (2017). Formative Assessment in Higher Education: From
Theory to Practice. European Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research, 9(1), 28. https://
doi.org/10.26417/ejser.v9i1.p28-34
12. Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2014). Educational assessment of students (6th ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.
13. Sun, P. C., Tsai, R. J., Finger, G., Chen, Y. Y., & Yeh, D. (2008). What drives a successful
e-Learning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner satisfaction.
Computers and Education, 50(4), 1183–1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.11.007
14. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (7th ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.
15. Topping, K. (2017). Peer Assessment : Learning by Judging and Discussing the Work of
Other Learners. Interdisciplinary Education and Psychology, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.31532/
interdiscipeducpsychol.1.1.007
16. Wall, A. F., Hursh, D., & Rodgers, J. W. (2014). Assessment for Whom: Repositioning Higher
Education Assessment as an Ethical and Value-Focused Social Practice. Research & Practice in
Assessment, 9, 5–17.
17. William, D., & Leahy, S. (2016). Embedding Formative Assessment: Practical Techniques for
K-12 Classrooms. Learning Sciences International.
SECTION 3
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES WITH THE RENOVATION
OF GENERAL EDUCATION
TRAINING SOCIAL - EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE FOR PRESCHOOL
TEACHERS TO MEET INNOVATION REQUIREMENTS
Phan Thi Thuy Hang
(Early Childhood Education Department – Nghe An College of Education)
Abstract: This study was conducted to affirm the importance of teachers’ socio-emotional competence for
children’s education in the context of innovation; actual situation and urgent need to foster social-emotional
capacity; Proposing the content, form and method of fostering social-emotional competence for preschool
teachers. An overview of studies around the world shows that social-emotional education has become an important
educational content in schools and is considered a strategic innovation in education from preschool to high school
in many countries. The analysis of those studies shows that teachers with good social-emotional competence will
create an emotionally friendly, warm, and close class environment since they know how to behave with children
most appropriately, control their anger, and handle situations smartly, effectively, and suitably according to each
child’s situation and personality. These abilities contribute to motivating children to learn and integrate profoundly
class activities to achieve the highest performance. In fact, a survey of 150 preschool teachers showed that the
majority of teachers do not have a full understanding of social emotions and have not focused on developing social-
emotional competence for children in preschool. As a result of this study, the proposed contents of social-emotional
competence training include the awareness of social emotions, competence to organize social-emotional education
activities and competence to assess social-emotional education activities. The training is carried out through two
stages such as core teacher training and mass training. The methods used in this report are the theoretical research
method, the questionnaire survey method, the interview method and the secondary data analysis method.
Keywords: competence training, social emotions, preschool teachers
1. INTRODUCTION
With the impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution namely Industry 4.0, education needs to make
major changes to meet the needs of training people to adapt and quickly access new technologies. One
of the key changes is to improve the competence of teachers because the latter is the decisive factor in
the quality of training of learners – future human.
Early childhood education is the first level of education in the national education system. It
aims to nurture, care, and educate children from three months to under six years old, which builds
the foundation for the formation and development of children’s personalities in the early years of
life. Pre-school teachers are those who directly nurture children, develop their competence, create
the initial basis of human personality, and strengthen children’s resilience to study well in high
school as well as later in life. Therefore, competence building for preschool teachers contributes to
improving the quality of training, training and developing future human resources for society to meet
the requirements of innovation.
On the other hand, in the context of industry 4.0, social emotions are not only a trend of the times
but also an educational strategy of many countries around the world. Because, in the innovation of
education, not only attaches importance to IQ development, but also attaches importance to developing
EQ, critical thinking ability, cooperation and creative problem solving. Therefore, forming and
developing socio-emotional capacity for learners right from childhood will create the foundation for
developing socio-emotional competence at the next age. However, in order to equip learners with socio-
emotional competencies, teachers themselves must have those competencies. Studies show that social
emotions enable people’s healthy development, flexibility, agility, and adaptability to the changes of
the times. According to Housman, D.K., (2017), good social-emotional competence will help people
in general and children, in particular, know how to behave with themselves, with others more flexibly
and effectively to be successful in life [1]. Sylva, K., Sammons, P., Melhuish, E, Siraj, I., Taggart,
B., (2020),[2] stated that social-emotional competence is considered one of the key competencies of
students in general and preschoolers in particular in the 21st century.
Moreover, the study of Sarah, L.N. et Al. (2020) indicated that if teachers face a lot of stress, it will
considerably affect the learners, especially preschool children while the latter’s brain strongly develops
at this age. This leads to the impact on emotional management, cognitive processing of children’s social
emotions, language, and lifelong learning. Social-emotional competence helps teachers effectively
manage negative behaviors and produce good results during the education of children [3]. Therefore,
social-emotional competence enables teachers’ optimism in creating friendly relationships with children,
reducing stress, controlling anger and negative behaviors, increasing positive attitudes toward children,
and improving physical and mental health for children.
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to clarify the importance of teachers’ socio-emotional
competence in educating children in the context of innovation; At the same time, explore the current
situation and propose to foster social-emotional competence for preschool teachers to meet the goal of
educating people to develop comprehensively, be sensitive, flexible, and quickly adapt to changes in
the environment. The new era has a necessary meaning, meeting the current practice of reforming early
childhood education.
2. RESEARCH CONTENTS
2.1. The theoretical and practical basis of training social-emotional competence for preschool
teachers.
2.1.1. Some features of social emotions
It can be said that socialism dates back to 380 BC, the time of Ancient Greece through Plato’s
research on education in the Republic (Plato’s The Republic), he believed in a comprehensive education
by maintaining maintaining a healthy education system, raising students with good character, fostering
students to become useful citizens for society [4]. During the Scottish Enlightenment, some authors
such as David Hume, Adam Smith and Thomas Reid argued that emotions were the basis of human
morality, the key to personal success and cohesion. Stemming from this thought of the above scientists,
the great philosopher Emanuel Kant suggested that human moral behavior can arise from emotions. In
1980, teacher Howard Gardner said that it is necessary to expand the view of intelligence, he considered
that measuring human intelligence based on IQ is a limited method. Influenced by Gardner’s thought, in
1990 two psychologists Mayer, JD and Salovey, P., wrote an article entitled “Emotional Intelligence”, to
confirm the role of emotions in the development of children. people and support Gardner’s views. The
section 3: educational sciences with the renovation... 429
view of emotions that govern the majority of human activities was pushed to a climax with the release
of Daniel Goloman’s “Emotional Intelligence”. Goloman, D., declared the importance of emotional
intelligence, he asserted that 80% of human success is emotional intelligence (EQ) and the remaining
20% is IQ [5] , [6] .
With the desire to promote and maximize the potential of learners, educate people to be friendly,
benevolent, intellectually capable and morally qualified, and to limit the negatives in society, in 1994,
the Institute of Fetzer held a meeting to call for researchers with similar views on emotional intelligence
to form the organization Casel (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning) with the
aim of bringing social psychology education into a system. system to educate children from kindergarten
to high school. The Casel organization consists of researchers and educators who share the same view
that social justice promotes the success of learners in all fields [7], [8].
In recent years, the research focusing on the development of learners’ social skills is considered
a new trend of the 21st century, which has attracted the attention of many scientists in many countries
around the world and given some recommendations different socio-emotional perspectives such as:
Godon, R., Ji, P., Mullhall, B.S., Weissberg, R.P. (2011) who admitted that social emotions are the
process by which children and adults have the basic competencies to succeed in learning, working,
social communication, and building positive relationships and personal development [9,2]. Weissberg,
R.P. et Al. (2015) introduced the concept of social emotions of Elias et Al. (1997), Social emotions are
the process of integrating the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals to be aware of themselves
and their surroundings, manage their behavior and that of others, establishing relationships, and taking
responsibility for themselves [10]. Myles’ group including Pallistes, J.D., Hassan, S., Rooney, R.M.,
Kane, R.T., (2014) quoted Payton et Al.’s social feelings (2008) as the process of gaining knowledge,
attitudes, and skills that allow children to recognize and respond to their emotions, work purposefully to
empathy with others, well establish and maintain relationships, and make responsible decisions [11,1-2].
Zin, J.E., (2004) argued that social emotions are a process through which we learn to recognize
and manage our emotions, care about others, make the right decisions, behave ethically and responsibly,
develop positive relationships, and avoid negative behavior [12,4].
According to Huynh Van Son, social emotions are the process of using knowledge, skills, and
attitudes to perceive and manage individual emotions, empathize with others, establish and maintain
positive relationships, and make responsible decisions [13,53].
According to Casel (2015), social emotions are the process through which children and adults
effectively perceive and use the knowledge, attitudes, and necessary skills to understand and manage
emotions, set and implement positive goals, sympathize with others, establish and maintain positive
relationships, make responsible decisions [14].
Thus, although the notion of social emotions was defined in different ways, the common cognition
of social emotions consists of the following elements:
- Self-awareness: The competence to accurately identify one’s emotions and thoughts, and how
they influence their behavior.
- Self-management: The competence to regulate emotional, thought and behavior in different situations.
- Social awareness: The competence to acknowledge views and empathize with others in all
different circumstances and subjects. The competence to understand social norms and morality toward
behavior, and to recognize the resources and support of families, schools, and communities.
- Relationship skills: The competence to establish and maintain positive and healthy relationships
with different individuals and groups which includes clear communication, listening, cooperation,
effective conflict-solving skills, help seeking and offering when necessary.
- Responsible decision-making: The competence to make decisions based on safety, ethical and
social norms, the competence to assess the results of different actions, think about one’s own happiness
and that of others.
These elements are closely related to each other, supporting each other, forming an integral whole.
To confirm the relationship between the components of socio-emotional skills, in the study of Deham,
S.A., Bassett, H.H., Zinsser, K., & Wyatt, T.M (2014) [15] suggested that each component of skill Social
emotions are important, they support each other as a network of interrelated, mutual support. In another
study, Deham, S.A. and colleagues suggested that: The components of social emotions do not exist
independently but complement each other to develop [16].
There have been a number of domestic and foreign researches published on the development of
social-emotional competence for teachers [17], [18],... Current reality shows that emotional competence
of preschool teachers is still limited and has not been paid much attention. With the above meaning,
the fostering to improve social-emotional capacity for preschool teachers is necessary to meet the
requirements of innovation.
2.1.2. Impact of preschool teacher’s social emotions on children’s development.
According to social-emotional researchers, teachers play an important role in educating children’s
emotional competence, indeed:
- Through the process of adapting to the preschool environment, children can learn social-emotional
reactions from teachers who directly nurture, care, and educate them.
- Through positive or negative reactions of teachers in the classroom, children also recognize their
own feelings and those of teachers. Thence, they learn to perceive the feelings of those around them.
- Through positive educational interactions, children can develop social-emotional competence.
Therefore, they can handle situations and interact with others in a more positive way, which is easier to
enable their emotions better [19, 3-4].
- Teachers with good social-emotional competence will create a friendly, warm, and close class
environment because they know how to behave with children most appropriately, how to control their
anger and how to handle situations smartly, effectively, suitably for each child’s situation and personality.
On the contrary, teachers with poor social-emotional competence will give children a sense of fear,
difficulty in being close and friendly, and lack of openness, which affects their academic performance
and personality development.
- Studies show that if in the classroom the teacher is always stressed, he/she will give students stress,
which greatly affects the quality of the lesson. In other words, when teachers well manage emotions
such as stress, anger, sadness, fear, etc. in the classroom, he/she will give children a happy, warm, and
comfortable learning atmosphere with teachers and friends. They are ready to conquer and discover
good lessons, attractive activities, and difficult exercises. They also become persistent in learning and
determined to carry out learning tasks to the end to achieve good results. On the contrary, if the teacher
has poor social-emotional competence, he/she will demotivate children to learn and contributes to
creating a gap between the teacher and the child, between the children themselves, which affects the
quality of education and the social relationship of the child in the school [20,1-5].
Thus, according to the analysis and synthesis of scientific works, it is affirmed that teachers play
an important role in the formation and improvement of social-emotional competence for preschool
children in particular and in the comprehensive development of the child’s personality in general.
Moreover, social emotions also give teachers an optimistic and happy spirit, regulate emotions, reduce
stress, control negative emotions well, increase positive emotions with children, improve improve the
efficiency of the process of nurturing - caring - educating children.
2.1.3. Reality of awareness and use of social-emotional education of preschool teachers.
The survey on the reality of awareness and use of social-emotional education was conducted on
150 preschool teachers in Nghe An and Ha Tinh provinces. The teachers surveyed were aged from 22
to 50 years old with the lowest working seniority of one year and the highest of 31 years. Most of the
teachers got a College or University degree in Preschool Education. In addition to the method of the
questionnaire survey, secondary data analysis method, observation and interview are two complementary
methods. After collecting and processing the data, the results are as follows:
Table1. Level of awareness and use of social-emotional education (SEL) of preschool teachers
Percentage
No Level Number
%
1 Have never heard about SEL 27 18
2 Have heard about SEL but not yet looked into it 13 8,7
3 Have heard about, looked into but do not understand it 57 38
4 Have researched SEL but not yet applied it 36 24
5 Understand SEL but do not often apply it to children’s education activities 17 11,3
6 Understand SEL very well and regularly apply it to children’s education activities 0 0
The results in the table 1 show that up to 38% of teachers “have heard about, look into but do not
understand” social-emotional education; 24% of teachers “have researched SEL but not yet applied”
social-emotional education for children and 18% of teachers “Have never heard” about social-emotional
education. It is worth noting that no teacher “understand very well and regularly apply it to the activities
of children” (accounting for 0%) in preschool. Other way, among the teachers surveyed, the awareness
of social emotions was mainly through self-learning and learning through colleagues (67%).
Figure1: Assessment of preschool teachers on the necessity of social-emotional

education for children
Looking at Figure 1, teachers were aware of the importance of social-emotional education for
preschoolers (96%), with a small number identifying social-emotional education for children as
necessary (4%) and no teacher chose that “It is not necessary” to educate social emotions to children. By
interviewing teachers and observing some teaching hours, only a few teachers took advantage of daily
activities to educate social emotions to children. The majority of teachers thought that they had difficulty
designing and organizing activities aiming at social-emotional education for children and references on
social-emotional education for preschool children.
On the other hand, through the survey of 13 preschool teachers who have organized activities for
the purpose of educating children on social-emotional skills, we found that teachers encountered some
difficulties such as: limited social emotions” accounting for 69.2%; design and organize educational
activities on social-emotional skills for children methodically, accounting for 84.6%; Besides, it is difficult
to find reference materials to learn about social emotions as well as how to guide the organization of social-
emotional skills education activities for children in daily activities such as: children, school activities, play
activities, outdoor activities, lunch cleaning, independent activities in the afternoon, sightseeing activities
and children return activities account for 98%.
Thus, it can be seen that social emotions are still a new factor for the majority of preschool teachers.
Therefore, most teachers are not fully aware of social emotions as well as competence to organize
social-emotional education activities for children in early childhood schools. Therefore, the training
of knowledge and competence on social emotions for teachers in a systematic way is necessary and
prepares for bringing social-emotional education into schools.
2.2. Orientation to training social-emotional competence for preschool teachers
Competence is a combination of unique attributes of an individual in accordance with the

characteristic requirements of a particular activity to ensure that this activity will bring good results
[21,67].
For teachers, the competence to organize educational activities is one of the core competencies, a
flexible combination of their knowledge, skills, and attitude to effectively implement the educational
goals set. As part of this report, we propose the following contents and ways to train social-emotional
competence for preschool teachers:
2.2.1. Training contents

Table 2: Contents of social-emotional competene training for preschool teachers
Main contents Requirements for each content
(1) Understanding the conception and components of social emotions.
(2) Being aware of the role of social emotions for teachers in general and preschool
children in particular.
Content 1: Social-
(3) Being aware of social-emotional competence is one of the key competencies for
emotional awareness
human development in the 19th century in the Industry 4.0 era.
(4) Having an understanding of methods, measures, and forms for applying social-
emotional education to preschool children in daily activities.
(1) The ability to design and implement daily activities to educate social emotions
reasonably and appropriately to the children’s abilities.
(2) The ability to choose and apply advantageous activities in social-emotional

education for children in preschools such as learning activities, playing activities in
Content 2: Ability corners (especially themed and drama games).
to organize social-
emotional education (3) The ability to create problematic situations to give children opportunities to
activities for children experience social-emotional competence in some contents such as expressing and
identifying emotions; controlling their negative emotions (sadness, anger, fear, shame);
showing their empathy; and supporting others.
(4) The ability to use and attract children to use technological equipment in learning and
experiencing social-emotional competence.
(1) Creating different activities for children to experience social-emotional competence
suitable for each child’s level of social-emotional competence.
Content 3: Ability
(2) Ability to evoke children’s perspective, reasoning, and understanding through
to evaluate social-
assessment forms such as formative assessment, results, groups, individuals.
emotional education
activities (3) Ability to use diverse and accurate assessment methods and strategies to monitor
and self-adjust the plan to organize social-emotional education activities for children in
the following stages.
2.2.2. Training methods

In order to effectively train social-emotional competence for preschool teachers, it is essential to
follow two following stages:
Phase 1: Face-to-face training for core teachers
Pursuant to Clause 9, Article 3 of the Circular No. 26/2018/TT-BDGDT, core preschool teachers
have good moral qualities, a good understanding of the educational situation, good professional abilities,
prestige in the school, ability to give advice to colleagues, support them in professional activities and in
professional competence development training activities [22]. Early childhood schools based on these
standards to select teachers for training. After training, the core teachers will be in charge of retraining
all teachers in the school.
In this period, the training should be assigned to teacher training schools providing preschool
teacher training under the supervision and direction of the Ministry of Education. The training should
be conducted in a face-to-face method following these steps: (1) Determining the content of training;
(2) Calling for training offer; (3) Selecting the contents or lecturers participating in the training by
participants; (4) Making training plans and conducting training; (5) Evaluating the training results and
getting feedback on the training course; (6) Summarizing the training course and learning experience.
Phase 2: Mass training for teachers
At this stage, it is possible to train teachers in face-to-face or online forms with the support of
experts from teacher training universities.
For the face-to-face training, in addition to providing the necessary knowledge of the training
content, the core teacher will support teachers in the school through practical activities such as organizing
sample activities, and attending class observation and professional discussions under the support and
guidance of experts from teacher training universities.
For online training, it is possible to follow these steps: (1) Providing documents and learning
materials for teachers to self-study; (2) Providing video lectures according to the content of training;
(3) Creating a forum for sharing and exchanging between lecturers and teachers, and between teachers
themselves; (4) Assessing retraining results; (5) Summarizing the training course and learning experience.
3. CONCLUSION
A look at domestic and foreign studies shows that social emotions are considered a very important
educational trend to develop in schools for all ages, a necessary competence for students to become
global citizens in the 19th century, meeting the development needs of the era. Social emotions help people
to have a more positive attitude to themselves, others and assigned tasks; to become confident, bold,
and persistent to well perform activities; to improve empathy, understanding and connection; to focus
on working, easily adapt and succeed in life. For preschool children, the education of social-emotional
skills will help children develop well-developed thinking skills and learning activities, increase positive
social behaviors during activities, contribute to reducing stress and control negative behaviors, create
a desire to go to school, like and respect them, establish good relationships with friends and adults,
promote strong physical and spirit, contributing to the comprehensive development of young personality.
The results of the survey show that the majority of teachers do not have a full understanding
of social emotions and do not know how to effectively apply social-emotional competence education
to preschool children. Based on theory and practice, the research team has proposed social-emotional
competence training contents and methods for teachers. Although there have been certain contributions,
this report mainly mentions the issue of social emotions, social-emotional competence training contents
and methods for preschool teachers. In the future, further research is needed on social-emotional issues
for teachers and preschoolers.
REFERENCES
[1] Housman, D.K., (2017), “The Importance of emotional competence and self-regulation from
birth: A case for the evidence-based emotional cognitive Social early learning approach”,
International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, DOI 10.1186/s40723-017-0038-6.
[2] Sylva, K., Sammons, P., Melhuish, E, Siraj, I., Taggart, B., (2020), “Developing 21st Century
Skills in Early Childhood: The Contribution of Process quality to self – Regulation and Pro-
Social behaviour”, Published online: 20 may 2020, Springer, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-
020-0995-x
[3] Sarah, N.L., Lieng,J., Elisa, B.S., Brennan, B.I., Cynthia, B.K., (2020), “Social Emotion Learning
for teacher (self - F): A Short - term, online Intervention to incoase Early Child hood Education’s
Resilience”, Early Education and Development, Doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1749820
[4]. Jodi Beaty, M.Ed (2018), “History of Social and Emotional Learning”, International Arab
Journal of English for English for Specific Purposes (IAJESP), Vol 1.No2, p 67-72.
[5] Dhani,P; Dr Sharma, T (2016), “Emotional Intelligence: History, Models and Measures”,
International Journal of Science Technology and Management, Vol. No5, Issue No.07.
[6] Berrocal, P.F & Extremera, N (2006), “Emotional Intelligence: A theoretical and Empirical review of its
first 15 years of history”, Psicothema 2006. Vol 18, Supl, p 7-11, ISSN 0214 – CODEN DSOTEG.
[7] Collie, R.J; Martin, A.J & Frydenberg, E (2017), Social and Emotional Learning: A brief
overview and Issues relevant to Australia and the Asia – Pacific In E. Frydenberg, A.J. Martin &
R.J.Collie (Eds). Social and Emotional Learning in Australia and the Asia Pacific. Singapore:
Springer (Chapter 1).
[8] Casel briefs (2007), Background on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL).
[9] Godon.R, Ji.P, Mullhall.B.S, Weissberg.R.P (2011), Social and Emotional Learning for LLLinois
Students: Policy, Practice and Progress, The LLLinois Report, p 2)
[10] Weissberg.R.P, Durlack.J.A, Domitrovich.C.E, & Gullotta.T.P (2015), Chaper 1: Social and
Emotinal Learning Past, Present and Future, Handbook of Social and Emotinal Learning,
Research and Pratice, p 3 -5
[11] Myles-Pallister.J.D, Hassan.S, Rooney.R.M, Kane.R.T (2014), “The efficaly of the enhanced
Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program in improving Social and emotional learning
in middle Childhood”, Original Research Article, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00909, p 1-2.
[12] Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H.J. (Eds.). (2004), Building academic
success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers
College Press. p 4.
[13] Huỳnh Văn Sơn (2016), Mô hình SEL và định hướng triển khai trong việc giáo dục kĩ năng sống
cho học sinh tiểu học” do quỹ Natofed, p 53.
[14] Casel (2017) What is SEL? Retrieved from, htttp://ww.casel.org/What-is-sel/ access date
20.6.2020
[15] Deham, S.A., Bassett, H.H., Zinsser, K., & Wyatt, T.M (2014), “How Preschooler’s Social –
Emotional Learning Predicts Their Early School Success: Developing Theory – Promoting,
Competency – Based Asseccments”, Infant and Child Development Publiched online 19 Feb
2014 in Wiley Online Library, DOI: 10.1002/icd.1840
[16] Deham, S.A., Brow, C., (2010), “Play nice with other”: Social – Emotional Learning and Academic
Success”, Early Education and Development, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.497450
[17] Phan Thị Thúy Hằng, (2020), “Năng cao năng lực cảm xúc xã hội cho giáo viên: Một hướng
tiếp cận mới trong việc nâng cao năng lực nghề nghiệp cho giáo viên trường mầm non Hoa Sen
– Thành phố Vinh – Nghệ An”, HNUE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE - Educational Sciences, 2020,
Volume 65, Issue 7, pp. 3-16. This paper is available online at http://stdb.hnue.edu.vn DOI:
10.18173/2354-1075.2020-0001
[18] Collie, J.R., Perry, E.N., (2019), “Cultivating teacher thriving through Social-Emotional
Competence and its development”, The Australia Education Researcher, http://doi.org/10.1007/
s13384-019-00342-2
[19] Lawrence.T.Lam and Emmy M .Y.Wong., (2017), “Enhancing Social - emotinal well -being
in young children through improving teacher’s Social - emotinal competence and curriculum
design in Hong Kong”, International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, DOI
10.1186/5401723-017-0031-0, pp3,4
[20] Kimberly A.Schonert - Reichl (2017), “Social and Emotional learning and teachers”, Article in the
Future of Children, DOI: 10.1353/for.2017.0007, pp1-5.
[21] Nguyễn Quang Uẩn (Chủ biên), Nguyễn Kế Hạo, Phan Thị Hạnh Mai, Tâm Lí hịc (Tài liệu đào tạo giáo
viên tiểu học trình độ Cao đẳng và Đại học Sư phạm), NXB Giáo dục, NXB Đại học Sư Phạm, p 67.
[22] Bộ Giáo dục va Đào tạo, Thông tư ban hành chuẩn nghề nghiệp giáo viên mầm non, số 26/ 2018/
TT-BDGĐT.
MONTESSORI APPROACH PRACTICUM
IN EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHER EDUCATION:
A COLLABORATIVE AUTOETHNOGRAPHY
Nguyen Thi Phuong Nam
(Thua Thien Hue College of Education)
Mai Thi Cam Nhung
(The University of Da Nang - University of Science and Education)
Tran Kiem Minh
(Hue University of Education)
Abstract: Practicum denotes periods spent in school settings where the student teachers engage in a
developmental process of observing and experimenting with teaching practice and learning about the professional
teacher’s skills, knowledge, philosophies, and attitudes (Walkington, 2005). Practicum is an essential component
of early childhood teacher preparation programs. In this paper, we used collaborative autoethnography (Chang,
Longman & Franco, 2014) as a qualitative research method to explore the personal experiences of two early
childhood teacher educators during the practicum organized by an International Montessori Training Institut. The
preliminary results indicate their positive and valuable experiences related to the professional development of early
childhood student teachers. We showed the effectiveness of the Montessori practicum in three aspects: (1) the plan
and assignment of tasks for student teachers during the practicum are apparent and specific, (2) the importance of
classroom observation, (3) the prominent role of the supervisor in putting theory into practice. Our research findings
provide a different perspective on the practicum, which promotes innovative practices in early childhood teacher
education in Vietnam.
Keywords: practicum, Montessori, early childhood teacher education, collaborative autoethnography.
1. INTRODUCTION
Practicum is an essential component of early childhood teacher preparation programs. It takes
place through kindergarten school placements and involves the student teacher, the teacher educator, and
the cooperating teacher. The partnership between student teachers, teacher educators, and cooperating
teachers will create a meaningful experience for student teachers’ professional learning (Trent, 2014;
Guevara, 2020).
Dr. Maria Montessori developed the Montessori education method in the early 1900s. It is a
specific child-centered method of education that involves child-led activities, classrooms with children
of varying ages, and teachers who encourage independence among their pupils. This method assumes
that children learn better when they are choosing what to learn.
The purpose of the practicum module of a Montessori teacher education program is to offer student
teachers opportunities for practice with the information and insights acquired during the academic
phase. During the practicum, the student teacher must establish relationships with children, follow
the development of the children, present activities, and participate in the various aspects of planning,
classroom management, and parent communication. The student teacher works under the daily guidance
of a qualified Montessori teacher (the cooperating teacher) and must pass a minimum of three on-site
evaluation visits by a Field Consultant (a teacher educator). The partnership between student teacher,
teacher educator, and cooperating teacher during the practicum ensures that the theory learned in the
coursework is fully integrated with the experience of working with young children.
This paper aims to explore teacher educators’ experiences during the practicum in a Montessori
setting. We used collaborative autoethnography (Chang, Longman & Franco, 2014) as a qualitative
research method for exploring the personal experiences of two early childhood teacher educators (the
first and the second authors) during the practicum organized by an International Montessori Training
Institute in Hanoi.
Research on Practicum in Early Childhood Education
Practicum is an essential component of early childhood teacher education. Many researchers
agree that practicum experiences provide a platform to examine the connection between theory and
practice in teacher training. In a review of research on practicum in early childhood teacher education,
Matengu, Ylitapio-Mantyla, and Puroila (2020) found that researchers focused on the following four
themes in the internship: the position of the student teacher in different relationships, competence and
ethics supervision, faculty lecturers as practicum designers, and building collective spaces to support the
teaching and learning during the practicum. The study of Matengu, Ylitapio-Mantyla, and Puroila (2020)
confirmed the need to provide student teachers with a supportive and authentic real-world environment
to practice their profession. The role of supervisors (teacher educators) and cooperating teachers in this
process is vital. Therefore, it is necessary to set out criteria for selecting supervisors and cooperating
teachers. Matengu, Ylitapio-Mantyla, and Puroila (2020) emphasized collaborative work and dialogue
between supervisors and cooperating teachers to assist student teachers in completing the practicum.
That work is crucial to overcome the theory-practice gap in teacher education.
A positive and productive partnership between the university and the school sector is crucial in
preparing teachers for the future. The success of professional experience for preschool pre-service
teacher learning is valued and based very much on the relationship developed between all stakeholders.
What motivates the preschool-based teachers and how they see their role in this relationship is integral
to achieving effective outcomes for themselves and the pre-service teachers (Walkington, 2005). Based
on data collected from preschool teachers, Walkington (2005) indicated a need to understand further the
personal and professional motivation of the mentoring teachers (preschool teachers) when establishing
and maintaining early childhood teacher education programs.
According to Zeichner (2010), a central problem in teacher education in general for a long time
has been the disconnection between the university and schools. The dominant role of teacher education
universities is apparent in the construction and dissemination of knowledge, and schools remain in the
position of practice fields where student teachers are expected to experiment with the practices suggested
by the university. Student teachers are thus supposed to learn theories at the university and then go to
schools to apply what they have learned. Furthermore, mentoring teachers in schools tend to know very
little about the specifics of the methods and foundation courses their students have completed, whereas
the university teachers often know very little about the specific practices used in schools (Zeichner 2010;
Jónsdóttir, 2015).
Jónsdóttir (2015) examined the aims of the workplace-based learning of prospective preschool
teachers in Iceland, as presented in policy documents, and how the forms of cooperation between
the University of Iceland and preschools are designed and practiced to fulfill those aims. The author
confirmed that a “third space” (Zeichner, 2010) needs to be developed in teacher education which
involves equal and more dialectical relationships between academic and practitioner knowledge to
support student teacher learning. Nevertheless, cooperation between the university and the preschools
could be more diverse and creative. For example, hybrid projects with boundary crossing where academic
and practical knowledge are treated with equal respect are necessary and need to be many. According to
Jónsdóttir (2015), some challenges remain for the cooperation between the university and the preschools
related to the practicum. First, it seems necessary to change the structure of the field practice and make
the placement periods longer so that student teachers, together with their mentoring and university
teacher educators, can deepen their knowledge and reflect on their actions in a more concentrated way.
Secondly, it might be possible to offer a part-time university position to a competent teacher in the field,
a ‘boundary crosser’ (Zeichner 2010) who establishes cooperation between the university and the field.
Montessori Education Approach
Montessori is an early education method developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, intending to raise
children to become independent, responsible citizens and passionate about learning. Montessori is one
educational method that has overcome differences in nature, territory, conception, and religion to spread
worldwide quickly. Maria Montessori made many discoveries throughout her life, but perhaps the most
significant discovery she has left us today is the discovery of an inner world – inside a child’s soul. Maria
Montessori saw in every child the ability to learn, develop, and make themselves. The characteristics
of the Montessori method of education are: prepared environments, freedom of choices, focus on the
individual, no reward and no punishment, respect for the child, going from simple to complex and from
concrete to abstract, mixed-age classrooms, learning through the senses (Gettman, 1987; Gutek, 2004;
Feez, 2010).
Maria Montessori was the one who pointed out the role of the teacher as a helper and supporter
with a spirit of love, respect, and concern. A Montessori teacher must be the caretaker of a specially
designed environment for the child, supporting the child to achieve independence through lessons and
patiently observing the child’s efforts and changes. A Montessori teacher is also a collaborator who
helps children interact with their environments. Today the Montessori method of education has had a
significant influence on the design and implementation of children’s educational programs in countries
worldwide.
In Vietnam, the Montessori education method has been recently used in international or private
preschools. Some studies on the application of this educational method in preschool education have also
been carried out (Ngoc Thi Thu Hang, 2014; Vu Thi Hong Hanh & Vu Thi Thanh Huyen, 2017; Dinh
Thanh Tuyen, 2018). For example, Ngoc Thi Thu Hang (2014) gives an overview of the methods, activity
corners, and teaching aids used in the Montessori classroom. The author believes that the Montessori
method of education is modern and suitable with the orientation of reforming early childhood teacher
education in Vietnam. Using the Montessori method, Dinh Thanh Tuyen (2018) built systematic lessons
for teaching and learning the Vietnamese language to help children develop language skills in their
sensitive stage. However, to date, no research in Vietnam has addressed the practicum in Montessori
teacher education programs.
3. METHODOLOGY
Autoethnography
Autoethnography is an emerging qualitative research method in which a researcher uses self-reflection
to explore their personal experiences and connect this autobiographical data to broader cultural and
social meanings and understandings (Chang, 2008). This method allows the author to write in a highly
personalized style, drawing on his or her experiences to extend understanding about a sociocultural
phenomenon (Wall, 2006). Autoethnography recommends understanding a self or some aspect of life
as it intersects with a cultural context, connect to other participants as co-researchers, and invite readers
to enter the author’s world and to use what they learn to reflect on, understand, and cope with their own
lives (Ellis, 2004). This type of qualitative research does not allow generalizations. Instead, it gives an
in-depth view of several nuances involved in overcoming certain personal obstacles that may inhibit
one’s role as a researcher, which is rarely seen in the scientific literature.
According to Chang (2008), autoethnography as a method should be ethnographical in its
methodological orientation, cultural in its interpretive orientation, and autobiographical in its content
orientation. Using autoethnography, we can use our personal experiences of being in a culture, institution,
or another social context to better understand and critically appraise that context.
Figure 1. Different auto-ethno relationships in an autoethnography (Doloriert & Sambrook, 2009)
The essential difference between ethnography and autoethnography is that the researcher is not
trying to become an insider in the research setting in an autoethnography. He or she, in fact, is the
insider. The context is his or her own (Duncan, 2004). Autoethnography is a helpful vehicle for including
personal knowledge into a field of expert voices, resisting dominant discourses, or promoting dialogue
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000).
Collaborative Autoethnography
Collaborative autoethnography is a methodological variation of autoethnography in which two

or more researchers share their autobiographical materials related to an agreed-upon topic of social
phenomenon, analyze and interpret the collective data to interpret the meanings of their personal
experiences within their sociocultural contexts (Chang, Longman & Franco, 2014). According to Chang
et al. (2012), collaborative autoethnography is described as an iterative process of interweaving self-
reflexivity with group exploration:
In a collaborative autoethnography, each participant contributes to the collective work his/ her
distinct, independent voice. At the same time, the combination of multiple voices to interrogate a
social phenomenon creates a unique synergy and harmony that autoethnographers cannot attain
in isolation. (p. 24)
As reported by Chang, Longman, and Franco (2014), collaborative autoethnography combines the
benefits of autoethnography (addressing the connectivity between self and society), multi-participant
studies (involving voices of multiple participant-researchers), and collaborative work (drawing upon
interactive and corroborative energy of researchers).
In this research, we adopted a collaborative autoethnography for data collection and analyses.
We first wrote individually autobiographical data separately. Then we met several times for (online)
interactions to share and discuss personal experiences. Finally, we used qualitative data-coding
techniques to identify emerging themes from the collected data.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Our autobiographical stories

The first author
In 2004, I studied for a bachelor’s degree in Early Childhood Teacher Education in Vietnam
because I love children. I briefly worked at an international preschool after graduating from university.
After that, I continued to study a master’s program in Early Childhood Education in Hanoi. Here, I have
studied more deeply about children and methods of children’s education. Moreover, it was here that I
came to know the Montessori method.
I was very interested in exploring this Montessori method of education, but unfortunately, at
that time, this method was not popular in Vietnam. No kindergarten has yet chosen Montessori as the
primary educational method. Therefore, I mainly only studied this method of education through early
childhood education literature. Nearly ten years on, I have been still full of enthusiasm as a teacher in
early childhood education. During this time, I founded a system of high-quality private preschools in
Hue city. Therefore, I had the opportunity to work regularly with children. However, I always think of a
classroom environment filled with materials, order, peace, and most importantly, an environment where
children can be themselves and are respected.
After that, I decided to find a place to study and experience the Montessori method in depth. I went
to the Canadian Montessori Teacher Training Institute in Vietnam and signed up for the international
Montessori Teacher training program. I joined the training program enthusiastically. My previous
knowledge and experience with children are renewed by the interesting lectures from teachers who are
international Montessori coaches. I feel happy because, during the training program, I was guided to
explore this method methodically and scientifically. Mainly, I have had wonderful practicum experiences,
very different from my previous practicum in traditional preschools.
The second author
I studied Early Childhood Teacher Education in Vietnam, at the same university as the first
author. After graduating from university, I had the opportunity to experience a year in the Singapore
International Kindergarten system. Here, I had the opportunity to approach the methods of educating
children and compare them with the methods of educating children of public preschools.
Next, I became a lecturer on Early Childhood Education at a University in Central Vietnam. Here,
I taught early childhood education methods to college students majoring in early childhood education.
During this time, I realized that the education methods to which I introduced students are still not active
and influential. I have been very interested in active and popular early education methods in the world.
That is why I decided to come to the international Montessori teacher training program of the Canadian
Montessori Education Institute in Vietnam.
4.2. Plan and assignment of tasks for student teachers before practicum
Our Montessori Method training program (of the first and second author) lasts for one year and
includes theoretical and practical modules on materials. In particular, the internship is divided into three
phases, with a total time of 200 hours. Before going to the internship, we meet with an expert from the
training institute to implement all the tasks that we need to do. We were informed very carefully about
the time and location of the practicum, the 25 specific tasks, how to make the reports, the things to keep
in mind during each stage of the practicum, and the specific time for the supervised sessions. Thanks to
this exchange, we clearly understand our duties during the practicum.
The Practicum Assessment Manual (for supervisors) is also publicly available with very detailed,
precise, and scientific evaluation criteria. We are allowed to read those criteria in advance. That way,
in addition to having to report all of our internship assignments, we know what we will be assessed for
and how. Sticking to the evaluation criteria helps us to be much more proactive during the practicum.
Regulations on ethical standards for Montessori teachers during the practicum are also provided
and clearly explained by the training institute. Each teacher must carefully read 15 specific ethical
standards and sign a commitment to comply with those 15 standards. This helps us understand our
responsibilities, what to do and what not to do. This code of ethics is significant to each student like us
in our future Montessori teacher journey.
“Careful preparation is always an important factor to bring success to each person when doing
anything. The same goes for preparing for an internship according to the Montessori method. The
internship program of each student is prepared by the Training Institute in the most thoughtful
way. That preparation helped me understand that I needed to work and study professionally”
(the first author).
Visiting the preschool before the start of the teaching internship is mandatory for all students.
It was an opportunity to meet the teachers, get acquainted with the venue, and confirm the Training
Institute’s arrangement for the first day of internships. With a completely new internship environment
compared to other preschools we had experienced, visiting the school before the internship day gave us
more confidence when starting the internship process afterward.
4.3. Importance of Classroom Observation
On the first day of class, each student teacher needs to perform the first task: prepare personal
information with a photo in the form of a letter to parents and paste it on their class bulletin board.
In that letter, each student teacher must clearly state who she/he is, where she/he is trained, why she/
he teaches in this class, how long the internship is, and commitment to the internship process. That
work surprised me (the first author). I never did it during my undergraduate internship. I think such a
letter of recommendation from a student teacher is very polite and necessary. Parents of kids will know
information about the student teacher with whom they can coordinate during the internship.
“In the Montessori classroom, in order to perform well the role of a “guide” for children, the
teacher’s observation skills play a vital role. So, out of twenty-five practicum tasks, there were
ten that helped me practice these observation skills. Observation tasks are particular and clear.
I had to choose the most convenient location for careful observation. I was not allowed to guide
the child in any activities and did not have to take care of the child during the first days of the
first internship. My assignment for the first week was just to observe” (the first author).
The observations in the first days were as follows: observing the daily work of the classroom,
observing the arrangement of the activity corners, observing a teacher teaching about practical life. I
then had to write a summary of the sequence in which the observed activities took place. I have to assess
whether the activities fit into the daily schedule I was taught and explain what I have learned from the
cooperating teacher and the children in the classroom.
On subsequent assignments, I was required to observe the cooperating teacher during the essential
Montessori hours of activities such as circle time, physical education or music and movement activities,
activity hours with materials. Specifically, I had to observe a child’s movement for an hour and report
what the child did during that time with a graph. This work is something in which I am very interested.
Through these observations, I learn a lot from the children, teachers, and myself as an observer. My
observation skills improved. I have much more confidence to prepare to interact directly with children
through specific lessons.
4.4. Role of Supervisor in Putting Theory into Practice
Teaching children is vital work in the practicum period. I (the second author) had to organize
activities for children in the corners of practical life, senses, math, language, culture, and science. I
interacted directly with children and attempted to apply what I had learned. I did not see much difference
between theory and practice. Children were relatively normalized (concentration, order, cooperation,
and independence). I tried to properly implement the lessons learned at the Montessori Institute into
the classroom, and the children learned very quickly. I must respect children when they are no longer
interested in activities and must orient them according to each child’s ability. I felt that the class was very
light and peaceful, the Montessori teacher was not too hard.
During my practicum, I was always helped by the cooperating teachers in my class. In addition,
the training institute has sent an expert teacher to supervise and support each student teacher. The
relationship between the cooperating teachers and the supervisors is cooperative and positive. They can
communicate, discuss and work together in harmony in teaching children and helping student teachers.
I feel delighted because of the close connection between the training place and the preschool. This helps
student teachers see the consistency in training, the unity between theory and practice.
“I had to go through three rounds of internship supervision. My supervisor comes from the
training institution (Montessori Institute). The supervisors are Montessori experts who are
experienced instructors of the training institution. I was informed about the specific time in each
supervised internship batch. Tasks and evaluation criteria for each supervised internship batch
are also clearly communicated. The results of these supervised internship batches will serve as
the basis for graduation” (the second author).
During the first supervised session, I was assessed only as an observer and in collaboration with
other teachers in the class. The classroom controller is still the main (cooperating) teacher of the class.
In the second supervised session, I acted as the principal teacher. In the last supervised session, I acted as
an assistant teacher. In particular, after each supervised session, I was commented on by the supervisor.
I had been allowed to self-evaluate according to the excellent questions that the training institute has
put forth. I had no difficulty in self-assessments. Then the supervisor gave comments on my work. Each
comment is carefully analyzed, and there is always a solution to the problems based on respect for the
student teacher. The restrictions have been gradually reduced through the sessions of supervision. I was
much more mature, confident, and stable.
The last thing I did during the practicum was to write a practicum report. My report focuses on
solving 25 practicum tasks. Each task helps me complete an aspect of myself as a future Montessori
teacher. I am very excited to write such a report because it represents all the knowledge, skills, and
things that I have learned through that internship. I have to submit a report to the training institute, and
this report is also a basis for graduation.
5. CONCLUSION
This study shows that taking a collaborative autoethnography to explore the Montessori practicum
has proved very interesting and valuable. This study can be considered the first study in the Vietnamese
context on collaborative ethnography to explore the Montessori practicum model. This method
helps other researchers who have not had the opportunity to experience the Montessori educational
environment, to better understand the model, characteristics, and values of
the Montessori educational
philosophy through practicum experiences.
Through a collaborative, proactive self-reflection on the Montessori practicum of the first and
second authors, we characterized the advantages of Montessori practicum through three themes: plan
and assignment of tasks for student teacher before practicum, the importance of classroom observation,
the role of the supervisor in putting theory into practice. These three themes make a big difference
between the Montessori practicum and traditional practicum in early childhood teacher education.
One limitation of this study is that both the first and second authors participated in the same
Montessori teacher training program in Vietnam at the same time. Therefore, each author’s personal
experiences may not be vibrant and specific in terms of contexts and cultural experiences. Regarding the
generalizability of the research results, we share Ellis (2004)’s point of view that “a story’s generalizability
is always being tested – not in the traditional way through random samples of respondents, but by
readers, as they determine if a story speaks to them about their experience or about the lives of others
they know. Readers provide theoretical validation by comparing their lives to ours, by thinking about
how our lives are similar and different and the reasons why” (p. 195).
REFERENCES
1. Chang, H. (2008). Autoethnography as a method. Abingdon, VA: Routledge.

2. Chang, H., Longman, K. A., & Franco, M. A. (2014). Leadership Development through Mentoring
in Higher Education: A Collaborative Autoethnography of Leaders of Color, Mentoring & Tutoring.
Partnership in Learning, 22:4, 373-389.
3. Chang, H., Ngunjiri, F., & Hernandez, K. (2012). Collaborative autoethnography. Walnut Creek,
CA: Left Coast Press.
4. Doloriert, C., & Sambrook, S. (2009). Ethical confessions of the “I” of autoethnography: the
student’s dilemma. Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management, 4(1): 27-45.
5. Duncan, M. (2004). Autoethnography: Critical appreciation of an emerging art. International
Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3, Article 3.
6. Ellis, C. (2004). The ethnographic I: A methodological novel about autoethnography. Walnut
Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
7. Ellis, C., & Bochner, A. P. (2000). Autoethnography, personal narrative, reflexivity: Researcher as a
subject. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The handbook of qualitative research (pp. 733–768).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
8. Feez, S. (2010). Montessori and Early Childhood: A Guide for Students. London: SAGE
Publications Ltd.
9. Gettman, D. (1987). Basic Montessori: Learning Activities for Under-Fives. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
10. Guevara, J. (2020). What does it mean to be an early childhood educator? Negotiating professionalism
during practicum placements in Buenos Aires (Argentina). European Early Childhood Education Research
Journal, 28:3, 439-449.
11. Gutek, G. L. (2004). The Montessori Method. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Inc (Abridged
- Annotated edition).
12. Jónsdóttir, A. H. (2015). University–preschool partnership and workplace-based learning: a
collaborative ‘third space’ or no space at all? Early Years: An International Research Journal,
35(2): 184-196.
13. Matengu , M., Ylitapio-Mäntylä, O., & Puroila, A. M. (2020). Early Childhood Teacher
Education Practicums: A Literature Review. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,
DOI: 10.1080/00313831.2020.1833245.
14. Ngọc Thị Thu Hằng (2014). “Giới thiệu phương pháp giáo dục Montessori”. Tạp chí Khoa học
– Trường Đại học Sư phạm Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, 57: 125-139.
15. Trent, J. (2014). When Communities Collide: the Shared Construction and Defence of Community
and Identity During a Teaching Practicum. Teacher Development 18 (1): 29-45.
16. Tuyen, D. T. (2018). Building Vietnamese language lesson system for 5 – 7-year-old children
using Montessori method. Vietnam Journal of Education, 4: 25-31.
17. Vũ Thị Hồng Hạnh, Vũ Thị Thanh Huyền (2017). “Sử dụng giáo cụ Montessori trong việc giúp trẻ
làm quen với toán”. Tạp chí Giáo dục, số đặc biệt, 135 – 137.
18. Wall, S. (2006). An autoethnography on learning about autoethnography. International Journal
of Qualitative Methods, 5(2): 146-160.
19. Walkington, J.A. (2005). Mentoring pre-service teachers in the preschool setting Perceptions of
the role. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 30, No., pp.28-35.
20. Zeichner, K. (2010). Rethinking the Connections Between Campus Courses and Field Experiences
in College- and University-Based Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education 61 (1–2): 89–99.
VIETNAM’S CULTURAL VALUE SYSTEM
IN DEVELOPING SCHOOL CULTURE
Tran Van Phong
(Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics)
Nguyen Thi Hoai Thanh
(School of Foreign Language, Thai Nguyen University)
Abstract: In the context of digital transformation and the impact of the current market economy, building a
school culture is crucial to the quality and humanity of education. Building a school culture is currently facing many
difficulties. To solve these difficulties, promoting the Vietnamese cultural value system in building school culture
content has theoretical and practical significance. Based on using methods of analysis, synthesis, systematization,
and generalization of relevant documents on the Vietnamese cultural value system (ethnicity, humanity, democracy,
science - according to Resolution 33-NQ/TW of the 9th Meeting of the Party Central Committee of the 11th tenure on
building and developing Vietnamese society and people meeting the demand for national sustainable development)
and school culture; The article analyzes the role of the Vietnamese cultural value system in building school culture
in our country today, including the fundamental tasks: The Vietnamese cultural value system is the foundation
for culture school; orientation for building school culture; protect and strengthen school culture in the direction
of humanity, tradition, and modernity; through the school culture of educating the young generation in Vietnam.
Keywords: culture, school culture, value system.
1. INTRODUCTION
The cultural value system is the soul of the people’s values. A cultural value system considers as
the result of the human labor process in the past and presents it mainly expresses through conceptions,
habits, customs, practices, and experiences of production and daily life of humans. It forms the spiritual
foundation of society, orients human activities, and becomes a vital driving force for social development.
Culture and education are closely related. Both are typical products of humans, only humans have.
Culture is both the content of education and the goal of education. In this relationship, the problem
that needs to explore and solved here is how to convert theoretical capital into cultural capital: from
knowledge, skills to attitude, life personality - that is, teaching literacy, teaching profession, teaching
human morality. The purpose of education is, first and foremost, to develop people, to form in each
person a cultural personality. It requires a cultural, educational environment that we often call school
culture. In building school culture, promoting the role of the cultural value system plays a vital role,
promoting the duty of the cultural value system in the school culture to build each school as a cultural
and educational center, building culture in schools.
2. METHOD
- Research methods: To carry out the stated research purposes and tasks, the authors consistently
and systematically use popular scientific research methods: historical and logical methods (methods).
This method is used in the article to analyze, interpret and clarify the concept of values, value systems,
culture, cultural value systems, school culture); Methods of analysis and synthesis (to deploy, synthesize,
and generalizing research contents); Statistical methods (used in Section 3.1 to collect and evaluate
the research situation); Scientific forecasting method (used in section 4 of the article to give some
recommendations to promote the role of cultural value system in building school culture in Vietnam today).
- Sources of research materials: The secondary sources used, synthesized, and analyzed in the
article are mainly documents published in books, newspapers, magazines, studies of authors in Vietnam
and abroad.
- Times: Research period from 2014 to present. The authors chose this time because: In 2014,
summarizing 15 years of implementation of the 5th plenum resolution of the 8th Party Central Committee,
reviewing the guiding views on culture, our Party has completed and supplemented into five aspects
stated in the Resolution of the 9th Meeting of the Party Central Committee of the 11th tenure on building
and developing Vietnamese culture and people meeting the demand for national sustainable development,
in that resolution has the view: “Building an advanced Vietnamese culture imbued with national
identity, united in the diversity of the Vietnamese ethnic community, with ethnic, human, democratic
and scientific characteristics” [12]. Ethnicity, humanity, democracy, and science are the four cultural
values on which the authors base themselves to learn and analyze the role of the cultural value system
in building school culture in Vietnam today.
3.1. Vietnamese cultural value system – Basic concepts
* Value
Value is a multifaceted concept, widely studied and used in many different sciences (Philosophy,
Economics, Mathematics, Sociology, Psychology, Culturology, Art Studies); it can also learn from
particular approaches (from the subject, from the object, from the relationship).
According to the concept of philosophy, “Values are special social assertions about objects of
the surrounding world, expressing the negative and positive meanings of those objects for people and
society” [7]. According to this approach, all things and phenomena in life simultaneously contain both
positive and negative sides (right - wrong, good - evil, beautiful - ugly), and these two sides are the
value, from which the concept of value is understood in the sense that it is a value that includes positive
values and negative values.
From the sociological approach, J.H. Fichter, who is an American modern sociologist, defines it:
“Everything useful, liked, or admired to a person or group of people is “having a value” [4].
From an integrated approach (subject, object, and relationships), researcher Tran Ngoc Them gives
the concept: Value is a property of an object, which is evaluated by the subject as positive in comparison
with other articles of the same type, in a specific space-time context” [8].
From the approach of Culturology, the concept of “values” can be understood as follows: “Values
are people’s evaluations of natural and social phenomena and thinking in terms of those that are need, is
good, is good, is beautiful, or that is what people consider to be true, good, and beautiful to help affirm
and enhance human nature. When those value perceptions have been formed and shaped, it will govern
people’s thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and emotions” [10, p. 22].
Thus, according to the approach of Culturology, the concept of value only includes what is positive,
helps to affirm and enhance human nature, and what is unfavorable is considered counter-value or
non-value, this interpretation is different from the understanding of some researchers that the concept
includes both positive and negative values. In the article, the authors choose the perception of value
according to the approach that values only mean what is positive, which helps to affirm and enhance
human nature.
* Value system
Many values are unitedly linked together to form a value system, in which the signs are structured
in a defined logical order, have a specific historical relationship to perform one or several functions.
In the value systems, there are general value systems and partial value systems. The generic value
system includes the most generalized values that have a directional role in the thinking and acting of the
whole social community. Partial value systems are values that play a directional position in each area of
human life. There is also another way of understanding, dividing the value system into the original value
system and the derivative value system. The initial value system is located at the first level in the value
system, it governs and forms the remaining values located at the lower levels in the value system [9].
From this original value system, it can be developed into specific value systems that are more suitable
for different objects, components, and fields in social life.
* Culture
Currently, there are many different definitions of the concept of culture. In this article, the concept
of culture is understood in the broadest sense of UNESCO, culture “is the sum total of distinctive
spiritual and material, intellectual and emotional features that determine the character of a society or a
group of people in society. Culture includes art and literature, ways of life, basic human rights, value
systems, customs and beliefs…” [11]. Or according to President Ho Chi Minh’s understanding: “For
survival as well as the purpose of life, mankind created and invented language, writing, morality, law,
science, and religion, literature, art, tools for daily living in terms of clothing, food, shelter and methods
of use. All those creations and inventions are culture. Culture is the synthesis of all modes of living
together with its expression that mankind has created to meet the needs of life and the requirements
of survival” [6]. Or it can be said more briefly, “Culture is an organic system of material and spiritual
values created and accumulated by people through practical activities in the interaction between people,
nature and society” [8].
* Vietnamese value system
First of all, the value system of a nation is a distilled product from the life and labor activities of its
ethnic community. With different cultures, often, the value table or value system is also distinguished.
With a broad-based approach, the article approaches the Vietnamese value system, which means all
the values the Vietnamese people had. They can divide into three categories: natural geographic value
system, cultural value system, and human value system. If the peoples live in the same natural conditions,
the genuine values are likely to be the same; only cultural values, human values are different. In the
overall Vietnamese value system, the cultural value system has the characteristics of being sustainable,
slow to change, create the distinctive of countries, and dominates all aspects of social life. Natural values
and human values also affect, strengthen and enrich cultural values. Therefore, the Vietnamese cultural
value system is also a representative part that plays a crucial role in the Vietnamese value system.
* Vietnamese cultural value system
Building Vietnamese cultural and human values is the content mentioned by the Communist Party
of Vietnam in many Party documents. During the period when the Communist Party had not yet won
power, General Secretary Truong Chinh drafted an Outline on Vietnamese culture in 1943, setting out
three basic principles of Vietnamese culture: Nationalization, Scientificization, Massification. In 1951,
at the Second National Party Congress, the Communist Party approved the Thesis on the Vietnamese
revolution, which mentioned the task: “Building a people’s democratic culture.” Vietnam has three
characteristics: Nation, Science, and Popularity. Thus, it can affirm that, right at the Second National
Party Congress, our Party has oriented to build a Vietnamese cultural value system including three core
values: Nation, Science, and Mass. These three values are the values that the Communist Party wants us to
strive to build to become the nature and qualities of Vietnamese culture.
In the Platform for national construction during the transition to socialism in 1991, the Party set forth
the policy: “Building a new culture, creating a beautiful, rich and diverse spiritual life, with humanitarian,
democratic and progressive content” [5]. Thus, in the 1991 Platform, our Party has chosen three core
values to guide the construction of the content of our culture: humanity, democracy, and progress.
In 2014, summarizing 15 years of implementation of the 5th plenum resolution of the 8th Party
Central Committee, reviewing the guiding views on culture, our Party has completed and supplemented
into five aspects stated in the Resolution of the 9th Meeting of the Party Central Committee of the 11th
tenure on building and developing Vietnamese culture and people meeting the demand for national
sustainable development, in that resolution has the view: “Building an advanced Vietnamese culture
imbued with national identity, united in the diversity of the Vietnamese ethnic community, with ethnic,
human, democractic and sciencetific characteristics” [12]. Ethnicity, humanity, democracy, and science
are the four core values our Party directs and orients to build an advanced Vietnamese culture imbued
with national identity. The article explores the role of Vietnam’s cultural value system in building
school culture based on the four core values outlined by the 9th Central Resolution of the XI session -
Nationality, humanity, democracy, and science.
3.2. The role of the Vietnamese cultural value system in building school culture
3.2.1. School culture, building school culture
*School culture
School culture is a valuable environment to train the young generation to form cultured personalities
and educate them to live with ambition and lofty ideals. Therefore, building a school culture in Vietnam
is now considered a central and essential task of education and training. School culture is not outside
the development of each school. School culture is the foundation and endogenous strength for the
development of the school.
The term “school culture” appeared in the 1990s in some English-speaking countries such as the
UK, USA, Australia, and gradually became popular in the world with a general meaning: School culture
is the Values, historical experiences of human society have accumulated in the process of building the
educational system and the process of forming personality for learners.
According to pedagogue Pham Minh Hac: “School culture is a system of standards and values
that help school administrators, teachers, parents and students have different ways of thinking, feelings,
good deeds” [3].
Today’s schools not only teach knowledge but also teach culture. The school must not confuse the
academic level with a cultural stage in its educational and training mission. Each school needs to have
a method and a way to build a school culture at its institute. It suits the characteristics of the school and
the nature of the school culture.
* School culture in the context of educational innovation and digital transformation
Currently, the world and Vietnam are witnessing remarkable changes in the digital age of the fourth
industrial revolution (Industry 4.0); and the profound influence of science and technology on people’s
lives. Since Industry 4.0, the inevitable result has been the formation of “Education 4.0.” and “school
culture 4.0”. The impact of digital transformation on school culture is both positive and negative.
Most of today’s students have good knowledge, are quick to grasp information, have good health,
have a spirit of curiosity in learning, have a high ability to apply what they have learned in practice and
respect teachers, unite with friends to live a disciplined life, constantly striving for excellence in study
and life.
However, due to the negative effects of the industrial revolution 4.0 and social networks, a part of
students have had attitudes and behaviors that are not consistent with the traditional values of the nation.
The explosion of social networks has attracted some young people to fall into the state of “addiction
to Face-book.” In October 2016, according to the announcement of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Huynh Van Son,
Vice President of the Vietnam Social Psychology Association, through a survey of 424 minors who
are students aged 15-18 in Ho Chi Minh City, out of 414 students are using Face-book (accounting for
97.6%. ), 56.3% of students are “addicted to Face-book”. Using the Internet for entertainment has caused
students to waste time, energy, and money on online games; access to “dark web” sites, from which
to cheat, buy and sell virtual goods with real money... From the virtual communication environment,
many students virtualize personal information (name, age, gender) properties, locality of residence,
appearance, etc.) and fake information. Social deception is considered a game.
The development of information technology and the internet has brought people many convenient
applications. In particular, online learning becomes an educational solution to train human resources
for society. In the context of the current spreading Covid-19 epidemic, online learning is not only a
form of learning to meet reality, but it is also a learning trend of the future when digital transformation
in education develops. When becoming a popular form of learning, in the form of online learning,
besides ensuring quality, it is also necessary to build a school culture in online learning. The reality of
online learning shows that some students still study while eating, talking in private, or wearing offensive
costumes during classes. A student in Ho Chi Minh City revealed sensor images while attending an
online class [14]. Therefore, in today’s online learning, we need to build school culture. According to
E-Student, the disadvantage of online learning is that it is difficult to prevent and detect cheating in
exams. Compared to offline exams, online exams are harder to prevent cheating. Students who take the
exam online, if not self-conscious, can cheat in many different ways, and find documents on computers
and phones. Even if the school does not have an identity verification system, students can ask someone
to take the test for them, leading to the assessment of test results not being transparent and fair [15].
Thus, science and technology today have a lot of impact on the development of culture in general
and school culture in particular. To promote the positive and limit the negative of science and technology,
we must have in-depth and up-to-date research on each field of science and technology and apply it
appropriately in the construction current school culture.
3.2.2. The role of Vietnam’s cultural values system with developing a school culture
* The Vietnamese cultural value system is the basis for school culture
Ethnicity, humanity, democracy, and science are the four fundamental values directed by our
Party and oriented to build an advanced Vietnamese culture imbued with national identity. Nationality
reflects the aspirations of the Vietnamese people, and from aspiration to ideals, the actions of an entire
generation. The national character makes it possible for us to mobilize all resources and subjects to
participate in building school culture; create a link between school - family, individual - the society in
the realization of educational purposes and tasks.
The culture of humanity is the total tolerance and kindness of individuals in the community towards
building a peaceful, stable, and humane society. During the flood in Central Vietnam in 2020, promoting
the tradition of solidarity and compassion, schools have supported flood victims in many different ways.
Teachers and students across the country have supported movements for the people of Central Vietnam,
such as wrapping Chung cake, donating books, school supplies, and clothes, and many students have
participated in donating money to help people in the Central region. These days, our country is facing
difficulties due to the spreading COVID-19 epidemic, the speed of transmission is very fast. The
solidarity against the epidemic of organizations and individuals has created the strength of the entire
Party and people to fight the epidemic. We have painted a beautiful picture of the spirit of solidarity,
dedication, and sacrifice when the country faces difficulties. In which, there is the contribution of
schools, teachers, teachers, and students. A pupil named Nguyen Ngoc Minh, from Dong La commune,
Hoai Duc, 5 G3 class, Marie Curie II Primary School, Ha Dong, Ha Noi is a typical example. She used
her savings for three years (more than 30 million VND) to support the Vaccine Fund for Covid-19
prevention and control. Faced with the increasing work pressure of medical staff in epidemic areas,
thousands of medical students from different universities have volunteered to participate in the fight
against the epidemic. These actions have shown the humane spirit of the young Vietnamese generation,
including young students in schools.
The democracy of culture can understand that the people are the genuine creators of cultural
values, testing cultural products, and at the same period, the people themselves are the beneficiaries
of cultural values. Applying the democratic nature of culture in education helps us to see the “central”
role of learners. Without learners, there is no school, no teacher, and without teachers, there can be no
school. The purpose of education is to foster the young generation to become dynamic and creative,
intelligent, capable workers to solve all tasks in school and in life. The student is the center, all activities
of the school revolve around the student, and for the sake of the student, the teacher strives constantly.
Applying democracy in education will be in line with the trend of shifting from traditional education
(“Teacher-centered”) to a “student-centered” teaching perspective, under the guidance and direction of
the teacher. This will be a type of teaching in line with the requirements of the new era - education to
create autonomous, creative people who are global citizens.
The science of culture is through the cultural value system that helps people form a scientific
mindset for all classes of people, helps to improve people’s knowledge, train human resources, foster
talents and apply science learn technology in production and life, get rid of outdated customs, fight with
conservative and stagnation ideology.
Concretizing four core values in the cultural value system of Vietnam - Ethnicity, humanity,
democracy, and science, the Resolution of the 9th Conference of the Central Committee of the Party, term
XI affirmed: Improve the standards of Vietnamese cultural and human values, create an environment
and conditions for the development of personality, morality, intelligence, creative capacity, body, soul,
social responsibility, civic duty, sense of law observance; uphold the spirit of patriotism and national
pride, conscience and responsibility towards each person’s self, family, social community and country”.
This cultural value system will be the basis for building school culture. The most common goal of
school culture is to establish healthy schools, friendly relationships and improve the quality of education.
Based on the general targets of the education sector, each school has specific goals and cultural content.
To do that, each school must consider the peculiar coincidences base on the national cultural value
system and the unique conditions of the school to build an appropriate arrangement of standards and
values. The culture at each school creates trust for society in performing its educational function and
raising the mission of people’s intellectual level, training human resources, fostering talents, contributing
to training and providing society good citizens, and meeting the development requirements of society.
* Vietnamese cultural value system orients the development of school culture
Cultural value system was created by people. When formed, that value system has the role of
guiding human goals, methods, and actions and participates in regulating social development. The value
system regulates customs, habits, public opinion and eventually regulates legal values. Therefore, any
society or nation needs to build its own cultural and human value system. The lack of a cultural value
system will lead to a lack of tools for social regulation, thereby leading to a lack of orientation in social
development. Under the impact of the market economy and international integration, Vietnamese cultural
and human values in general and school culture, in particular, are being affected in many different
directions. The decline in ideology, morality, and lifestyle among some young people today has proved
that they are living with their backs to cultural values, this phenomenon is also the consequence of not
attaching the construction cultural value system with human education. Thus, the Vietnamese cultural
value system plays a necessary role in orienting the development of school culture. Promoting the part of
the cultural value system and Vietnamese people in building school culture will contribute to preventing
and preventing negative impacts of the market economy on school culture in our country today.
* Vietnamese cultural value system protects and develops school culture towards humanity,
tradition, and modernity
We are conducting renovation and building a socialist-oriented market economy. The market
economy, globalization, and international integration have impacted the education sector in many
different ways. We have had the conditions to absorb several training models from advanced countries.
The training program is getting more and more diversified. Many new subjects and disciplines were born,
gradually aiming to build a training program that meets regional and international standards. Besides,
globalization and worldwide integration have had a massive impact on students’ psychology and had a
lifestyle, negatively affecting school culture. The free, selfish lifestyle, emphasizing the individual ego,
forgetting about the collectivity makes the school culture model degraded.
To overcome the negative impacts of the market economy, globalization, and international
integration on school culture, education on the national cultural value system plays an extremely crucial
role. Building school culture in Vietnam today must take the traditional cultural value system of the
nation as the basis. Because according to the dialectical concept of development, the new forms by
accident, the new one must be based on the positive and reasonable foundations of the old. On the
other hand, the Vietnamese cultural value system in the current period also needs to learn, absorb and
refine human culture and constantly add new values. Our Party affirms: “Building a Vietnamese people
rich in patriotism, sense of ownership, civic responsibility, knowledge, health, good labor, living with
a culture of gratitude and spirit. genuine international” [1, p. 40]. By actively exchanging cultures
between countries, promoting the advantages, we have confirmed many values of the national cultural
identity, and through that, we have learned, absorbed, and supplemented. many new values, making the
Vietnamese national cultural identity richer and more diverse. Thus, educating the Vietnamese cultural
value system in schools will contribute to protecting and strengthening the school culture in the direction
of humanity, tradition, and modernity.
* Vietnamese cultural value system through school culture to educate Vietnamese youth
In the cultural value system, there is a system of human standards. Therefore, through the school
culture, the cultural value system also plays a decisive role in the education of the young generation in
Vietnam. The Resolution of the 9th Central Committee of the 11th term affirmed: “To build each school, it
must be really a cultural and educational center, training people in terms of ideals, qualities, personality
and lifestyle; traditional cultural education for the younger generation” [12].
Promoting the role of Vietnam’s cultural value system in school culture is to build schools to
truly become centers of culture, education, and training for young people; harmoniously combining
regular and extra-curricular studies, thereby contributing to the formation of revolutionary ideals, moral
education, and cultural lifestyle for the young generation.
The impacts of globalization and the industrial revolution 4.0 will be favorable conditions for the
young generation of Vietnam to show their talents, youth, enthusiasm, strengthen their beliefs, and have
a strong political will; have ambitions, ideals, aspirations, and responsibility to bring the country up;
have the knowledge, health, social skills, professional capacity, master modern science and technology,
devote themselves to the Fatherland. Therefore, promoting the role of Vietnam’s cultural value system in
building school culture, thereby educating the Vietnamese young generation’s ideology, viewpoint, and
behavior is an important political task. Each young person will constantly strive to study and practice
morality and strive constantly to follow Ho Chi Minh’s thought, moral example, and style. Schools and
society need to effectively implement and implement the spirit of the 13th Party Congress: “Building
an environment and conditions for learning, working, entertaining and training for a healthy and
comprehensive development of intellectual, physical and aesthetic values. Motivating young people to
be pioneers in learning, creative work, starting a business, starting a business; master modern scientific
and technological knowledge, and play an important role in the cause of national construction and
defense” [2]. On that basis, contributing to the construction and development of the country for the goal:
“Rich people, strong country, democracy, justice and civilization.”
4. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

4.1. Conclusion
The current school culture development is facing many difficulties and challenges such as Social
ethics has shown signs of decline; communication, social behavior has many deteriorations, school
violence; negative impacts of the market economy and international integration. To successfully develop
school culture, we need to synchronously and harmoniously deal with the relationships in the structure
of school culture (objectives, nature, content). In particular, one of the necessary contents is to build an
educational value system in each school and form an educational value system the role of the Vietnamese
cultural value system is extremely important. Based on promoting the Vietnamese cultural value system
aspect in education in schools, building school culture should be considered an effective measure to
prevent negative phenomena in school education to develop the school into an intellectual-cultural,
cultural-intellectual school.
4.2. Suggestion
Promoting the role of the Vietnamese cultural value system in building school culture in the coming
time, the authors make the following recommendations:
Firstly, from the school side: Propaganda for cadres, officials, teachers, and students, implementing
the beauties in the Vietnamese cultural value system, with the creative application, associated with the
implementation of styles emulation movements such as Friendly school, active students, and students.
Schools need to promote life skills training for students, forming students skills to apply in learning,
working, and life situations.
Second, for teachers: Building a school culture is the responsibility of teachers and students.
Teachers in schools must be examples for students to follow in building and implementing school
culture in schools.
Third, for parents: Parents need to cooperate with the school in educating students. Parents must
be an example and support for students to follow. Families need to care for, care and encourage their
children promptly. Do not assign the entire responsibility to the school and society.
Fourth, for students: Students need to have a correct and positive attitude and awareness of the role
of the Vietnamese cultural value system and voluntarily apply it in the implementation of school culture.
Fifth, combine the school - family - a society in educating the cultural value system for students.
The school cultural environment created from the combination of family - school - society will eliminate
unhealthy cultures, contributing to building perfect school culture.
5. REFERENCES
1. Communist Party of Vietnam (2011), Document of the 11th National Congress of Deputies, p.
40, 75.
2. Communist Party of Vietnam (2021), Document of the 13th National General Assembly, National
Political Publishing House, Hanoi, vol. 1, p.168.
3. Pham Minh Hac (2010), Some issues of Vietnamese education in the early 21st century, Education
Publishing House, Hanoi, p. 221.
4. J.H. Fichter (1973), Sociology, Saigon Cultural Publishing House, Ho Chi Minh, p. 173.
5. Prof. Dr. Phan Ngoc Lien (editor) (2006), Dr. Van Ngoc Thanh, Dr. Bui Thi Thu Ha, MSc.
Le Hien Chuong, Dr. Do Hong Thai, Chronicle of the Congresses of the Communist Party of
Vietnam, vol. 2, Vietnam’s Encyclopedia Publishing House, p. 562.
6. Ho Chi Minh (2012), Culture and Art is a front, Culture and Arts Publishing House, Ho Chi
Minh, p. 355
7. M.M. Rodentan - P. Putin (editor), Russian Philosophical Dictionary, 3rd edition, Political
Publishing House, Moscow, p. 46.
8. Tran Ngoc Them (1999), Vietnam Cultural Foundation, Education Publishing House, p. 10.
9. Tran Ngoc Them (2016), Vietnamese value system from tradition to modernity and the way to
the future, Culture and Arts Publishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, p. 39,116.
10. Ngo Duc Thinh (2010), Preserving, enriching and promoting Vietnamese traditional cultural
values in renovation and integration, Social Science Publishing House, Hanoi, p. 22.
11. UNESCO (1982), Resolution of the Conference on Cultural Policy in Mexico, p. 10.
12. https://dangcongsan.vn/thoi-su/nghi-quyet-hoi-nghi-trung-uong-9-khoa-xi-ve-xay-dung-
va-phat-trien-van-hoa-con-people-viet-nam-dap-ung-yeu-cau-phat-trien-ben-vung-dat-
nuoc-251604.html.
TEACHERS’ TPACK COMPETENCY FOR THE REQUIREMENT
OF GENERAL EDUCATION RENOVATION
Le Ngoc Hung, Nguyen Phuong Huyen, Nguyen Van Hong,
Vu Thi Thuy Hang, Nguyen Thanh Ly, Nguyen Thi Na
(Faculty of Educaion Management, VNU University of Education )
Abstract: Integrating technology in learning content is very important in the digital age. This trend requires
educators not only to have pedagogical but also technological competence and especially to be able to integrate
both fields to become an effective teacher in the digital age. The purpose of this study is to analyze technology,
pedagogy and content knowledge capacity (TPACK) of 651 teachers at all three levels of high school education
in the northern, central and southern regions of Vietnam. The method applied in this study is a mixed method,
using data through questionnaires and in-depth interviews. From the results obtained, there will be solutions in
training, fostering and professional development for teachers to contribute to the implementation of the 2018
general education program.
Keywords: TPACK, teacher competence, teachers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Renovation of general education, in which the introduction and the implementation of the General
Education Program in 2018 in fact have posed a requirement to innovate teaching in schools in the
direction of developing learners’ quality and competence. This represents a critical issue of discovering
approaches to retrain teachers to ensure that they meet the requirements of professional competence of
the teaching staff at all levels from elementary to secondary school and high school. Many works, projects
and researches on the quality and capacity of teachers have been carried out in recent times. However,
the research problem is that it is important to proceed to investigate and apply modern theoretical models
to assess the current status of teachers’ capacity and analyze impacting factors in order to be able to
propose solutions to foster teachers to meet requirements of the Vietnam General Education Program
(2018) in digital period1. Three research questions can be raised that should be answered:
1. What level is the capacity of teachers under TPACK integration according to the professional
standards of teachers?
2. What factors affect the capacity of teachers in integrating the TPACK model?
3. What solutions should be implemented in teacher training and retraining to develop the capacity
of teachers in TPACK integration, to meet the requirements of the 2018 general education program?
1 Duong Hoang Yen, Le Ngoc Hung, Vu Thuy Hang, Tan Nguyen. 2021. “Factors Affecting Smart School Leadership
Competencies of High School Principals in Vietnam “International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research, April 2021. 20 (4): 1-17; https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.4.1.
Studies on teacher competence
In these days, teachers must develop essential 21st-century competencies. According to UNESCO’s
(2008), teachers’ competences in the 21st century include a solid knowledge of their curriculum and
smart use of technology in their teaching. The formal education system depends on three components
namely the curriculum, students and teachers.
Teaching competence can be inspected in various perspectives like subject mastery, student
motivation, planning skills, organization of teaching activities, assessment and classroom management
skills (Ornstein, 1991). Wilson, Shulman and Richet note that a teacher’s deep knowledge of curriculum
content and instructional method enhance student performance. (Wilson, Shulman and Richet, 1987;
Wilson, B.C. and Corcoran, T.B, 1988). The requirements and relationships between content knowledge
(CK) and necessary knowledge to teach a particular topic, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has
been discovered and confirmed to help teachers master the teaching content, meet the requirements of the
logic, the development, accurately reflecting the nature of things and phenomena in the learning topics
(Stefan Krauss et al., 2008). Teachers not only need to develop up-to-date knowledge and understanding
of the subject, but also a rich knowledge and understanding of the learning process itself. (J. Parker
and D. Heywood, 2000). Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is considered an important part of the
knowledge base for teaching. Many studies have shown the the extent to which the teacher’s knowledge
is relevant to the student’s increased learning, motivation, and interest in the lesson. And PCK is one of
the most important areas of teacher knowledge (Shulman, 1987; Kleickmann, 2013).
Medley (1982) assumes teacher competencies as behaviors, skills and knowledge that are related
to school performance. Medley emphasizes the requirements for teachers’ pedagogical communication
capacity (Medley, D.M., 1982). Anna Reed Johnson stressed that secondary school teachers in the US
need to have the ability to communicate with respect for students, and control their voice and tone.
Middle school age students are better able to read their teacher’s words by observing their facial
expressions, so keeping teachers’ body language positive is necessary. In communicating with students,
using empowering language and a warm smile is encouraging. In knowledge of subject, it is advisable to
break down a topic into its constituent parts and afterward sort out these parts in an accessible manner1.
Each teacher has different skill levels, abilities and competencies due to different qualifications, teaching
experience and educational background. In view of these distinctions, they will show various gatherings
of inspiration, commitment, and engagement. Burgoyue (1993) used a functional perspective to define
competencies as the best way to gain organizational goals by improving the performance of members. On
the global and national level, various organizations require different sorts of competencies. (Burgoyue,
J, 1993)
According to the New Mexico Public Education Department (USA) (2012), there are nine
indicators of the competence of middle school teachers corresponding to ten competencies to make
teachers professionally competent. Quinn, Faerman, Thompson and McGrath (1996) indicate that
competence is associated with knowledge and skills to perform specific tasks or projects effectively.
To be powerful in a specific competency, one must be able to achieve the desired results of work with
specific qualifications and personal attributes. (OCDE, 2012). So alongside teaching competence,
1 https://www.prospects.ac.uk/jobs-and-work-experience/job-sectors/teacher-training-and-education/essential-skills-for-
secondary-school-teachers
personality, leadership, and attitude are important attributes that denote competencies normally referred
to as “emotional intelligence” - similarly as fundamental in teaching-learning process. As suggested
by Wright (2008), skills, abilities and competencies along with levels of motivation, commitment and
engagement go about as persuasive components for teachers. (Cooper and Sawaf, 1998).
Concerns about what teachers should be, the way they should act, and what attributes they should
have as experts are questions that remain open and not effortlessly excused. As Carbonell (2008)
recommends, this is a diverse, heterogeneous, contradictory and changable group of occupations. In any
case, most experts agree that the role of teachers has changed, as they are no longer the main mediators
of knowledge (Gimeno, 2012). Accordingly, one of the difficult situations that teachers face today is that
their traditional role, based on the constant transmission of knowledge, does not appear to be adequate
to meet the current instructive necessities and future.
Obviously, classroom education is altogether different today from it was thirty years prior. Firstly,
the processes of change in the educational and social context in recent decades (student differences,
extension of compulsory education, loss of authority, increased conflict, ICT integration, democratizing
the access to information) has prompted a genuine revolution in education that has changed the goals,
methods of working, and the educational system itself (Esteve, 2003).
A. Drummond and T. Sweeney emphasize the preparation of teachers to embrace information and
communication technology (ICT) and the application of integrated technology in classroom instruction
as an integral component of teacher training programs around the world (A. Drummond and T. Sweeney,
2017). In the current context of technology and digital transformation, the requirements for teachers’
competence have been adjusted and increased many times: (1) teachers are role models in education;
(2) use of technology in education; (3) study Design Technology; (4) collaborate with colleagues; (5)
reliable experiences; and (6) continuous feedback. If teachers themselves do not have any changes in
competence, they seem to be stuck in the experience of traditional teaching and knowledge tends not to
adapt to existing conditions in the classroom. (Russell and Martin, 2017)
When the studies on TPACK are reviewed, it is found that most of the current researches on
teacher competence ask for the integration of ICT in education (Chai, Koh, & Tsai, 2010; Chuang &
Ho, 2010; Kabakçı-Yurdakul, 2011; Schmidt et al., 2009) and teachers’ competencies in integrating
technology into teaching (Lin, Tsai, Chai, & Lee, 2013; Usluel, Mumcu, & Demiraslan, 2007). Wang,
Ertmer, & Newby emphasize another important thing for teachers in integrating new technology into
the teaching-learning process is their perception of their own effectiveness for technology integration
(Wang, Ertmer). , & Newby, 2004). Teachers’ high levels of self-perception of their own effectiveness in
integrating technology can be an indicator of their confidence in the effective use of technology (Nathan,
2009). In this respect, teachers with a high degree of effectiveness in technology integration tend to be
more successful in technology integration (Nathan, 2009; Wang et al. 2004).
In today’s information society, marked by rapid social change, it is especially important to develop
students’ learning skills and attitudes throughout life to adapt to new ones and increasingly uncertain
circumstances. (Aspin et al., 2001; Knapper and Cropley, 2000; Herrera, Lorenzo and Rodríguez, 2008).
Consequently, according to an OECD report (2012) on education in the 21st century, the importance
of preparing students for creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, using tools to communicate and
cooperate, be socially responsible, and so forth, implying that teachers must abandon their conventional
role of simply imparting knowledge.
Summing up the perspectives on a few authors (Bisquerra, 2002; Le Boterf, 1995; Pereda and
Berrocal, 1999; Repetto and Pérez-González, 2007; Zabalza, 2003) can give the following highlights.
Teacher competencies are personal attributes or characteristics of knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attributes,
self-perception. Competence relates to interventions that deliver successful outcomes, so they are
embodied in action. Capacity assists individuals to achieve results in different contexts and therefore
Teacher competencies are not always stable attributes. Teacher competencies can be flexibly transformed
in different objects that can be applied to any activity, field or function. Teacher competencies can be
cultivated and developed through training programs.
In addition, researches on teachers’ specific competencies has been enhanced in recent years. The
UNESCO report on education in the twenty-first century led by Jacques Delors, highlights the need for
capacity development in the field of education. The report states that the mission of general education
in today’s practice should be be based on the four pillars of vocational learning and social competence
throughout a person’s life: learn to know, learn to do, learn to live together and learn to grow.
Studies on training and retraining to improve the capacity of teachers
A examination on the capacity of teachers involved in teaching 12 subjects in high schools shows
that nearly 82% of teachers agree with the statement that basically the capacity of teachers can meet
requirements of general education reform1. Nearly 18% of the responses expressed doubts about the
statement. This demonstrates that there are still numerous issues that should be explored and solved
related to the capacity of high school teachers.
In order to renovate the teacher training and retraining programs to meet the General Education
Program (2018), some authors have analyzed the teacher’s lack of pedagogical capacity and therefore
proposed a process of retraining pedagogical knowledge including 5 steps2. They are planning,
approving, implementing, evaluating and completing the plan. In the direction of research focusing
on pedagogical capacity, some authors propose a model of training and fostering teaching capacity for
teachers3. Accordingly, it is necessary to distinguish the kinds of e fundamental competencies, the types
of component capacities with the degrees of manifestation to be included in the teacher training and
fostering programs at the university of pedagogy and in the process of working at schools. Also toward
research on training innovation and teacher retraining, some authors found difficulties in changing the
content structure of the general education program (2018) such as knowledge integration, experiential
and local knowledge complement4. Therefore, the proposed solution is to apply a management approach
from objectives, programs, teaching methods, testing and evaluation and in the form of “rolling”
according to each grade level.
In response to the requirement to strengthen teaching information technology and IT application,

some authors have studied, introduced and proposed to apply the TPACK model (technology, pedagogy,
1 Phan Hung Thu. 2018. “Solutions to ensure the quality of high school teacher training in the current context.” Journal of
Education, 421 (Term 1 - 01/ 2019): 15-19.
2 Nguyen Thi Lan Anh. 2019. “Innovating the programs and methods of training and retraining teachers to meet the
requirements of the new general education program”. Journal of Education, Special Issue of Term 2, 05/2019: 23-26.
3 Le Minh Cuong. 2019. “Renovation of retraining the teaching capacity for teachers of general education.” Journal of Education,
Special Issue of Term 2, 05/ 2019: 33-36.
4 Nguyen Trong Khanh - Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen. 2019. “Difficulty and remedies when implementing the new General
Education Curriculum.” Journal of Education, Special Issue, 04/2019: 289-92.
content knowledge) in teaching and training innovation, fostering teachers in an integrated direction,
ensuring that teachers have TPACK knowledge and development of corresponding TPACK capacities
for the teaching staff1.
Studies on TPACK model
The TPACK model is said2 to originate from the pedagogical content knowledge model (PCK,
Pedagogical Content Knowledge)3 introduced by Shulman in 1986 and has been continuously
consistently investigated, acquired and developed into the TPCK model4 in 2006. 2007 TPACK model5
can be supposed to be completed6 in 2014. In a root -seen-investigation of the TPACK model, some
important things about teacher knowledge was discovered by Shulman through his study of how teachers’
careers were assessed in the United States over a period of time from the second half of the nineteenth
century to the 1980s. In 1875, a person who wanted to become a teacher must have content knowledge
such as object knowledge, subject knowledge including theories and concepts to be able to teach such
content. Obviously, pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of teaching methods is also very important and
necessary, but ranked second after the first position of content or professional knowledge. Yet by the
1980s, Shulman noticed that the situation seemed to have changed dramatically. A person who wants
to become a teacher, the first important thing is to know how to teach, and pedagogical knowledge and
content knowledge in the second rank. Therefore, the question is how much knowledge teachers need
to have to ensure the consistency of content and pedagogical knowledge, to both know what to teach
and how to teach? Shulman proposed a model consisting of three types of content knowledge: (i) object
content knowledge, (ii) pedagogical content knowledge and (iii) curriculum knowledge. Simultaneously,
Shulman proposed three forms of teacher knowledge: propositional knowledge, case knowledge, and
strategic knowledge. According to Shulman, a person with such kind of knowledge of pedagogical
content can teach and become a teacher.
Inheriting Shulman’s teacher knowledge model, Mishra and Koehler developed a Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (TPK, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge)7 in
2006 (Figure 1). The TPK model emphasizes that teachers need to be tech-savvy and able to effectively
incorporate technology into their classrooms.
1 Nguyen Ngoc Hieu. 2017. “Application of technology and TPACK model in teaching.” Journal of Science, Vinh University,
46(4B): 18-26.
2 Hülya Gür1 and Ayşen Karamete. 2015. “A short review of TPACK for teacher education.” Educational Research and
Reviews, 10(7): 777-89.
3 Shulman, L. S. 1986. “Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching.” Educational Researcher, 15(2): 4-14.
4 Mishra P, Koehler M. 2006. “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge.”
Teachers College Record, 108(6): 1017-54.
5 Thompson A. D, Mishra P. 2007. “Breaking News: TPCK Becomes TPACK!” Journal of Computer Teacher Edcuation,
24(2): 38-64.
6 Koehler, M., Mishra, P, Kereluik, K., Shin, T., & Graham, C. . 2014. The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Framework. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
7 Mishra P, Koehler M. 2006. “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge.”
Teachers College Record, 108(6): 1017-54.
Figure 1. TPCK model (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) by Mishra and Koehler (2006)
Source: Mishra P, Koehler M. 2006. “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher
Knowledge.” Teachers College Record, 108(6): 1017-54
In 2007, Thompson and Mishra inherited and renamed this model to TPACK model (Technological
Pedagogical And Content Knowledge)1. This model emphasizes that teachers need to have knowledge
of content, pedagogy and technology, and need to be able to use these knowledge in combination in
education and teaching.
Koehler et al., (2014) developed TPACK in relation to its contexts2. According to this model (2014),
teachers need to master 7 types of knowledge in order to have the ability and skills to harmoniously
combine technology, pedagogy and content in education and teaching to meet the requirements of
students in certain context (Figure 2).
Figure 2. TPACK model in contexts by Koehler et al., 2014

Souce: Koehler, M., Mishra, P, Kereluik, K., Shin, T., & Graham, C. 2014. The Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge Framework. New York: Springer Science & Business Media. P. 103.
1 Thompson A. D, Mishra P. 2007. “Breaking News: TPCK Becomes TPACK!” Journal of Computer Teacher Edcuation,
24(2): 38-64.
2 Koehler, M., Mishra, P, Kereluik, K., Shin, T., & Graham, C. . 2014. The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Framework. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
A review1 was conducted of 116 scientific articles on TPACK on the Web of Science database and
Scopus database from 2001 to 2014. This study has found that TPACK is an appropriate theoretical
model to study and evaluate the current status of knowledge, capacity and skills of teachers so that it
can propose solutions to improve training programs and foster teachers to meet the requirements of
combining elements of technology, pedagogy and content in education and teaching to promote learners’
progress. This review2 also found that the TPACK model may need to be applied to analyze education
policy and propose educational policy solutions to improve the quality and capacity of the teaching staff.
Basic concepts of TPACK model
TPACK is a model of the combination of three types of knowledge, namely technological knowledge,
pedagogical and content knowledge, as the basis for teachers’ professional competence. TPACK is an
abbreviation of the English word for each corresponding type of knowledge (Technological Pedagogical
And Content Knowledge). When applying TPACK model in the study of assessing the capacity of
teachers, it could be understood that the teacher’s competence consists of three types of component
competencies: technological (Technological stands for T), pedagogical (Pedagogical) and Content
Knowledge (Content Knowledge abbreviated as CK). Along with these three types of knowledge are
four other types of knowledge, denoted TCK, PCK, TPK and TPACK, respectively (Figure 2).
Technological knowledge (TK) is ability about technologies associated with occupational activities,
including the understanding and skills in using the technologies necessary to perform professional tasks.
In the digital age, technological knowledge includes ability of operating systems, hardware and software
of computer, and skills in using computers and associated utility software. In this study, technological
knowledge is the teachers’ technological competence to carry out educational and teaching tasks and
perform teacher’s duties towards students.
Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is capacity about educational and teaching methods that teachers
need to master in order to be able to take up positions in schools. Pedagogical knowledge includes
knowledge about learning activities, teaching activities, classroom management activities, educational
and teaching program development activities and implementation. Pedagogical knowledge is most
evident in the form and method of education and teaching of teachers towards students. In this study,
pedagogical knowledge is applied to assess pedagogical competence which is expressed in cognitive
ability and ability to use educational and teaching forms and methods suitable to educational content and
educational technology to achieve certain educational and teaching goals.
Content knowledge (CK) is ability of subject content in educational and teaching programs that
teachers need to master to complete their assigned educational and teaching tasks. A large part of
content knowledge, also known as specialized knowledge, is acquired by teachers in undergraduate
or graduate training programs in certain disciplines or majors. A part of content knowledge is
professional knowledge which is learned and fostered during the teachers’ professional activities at
general education institutions. This study concentrates in content knowledge understood in the sense
of capacity to perceive and implement content under the General Program (2018).
1 Hülya Gür1 and Ayşen Karamete. 2015. “A short review of TPACK for teacher education.” Educational Research and
Reviews, 10(7): 777-89.
2 Hülya Gür1 and Ayşen Karamete. 2015. Ibid.
Technology content knowledge (TCK) is knowledge about the relationship between technology
knowledge and subject content knowledge. This knowledge is reflected in the teacher’s ability to
both master professional content and grasp technology, for example, technology integrates necessary
content to educate and teach students. With this knowledge, teachers can teach both the content and the
technology of that content to meet the requirements of the General Education Program (2018).
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is pedagogical knowledge applied in teaching the content of
a defined educational program. This knowledge includes understanding and skills in selecting and using
teaching methods appropriate to the content of the educational program. Pedagogical content knowledge
includes ability of learning activities and learners to build lesson content and choose teaching methods
suitable for learners.
Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) is knowledge about the relationship between

pedagogical and technological knowledge as the basis for the formation and development of skills in using
technology-based educational methods and in selecting and using technology in teaching. Teachers with
technological pedagogical knowledge will not depend on technology but master technology to improve
the educational process in order to improve the quality and effectiveness of education. Also, teachers with
technology pedagogical knowledge always know how to harmoniously use educational technology and
technology-based education, especially digital technology in implementing the contents of the general
education program.
Content pedagogical technology knowledge (TPACK) is knowledge about the tripartite relationship
including “technology x pedagogy x knowledge”. Teachers equipped with this kind of knowledge will
have the ability to understand, use and teach teaching content with educational technology and choose
appropriate educational methods to ensure the achievement of specific determined educational goals.
TPACK model emphasizes this tripartite relationship, but in the digital age, technological knowledge
can have an increasingly prominent position and role. This may suggest a new approach to researches
and teacher training and retraining to meet the requirements of the General Education Program (2018).
3. METHODOLOGY
This research applies the TPACK model to assess the current state of competences of teachers of
general education. The research uses the overview research method and the statistical method to process
and analyze data from the survey of the topic “Education Annual Report 2020: Existence and challenges
in the quality of teachers of general education”1 which was implemented in 2020.
This study is collected by survey method with 654 questionnaires, of which 651 survey
questionnaires clearly identified the respondents as school teachers working at primary, secondary and
multi-level high schools
In terms of age structure, the majority of teachers are between the ages of 30 and 50, nearly 13%
of the people are “young teachers” at the age of 30, and teachers over 50 make up a small percentage
(8.4%) (Table 1). Regarding gender, in 651 people, 167 men account for 25.7% and 484 women account
for 74.3%. Most of the teachers own university degrees and are trained in pedagogy.
1 VNU-level science and technology topic in 2020, code GG.20.48 “Education Annual Report 2020: Existence and challenges
in the quality of teachers of general education”.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of school teachers

Independent
Number (N) Per %
variables
Chung 651 100
Under 30 83 12.7
31-40 222 34.1
1. Age 41-50 291 44.7
51-55 47 7.2
56-60 8 1.2
Man 167 25.7
2. Gender
Woman 48.4 74.3
College 37 5.7
3. Highest level of training achieved Bachelor 535 82.2
Master, Doctor 79 12.1
Pedagogy 582 89.4

4. Specialized training
Other 69 10.6
Primary 143 22.0

5. Work place: Secondary school 324 49.8
school level
High school 184 28.3
Survey sampling method. The survey sample is selected according to the following steps: Step 1:
select three localities representing three regions of the country, specifically, Hai Phong City represents
the Northern region, Nghe An Province represents the Central region and Can Tho City represents the
Southern region. Step 2: In each locality, select 1 primary school, 1 secondary school and 1 high school.
Step 3: At each school, select all teachers to participate in the survey by a survey form.
Survey instrument. The survey instrument as “Survey Form” includes questions to collect data on
3 issues. (i) Questions about demographic characteristics of respondents, (ii) questions about teachers’
competences and (iii) questions about general self-assessment of the teachers’ quality before requirements
to carry out the General Education Curriculum (2018).
The content of the questions is developed in accordance with the standards and criteria of the
Professional standards for teachers in general education institutions promulgated according to Circular
No. 20 in 2018 of the Ministry of Education and Training. The questions for assessing the teachers’
competences which are built in rubric form combined with a 5- level Likert-scale ranging from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”. Compared with the Professional Standards for Teachers (according to
Circular 20/2018), the “qualified” level is equivalent to “1” and “2” levels on the Likert scale, the “fairly
good” level is equivalent to the “3” level and the “good” level is equivalent to “4” and “5” levels. The
construction of an assessment instrument in the rubrics form combined with the Likert scale clearly
shows in detail what the achievement level means, in order to be able to propose training and retraining
solutions to improve the competences and meet the requirements of innovation.
Based on the TPACK model, this research selects the necessary data from the dataset of the 2020
Education Annual Report topic. Specifically, the research identifies elements of TPACK including
information technology competence, pedagogical competence includes 4 components of pedagogical
competence with 1, 2, 3 and 4; professional competence. To clarify the reality of these competences, the
research uses some other related elements.
4. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Teachers’ competences under the TPACK model
Technological competence
This research assesses technological competence through standards of information technology
application, exploitation and use of technological equipment in teaching and education. Over three-
quarters (77.1%) of teachers of general education self-assess that they are capable of using technology
in teaching, of which, a quarter (25.5%) of persons are capable of fully implementing the requirements
about the technological application, including the digital technology in education. Nearly 14% of
teachers prove to be capable of using technology to the extent that they could manage and lead the
introduction of technological knowledge into the school education. Based on the professional standards
for teachers of general education, 77.1% of teachers achieve the “qualified” level, equivalent to level 1
and level 2 on the Likert scale; 9.1% of teachers achieve “fairly good”, equivalent to level 3; 13.8% of
teachers achieve the “good” level, equivalent to 4 and 5 level, reflecting in the competence to guide and
support colleagues improving their competences of applying information technology.
Table 2. Technological competence: Technological application and information equipment
Levels of technological competence Qty (N) Rate %
1. Be able to use basic information technology software and information technology

336 51.6
equipment in teaching and education
2. Fully comply with the school’s requirements on the application of information technology,
166 25.5
digital learning materials and technological equipment in teaching and education
3. Actively exploit information technology software, digital learning materials and

59 9.1
information technology equipment in teaching and education
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues to improve the competence in the application of
62 9.5
information technology and information technology equipment in teaching and education
5. Support and guide colleagues in the application of information technology and

28 4.3
information technology equipment in teaching and education
Total 651 100
Pedagogical competence
Research and evaluate pedagogical competence through 4 criteria: (i) Build the teaching and
educational plans in the direction of developing quality and capacity for students; (ii) Use the teaching and
educational methods in the direction of developing quality and capacity for students; (iii) Examine and
evaluate in the direction of developing quality and capacity for students; (iv) Consult and support students.
Pedagogical competence 1: Build the teaching and educational plans. This is the leading component
of pedagogical competence. The survey shows that 72.5% of teachers self-assesses their competences to
build teaching and educational plans at the “qualified” level, of which nearly 48% achieves the lowest
level, level 1 is “step-by-step build the teaching and educational plans in the direction of developing
quality and capacity for students”. Only nearly 16% of teachers of general education achieves a good level
of pedagogical competence 1 “Build the teaching and educational plans in the direction of developing
quality and capacity for students”.
Table 3. Pedagogical competence 1: Build the teaching and educational plans
Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Gradually build the teaching and educational plans in the direction of developing quality and
311 47.8
capacity for students
2. Actively adjust the teaching and educational plans in conformity with conditions of the school
161 24.7
and locality
3. Innovate the teaching and education plan in conformity with the requirements set out 77 11.8
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues in building the teaching and educational plans 70 10.8
5. Support and guide colleagues in developing the teaching and educational plans 32 4.9
Total 651 100
Pedagogical competence 2: Use teaching and educational methods. This is a kind of the classic
and basic pedagogical competence of teachers. However, the survey findings show that nearly 49%
of new teachers of general education have the lowest level of “being able to apply the teaching and
educational methods in the direction of developing quality and capacity for students”. Only 14% of
teachers of general education self-assesses their competences as “good” level (levels 4 and 5) in terms
of pedagogical competence 2.
Table 4. Pedagogical competence 2: Use the teaching and educational methods
Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Apply the teaching and educational methods in the direction of developing quality and
318 48.8
capacity for students
2. Flexibly and effectively apply teaching and educational methods to meet innovation
169 26.0
requirements
3. Innovate teaching and educational methods in conformity with the actual conditions 66 10.1
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues in using teaching and educational methods 64 9.8
5. Support and guide colleagues to apply appropriate teaching and education methods 34 5.2
Total 651 100
Pedagogical competence 3. Examine and evaluate students’ learning outcomes and progress. The
study shows that 67.6% of teachers self-assess as “qualified” level (corresponding to levels 1 and 2) in
terms of competence to examine and evaluate students’ learning outcomes and progress. However, of
these, nearly 47% of new teachers achieve the level of “step-by-step applying methods of examining and
assessing learning outcomes in the direction of developing quality and capacity for students”. Only nearly
16% of teachers have this competence at the “good” level.
Table 5. Pedagogical competence 3: Examine and evaluate students’ learning outcomes and progress
Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Step by step apply methods of examining and assessing learning outcomes in the direction
304 46.7
of developing quality and capacity for students
2. Actively apply methods of examining and assessing learning outcomes and progress 136 20.9
3. Actively innovate methods of examining and assessing students’ learning outcomes and
109 16.7
progress
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues in effective implementation of examining and assessing
73 11.2
students’ learning outcomes and progress
5. Support and guide colleagues to effectively implement the examination and assessment of
29 4.5
students’ learning outcomes and progress
Total 651 100
Pedagogical competence 4: Consult and support students. The survey shows that over half (50.4%)
of teachers have the competence to advise and support students at the level of “following properly
the regulations” and 16.1% are at the level of “effectively implementing the counseling and support
measures for the students”. There are 7.1% of teachers achieving the “fairly good” level and 26.4% of
persons achieve a good level.
Table 6. Pedagogical competence 4: Consult and support students

Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Strictly comply with regulations on advising and supporting students in teaching and education 328 50.4
2. Effectively implement measures to advise and support students 105 16.1
3. Innovate the counseling and support activities for the students 46 7.1
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues to effectively implement the counseling and support
143 22.0
activities for the students
5. Support and guide colleagues to effectively carry out the counseling and support activities
29 4.5
for the students
Total 651 100
General pedagogical competence can be reflected in an objective indicator of the training that the
teacher has undergone. Nearly 90% of teachers are trained university in pedagogy discipline and just
over 10% are trained in other disciplines other than pedagogy. Thus, the vast majority of teachers have
pedagogical competence at the “undergraduate” or “postgraduate” level.
Professional competence
Similar to other types of teachers’ competences, the professional competence is self-assessed by
teachers on a 5-level Likert scale. The teachers prove that they have high professional competences with
nearly half (45.3%) of the teachers self-assessing their professional competences at levels ranging from
initiative, creativity, cooperation to competence of colleagues support for developing the professional
competences, so as to meet the requirements of educational innovation. Nearly 55% of teachers self-
assess as “qualifying the professional competence”. This level is lower than the “qualified” level
according to the professional standards for teachers including 3 levels of “qualified”, “fairly good”
and “good”. Converting to the professional standards for teachers of general education, the research
shows that 71.4% of teachers reach the “qualified” level in terms of their own professional competence
standards, 7.5% of teachers achieve the “fairly good” level and 21% of teachers achieve the “good”
level. As can be seen, 2 levels 1 and 2 of the Likert scale are equivalent to the “qualified” level according
to the professional standards for teachers of general education. Level 3 is equivalent to the “fairly good”
level, and levels 4 and 5 are equivalent to the “good” level. On the other hand, the research finds that
21% of teachers have a “good” level of professional competence, meaning they are able to collaborate
and support colleagues to jointly develop their professional competence, in order to meet the needs of
the General Education Curriculum.
Table 7. Teachers’ professional competence

Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Meet the standards of training and retraining in professional knowledge 356 54.7
2. Actively research to improve selected professional knowledge 109 16.7
3. Creatively apply ways to improve professional qualifications 49 7.5
4. Share and cooperate with colleagues in developing professional knowledge 91 14.0
5. Support and guide colleagues to develop professional knowledge so as to meet requirements

46 7.1
of educational innovation
Total 651 100
TPACK competence of teachers of general education

TPACK competence is a combination of component competences including technological
competence, pedagogical competences and profesional competence. The table below presents the results
of each TPACK competence level of the teachers surveyed. Nearly half of the teachers have the lowest
TPACK competence level which is “qualified” and it is reflected in their competence to gradually apply
technological, pedagogical and professional knowledge in teaching and education towards developing
the quality and capacity for students. 18% of teachers of general education have the “good” level of
TPACK competence, which means that they have the competence to support and guide colleagues for
developing their competences, so as to meet the requirements of educational innovation.
Table 8. TPACK competence of teachers

Qty Rate
Competence Levels
(N) %
1. Qualify the standard on competence 325 49.9
2. Actively research to improve competence 141 21.7
3. Creatively apply ways to improve competence 68 10.4
4. Share, cooperate with colleagues to develop competence 84 12.9
5. Support and guide colleagues to develop professional knowledge so as to meet
requirements of educational innovation 33 5.1
Total 651 100
4.2. Discussion and suggestion of solutions

Regarding the technological competence. The research finds that over half of teachers of general
education reach the lowest level of technological competence, reflected in the use of basic information
technology software and information technology equipment in teaching and learning. In fact, the level of
investment for innovation in information technology and equipment is still very limited compared to the
requirement to use information technology and equipment in teaching and education in digital period1.
Most teachers equip themselves with technology and information equipment such as laptops and smart
phones for teaching, especially in the condition that online teaching is required during the COVID-19
prevention period in 2020. The training and retraining to improve the technological competence which may
also need to take into account the innovation of policies to support the investment and use of technology
and information equipment of the teachers and principals2.
Regarding the pedagogical competence 1: Develop the teaching and educational plans. The
development of teaching and educational plans associated with the preparation of lectures, “lesson
plans” and teaching materials are probably very familiar to the teachers of general education. However,
the development of a teaching and educational plan is to orient the quality and capacity development
for students, which may be a new requirement having been proposed since 2013. This may explain
one finding of the research is that nearly half of new teachers reach a low level of this competence.
Therefore, it is needed to innovate the training and retraining teachers, especially the content of teaching
and educational planning for teachers to meet the education renovation requrirements including social
equality in schools3.
Regarding the pedagogical capacity 2: Use teaching and educational methods. The majority of
teachers of general education are trained in pedagogy and are regularly retrained in innovation and
use of active teaching methods in general education institutions. However, the use of teaching and
1 Le Ngoc Hung – Bui Thi Phuong. 2020. “Digitalized management of education and smart school libraries.” Vietnam
Journal of Education. 4(1).
2 Duong Hoang Yen, Le Ngoc Hung, Vu Thuy Hang, Tan Nguyen. 2021. “Factors Affecting Smart School Leadership
Competencies of High School Principals in Vietnam “ International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research, April 2021. 20 (4): 1-17; https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.4.1.
3 Le Ngoc Hung – Bui Thi Phuong (2021). Education Renovation in a Restructuring Society: Vietnam’s Case Study”, trong
An Thinh Nguyen - Luc Hens (Eds.). 2021. Global Changes and Sustainable Development in Asian Emerging Market
Economies: Proceedings of EDESUS 2019. Springer International Publishing.
educational methods towards the development of quality and capacity for students, which is probably
still a new requirement. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to study, train and retrain teachers
of general eduction, especially the use of certain methods in teaching each subject and each lesson
according to the General Education Curriculum (2018).
Regarding the pedagogical competence 3: Examine and evaluate. The fundamental and
comprehensive renovation of education and training identifies one of the breakthrough stages, which
is the innovation for examination and assessment in the direction of developing quality and capacity
for students. However, after many years of innovation, this breakthrough stage is only over a third of
teachers of general education reaching the “fairly good” or “good” level. Therefore, the improvement
of pedagogical competence on examination and assessment in the direction of developing quality and
capacity for students, which is probably still one of the breakthrough stages.
Regarding the pedagogical competence 4: Consult and support students. This competence may still
be a new task for teachers. Therefore, the training and retraining program for teachers may be needed
to focus on improving the competence of consulting and supporting students, especially more than half
(50.4%) of the new teachers who have achieved the competences of following properly regulations on
consulting and supporting students, so that they have the capacity to effectively and creatively perform
this task.
Regarding the teachers’ professional competence, the research shows that nearly 55% of teachers
self-assess as “qualifying the professional competence”. Therefore, it may be prioritized to train and
retrain the professional competence for teachers. Regarding the level of training achieved, the research
finds that there is still a large proportion (5.7%) of teachers of general education who have just reached
the “college” qualification. The survey also shows that just over 12% of teachers have a master’s
degree or higher. This is in contrast to the urgent public opinion about the status of “masterization”,
“doctorization” of teachers.
Regarding the TPACK competence. Based on the results of the integrated assessment of 6 basic
competences including 1 technological competence, 4 pedagogical competences and 1 profesional ,
which is possible to evaluate the TPACK general competence of teachers of general education. The
general consideration is that only half of teachers of general education reach the lowest level of the 5-
level Likert-scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. When calculating the average
score, a teacher of general education reaches above 2/5 points. It is meant that a teacher of general
education with a level 2 “actively research to improve competence”, which meets the requirements
of innovation. If it is converted to a 10-point system, this average score is above 4/10 points, below
the average. The results of this survey can clarify the fact that although the vast majority of teachers
meet the professional standards for teachers of general education, this level of achievement is mainly
at the level of knowing how to apply, initially implement measures, regulations and requirements of
general education reform in general and the general education curriculum reform in particular. This
level of TPACK competence can be traced back to the fact that the General Education Curriculum was
issued in 2018 and it has been begun a step-by-step implementation roadmap for each class of each
level of general education (from primary school to secondary school and high school). However, the
results of the competence assessment according to the TPACK model suggest the need for reforming the
training and retraining of teachers of general education in the direction of focusing on the target group
on the most specific competences, so as to meet the requirements of implementing specific educational
programs of each level of general education.
5. CONCLUSION
The research results have solved and clarified three research questions:
1. Regarding the level of TPACK capacity of high school teachers in Vietnam currently at the
“pass” level, the common level is knowing how to apply and implement the elements of technology,
pedagogy and teaching content, capacity and qualities development-oriented education for students. It
is necessary to have solutions to develop these capacities in the teaching staff so that they become more
proficient, creative and cooperative to implement IT integration into the curriculum contents;
2. There are a number of factors affecting the TPACK capacity of teachers, such as the content
and form of implementing the teacher training and retraining programs which are being implemented in
Vietnam; delay in IT adaptive capacity of managers; the responsiveness of IT infrastructure. Identifying
and forecasting these factors are valuable in developing TPACK capacity development plans for teachers;
3. Solutions are proposed on the basis of research results, which focus on:
- Develop teacher training program towards focusing on output standards with integrated
TPACK capacity;
- To foster professional development of teachers regularly in association with skill practice, taking
into account the priority of the actual needs for TPACK capacity of teachers;
- Having policies to encourage teachers to integrate technology in teaching;
- Educational institutions, localities mobilize resources to invest in IT infrastructure, equip learning
devices and resources to help teachers practice and self-improve TPACK capacity to to ensure that teachers
can actively, creatively and collaboratively research and apply technological, pedagogical and professional
elements to meet the requirements of the implementation of the General Education Program (2018).
REFERENCES
1. Nguyen Thi Lan Anh. 2019. “Innovating the programs and methods of training and retraining
teachers to meet the requirements of the new general education program”. Journal of Education,
Special Issue of Term 2, 05/2019: 23-26.
2. Aspin, D., Champman, J., Hutton, M., & Sawano, Y. (2001). International Handbook of Lifelong
Learning. Londres: Kluwer Aca- demic Publishers.
3. Burgoyue, J. (1993). The competence movement: Issues, stakeholders and prospects. Personnel
Review, 22 (6), 6-13.
4. Bisquerra, R. (2002). Educación emocional y competencias básicas para la vida. Revista de
Investigación Educativa, 21 (1), 7-43.
5. Carbonell, J. (2008). Una educación para ma- ñana. Barcelona: Octaedro. Gimeno, J. (2012).
6. Le Minh Cuong. 2019. “Renovation of retraining the teaching capacity for teachers of general
education.” Journal of Education, Special Issue of Term 2, 05/ 2019: 33-36.
7. Chai, C.S., Koh, J.H.L., & Tsai C. 2011. Exploring the factor structure of the constructs of
technological, pedagogical, content knowledge (TPACK). Asia-Pacific Educ. Res. 20(3) 595- 603.
8. Cooper, R.K., & Sawaf, A. 1998. Executive EQ: Emotional Intelligence in Leadership and
organizations. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group.
9. Drummond, A., and Sweeney, T. 2017. “Can an objective measure of technological pedagogical
content knowledge (TPACK) supplement existing TPACK measures?” Br. J. Educ. Technol.,
vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 928-939.
10. Esteve, J. M., Franco, S., & Vera, J. (1995). Los profesores ante el cambio social. Barce- lona: Anthropos.
11. Nguyen Ngoc Hieu. 2017. “Application of technology and TPACK model in teaching.” Journal
of Science, Vinh University, 46(4B): 18-26.
12. Le Ngoc Hung – Bui Thi Phuong. 2020. “Digitalized management of education and smart school
libraries.” Vietnam Journal of Education. 4(1).
13. Le Ngoc Hung – Bui Thi Phuong (2021). Education Renovation in a Restructuring Society:
Vietnam’s Case Study”, in An Thinh Nguyen - Luc Hens (Eds.). 2021. Global Changes and
Sustainable Development in Asian Emerging Market Economies: Proceedings of EDESUS 2019.
Springer International Publishing.
14. Hülya Gür1 and Ayşen Karamete. 2015. “A short review of TPACK for teacher education.”
Educational Research and Reviews, 10(7): 777-89.
15. Koehler, M., Mishra, P, Kereluik, K., Shin, T., & Graham, C. . 2014. The Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
16. Kleickmann T, Richter D, Kunter M, et al. 2013. Teachers’ Content Knowledge and Pedagogical
Content Knowledge: The Role of Structural Differences in Teacher Education. Journal of
Teacher Education. 2013;64(1):90-106. doi:10.1177/0022487112460398
17. Nguyen Trong Khanh - Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen. 2019. “Difficulty and remedies when
implementing the new General Education Curriculum.” Journal of Education, Special Issue,
04/2019: 289-92.
18. Lu, L. 2014. Cultivating Reflective Practitioners in Technology Preparation: Constructing
TPACK through Reflection 13–35.
19. Mishra P, Koehler M. 2006. “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for
Teacher Knowledge.” Teachers College Record, 108(6): 1017-54.
20. Medley, D.M. (1982). Teacher effectiveness, in Mitzel, H.E., Encyclopedia of Educational
Research. New York: The Free Press.
21. Ornstein, A.C. (1991). Teacher effectiveness research: Theoretical consideration, in 90 Waxman,
H.C. and Walberg, H.J. Effective Teaching: Current Research Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Corp.
22. OCDE (2012). Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the 21st century:
Lessons from Around the World. París: OCDE. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/site/
eduistp2012/498505 76.pdf
23. Parker, J., Heywood, D. 2000. Exploring the relationship between subject knowledge and
pedagogic content knowledge in primary teachers’ learning about forces. International Journal
of Science Education. VOL. 22, NO. 1, 89-111.
24. Phan Hung Thu. 2018. “Solutions to ensure the quality of high school teacher training in the
current context.” Journal of Education, 421 (Term 1 - 01/ 2019): 15-19.
25. Shulman, L.S. 1986. “Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching.” Educational
Researcher, 15(2): 4-14.
26. Stefan Krauss, Martin Brunner, Mareike Kunter, and Ju¨rgen Baumert,. 2008. “Pedagogical
Content Knowledge and Content Knowledge of Secondary Mathematics Teachers”. Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol. 100, No. 3, 716–725.
27. Thompson A.D, Mishra P. 2007. “Breaking News: TPCK Becomes TPACK!” Journal of
Computer Teacher Edcuation, 24(2): 38-64.
28. Wang, L., Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. 2004. Increasing pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs
for technology integration. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(3), 231-250.
29. Wilson, S.M., Shulman, L.S., & Richett A.E. (1987). 150 different ways of knowing:
Representations of knowledge in teaching. In F Colderhead (Ed). Exploring teachers’ thinking.
Sussex: Holt, Rineheart and Wilson
30. Wilson, B.C. and Corcoran, T.B. (1988). Successful Secondary School. London: Falmer Press.
31. Russell, T. and Martin, A.K., 2017. “Reflective practice: Epistemological perspectives on
learning from experience in teacher education,” in Reflective theory and practice in teacher
education, Springer, pp. 27–47.
32. Rico, L. (2005). Pruebas de Matemáticas y de Solución de Problemas. Competencias mate-
máticas e instrumentos de evaluación en el estudio PISA 2003. Madrid: INECSE. Minis- terio
de Educación y Ciencia.)
33. Duong Hoang Yen, Le Ngoc Hung, Hang Vu Thi Thuy, Tan Nguyen. 2021. “Factors Affecting
Smart School Leadership Competencies of High School Principals in Vietnam” International
Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, April 2021. 20 (4): 1-17
34. https://www.prospects.ac.uk/jobs-and-work-experience/job-sectors/teacher-training-and-
education/essential-skills-for-secondary-school-teachers
A STUDY ON TEACHING PRACTICES WITH THE ORIENTATION
OF DEVELOPING LEARNERS’ COMPETENCIES
Nguyen Van Hieu

(Ho Chi Minh City Department of Education and Training)
Abstract: One of the essential orientations of building new curricula and textbooks in Vietnam is approaching
learners’ competencies; therefore, teaching activities in general education schools will change radically in this
direction. The study used theoretical research methods to systematize, analyze, synthesize, compare and draw
conclusions from the literature on education towards developing learners’ competencies globally and in Vietnam.
Following the study’s findings, there have been various studies around this issue; however, the research mainly
goes into each element of the teaching process. As a result, there is still a lack of a general, methodical, systematic,
profound and comprehensive method with all the elements of the teaching process oriented towards developing
learners’ competencies for an entire level of education in the general education system, especially at the lower
secondary grade. Moreover, the researchers have sought to draw out the overall process by illustrating examples
to improve each element of the teaching process in the direction of developing learners’ capability. However, there
has not been a relatively uniform process developed for teachers to apply in practical general school teaching.
The results of this study are the foundation for building a comprehensive theoretical framework for teaching in the
direction of developing learners’ competencies suitable to Vietnamese practice. This theoretical framework will
help teachers and education administrators apply to teaching and management practices of high schools in the
current context of educational innovation.
Keywords: teaching, competence, competency development, competency-based training, competency-based education.
1. INTRODUCTION
Implementing the Resolutions of the Party, the National Assembly, and the Decision of the Prime
Minister of Vietnam, the General Education Program 2018 is built in the direction of developing the
quality and capacity of students and creating a learning and training environment to help students:
develop in harmony physically and mentally; become active and confident learners; know how to apply
active learning methods to perfect their knowledge and skills; practice conscious career choice and
lifelong learning; have the good qualities and necessary abilities to become a responsible citizen and a
cultured, industrious, creative worker who meets the needs of personal development and the requirements
of developing and protecting the country in the era of globalization and the new industrial revolution
(Ministry of Education and Training, 2018). Accordingly, the overall general education program and
program of subjects were announced on December 26, 2018; simultaneously, the list of 1st, 2nd, and
6th-grade textbooks was also approved for teaching from the 2019-2020 school year. Thus, one of the
essential orientations of building new programs and textbooks is to approach learners’ competencies;
Therefore, all teaching activities in high schools will have to change towards this approach fundamentally,
which is an indispensable and urgent issue in the current period.
Newly implemented programs and textbooks have encountered many difficulties, from management
to teaching activities in general education schools. In particular, the quality of teachers has significantly
affected the effectiveness of the program implementation because most of them are still familiar with
the content-based teaching approach. In order to successfully implement the new program, school
administrators and teachers must fully and deeply understand “competency” and “teaching in the direction
of developing learner’s competencies (competency-based learning).” There have been many studies on
teaching in developing learners’ competencies in Vietnam and around the world. However, those studies
are not highly systematic, complete, profound, and do not have a solid theoretical framework. Therefore,
it is necessary to have an overview study to have a foundational overview to develop a theoretical
framework of the problem that can be applied to practical research in a specific locality in Vietnam.
2. METHODS
The authors utilized different theoretical research methods to systematize, analyze, synthesize,
compare, and draw conclusions from research works on teaching to develop learners’ competence in
the world and in Vietnam. To obtain research materials, we searched and selected documents using a
two-step process:
(1) Orientation to find the source material
Starting from the document overview content circuit, we format ideas, locate the document source
and select the appropriate search engine. References are usually available from sources such as: online
libraries (books, magazines, audio-visual materials, state documents, theses, theses,...), document
centers, and cabinets. Specialized books, databases, network directories, search engines (Google,
Google Scholar, Scirus); scientific publishers, material intermediaries (websites of scientific publishers
that present their publications and distribute materials directly), encyclopedias, specialized glossaries
industry, professional forums and websites, personal blogs and especially open sources (Open Access).
(2) Search and select the source material
We use two search methods: Searching information by network directory by category and sub-
category, i.e. users just need to click on the desired item, then a sub-category, then a sub-category,
until you find a website that matches your search needs; or search by “keyword”, that is, type the word
you are looking for in the search box, and the directory will perform a search in its entire content,
including categories and descriptions (page name, web, summary...). Searching for information through
information access machines on the Internet by Entering relevant keywords of the research into the
access box; add quotes to collapse search results; add a hyphen before a word to remove them from the
search list; in the keyword phrase, accompanied by the name or address of a web page containing similar
content that the researcher already knows; Advanced search using specialized engines like Google Scholar
or Google Books.
In order to evaluate and select the results, we based on the factors that determine the scientific
value of the document such as the accuracy and scientific objectivity of the document; the information
disclosure process is organized with strict scientific criticism; Reputation, scientific publishing experience
of the document issuer; Reputation, the scientific experience of the author.
3. RESULTS
Education reform is an inevitable trend that is taking place in many countries and many different
fields of education. Education reforms are evident in the change in curriculum development, which
leads to a change in teaching methods. Competency-based teaching is often used with other names as
performance-based training or output-oriented teaching - a tool to implement output-driven education. In
competency-based teaching, teaching objectives are described through groups of learners’ competencies,
and this is also the output or requirement to be achieved for learners, which is the issue of interest to
researchers around the world and Vietnam.
International literature review
The issue of teaching with the orientation of developing learners’ competencies has been researched
and implemented early in various countries. However, this approach was only formed and developed
remarkably in the 1970s in the US, followed by England, Australia, New Zealand, Wales... in the
1990s. Studies often focus on the nature and model of teaching according to the competency-based
approach. Accordingly, to teach according to the competency approach, it is necessary to first identify
the competencies with the outputs commonly considered the starting point, thereby determining the
roles of the learners responsible for producing outputs. This teaching model has been studied by many
scientific disciplines and is very popular all over the world, with some prominent studies as follows:
Elam (1971) has raised six foundational characteristics of performance-based training in the
document “Performance-Based Teacher Education: What is the State of the Art?”: teaching is conducted
based on performance and individual needs; the process can provide immediate learner feedback;
performance competencies are determined based on work analysis; the program contains measurable
goals and uses standards performance standards as a reference for performance evaluation.
In the study “Handbook for Developing Competency-Based Training Programs,” William (1982) built
learner competency profiles and developed tools to assess understanding knowledge and implementation
and development of learning packages. Accordingly, all teaching activities are aimed at developing
learners’ capacity.
Boyatzid (1982) and Whetten & Cameron (1995) both said that competency-based teaching needs
to deal with the following three aspects systematically: (i) identifying competencies, (ii) developing
these competencies, and (iii) evaluating them objectively. It can be seen that this is a teaching model
in which the first starting point is to determine the competency system applied for learners (access to
output), from which to design content to develop each learner’s competencies. Furthermore, following
this direction, Richard and Rodger (2001) argued that the competency approach in teaching focuses on
learners’ learning outcomes shall approach what learners are expected to do rather than what knowledge
they must acquire. This is also emphasized by Paprock (1996) when he argued that the competency
approach was based on the learner-centered philosophy, which consisted of fulfilling the policy’s
requirements, orientations the real-life; and proving to be flexible, dynamic, and clearly formed.
When discussing vocational training according to the performance-based approach, Robert (1987)
said that: “Some basic signs to identify a teaching method according to the performance-based approach
are: The necessary performance-based competencies to equip learners should be clearly identified,
evaluated and announced to learners before teaching; The standards and conditions for assessing academic
achievement are specified and announced to learners before assessment.” According to this author in
another study, the core content of the performance-based approach is output orientation, teaching and
learning competencies, and performance assessment. Vocational training follows a competency-based
approach that is oriented and focused on the outputs of the training process, paying attention to how each
learner can do something in a given professional situation according to the standards (Robert, 1997).
Thus, teaching activities here are associated with professional practice, not mere theoretical learning
(access to content).
The steps of building educational programs of Wiggins and McTighe (1998) also clearly demonstrate
teaching activities according to competency approach, specifically: 1) Determine the desired outcome
(of the training/retraining course) with the question: “After finishing the course, what specific tasks
can learners do?”; 2) Identify the corresponding expressions (learning results of learners at the end of
the course) with the question: What must learners show in tests and assessments?”; 3) Design learning
and teaching activities, with the question: “In order to do that test and assessment, what and how must
learners learn?”. As a result, this approach came from the learner, not the teacher, or to be precise; these
educators wanted to align teaching with standards - encouraging the selection of goals and standards
as evidence for assessment right from the start of building a program. These are the development
requirements of the program according to the competency approach, and teaching activities must also
follow this approach. This method has resulted in increased practicality and better response to learners’
needs and society’s needs. With the Education Reform Act of 1998 (http://www.Nc.uk.net - About the
National Curriculum), the UK has developed an educational program aimed at helping students acquire,
develop and apply knowledge and skills; while encouraging students to think creatively and critically
to solve problems; providing students with the opportunity to practice to become creative, resourceful,
innovative people, to become good workers and citizens in the future… (Moon, 1998). It can be seen
that the competency-based approach has been clearly demonstrated when the program’s goal is the
output standard, with the indicators being the student’s competencies. This is an educational “principle”
that proved to be strong and coherent enough to identify and protect the core values of awareness and
culture that students need to acquire. At the same time, it is also sensible and flexible so that teachers can
be proactive in choosing different teaching methods to develop students’ abilities. In the early years of
the twenty-first century, EU countries discussed the concept of key competence and emphasized that the
important goal of the European education system is to help young generations to succeed in the face of
the challenges of the information society and derive maximum benefit from the opportunities that society
creates. Therefore, there is a need for a change in educational policy, a review of program content and
teaching methods, and a need to pay attention to core competencies, namely life-oriented competencies
with the goal of life-long active participation in society (as cited in Do, 2010a, 2010b, 2011).
Further findings into the analysis of the advantages of competency-based teaching compared to other
approaches, author Kerka (2001) concludes that: (1) Competency-based teaching allows individualization
of learning: based on specific competency goals, learners will supplement their deficiencies to complete
that goal; (2) Teaching according to competency approach with a focus on outputs; (3) Competency-
based teaching creates flexibility for learners in achieving outcomes, in ways that are appropriate to
individual characteristics and circumstances; (4) Teaching according to competency approach creates
favorable conditions for assessment. Weddel (2006) proposed a model of building educational programs
according to the competency approach with the starting point of assessing learners’ needs, the tasks
that learners have to perform in reality, from which to choose the required competencies and skills of
learners after completing the course. This is the basis for defining the course purpose and the objectives
of the specific lessons, as these goals and objectives are the basis for the performance assessment of
learners’ competencies to achieve at the end of the course. Reconciling the competencies of learners
after the course with the identified initial output standards will be a necessary step for developing more
and more complete programs and teaching methods to meet learners’ and society’s needs. The above
four components interact with each other, clearly showing which approach the program follows, the
teaching activities follow that approach. Ananiadou and Claro (2009) emphasized the competencies
that need to be formed in learners such as creativity/innovation; critical thinking; problem-solving;
decision-making; continuing education; co-operation; information technology and media; research and
Q&A; civil rights; flexibility and adaptability; productivity; leadership and responsibility. These are
competencies associated with real life. According to Allan (2012), the selection of teaching content is
often based on basic criteria such as the content must be meaningful to learners and society’s needs and
interests; highly useful in learners’ lives; accurate and constantly updated; suitable to the cognitive and
psychological development level of the learners; appropriate to the actual context of the educational
environment, economic and social conditions of the country and the role of government. This is
considered a competency-based teaching model with a clear theoretical and practical basis with specific
instructions.
Thus, research around the world has focused on analyzing the role and importance of competency-
based teaching and providing a teaching model to develop learners’ competencies. In general, the
proposed models follow a structure: starting from practice (learner needs), determining required capacity
(output standards), determining resources and ways to create results. those outputs assess the ability of
learners to achieve. However, there is a lack of research that goes into the design and organization of
teaching and testing and assessment according to the learner’s ability approach.
Literature review in Vietnam
In Vietnam, in the early stages of the educational reform process, education was considered only
as “the process of acquiring knowledge”; Therefore, the most important thing is the knowledge to be
imparted, and the educational program is just an outline of the content of the knowledge to be taught.
As a result, teachers also only need to find appropriate methods to convey that knowledge best, invisibly
pushing learners into a passive position in receptivity. Since 2000, the general education program has
been renewed, leading to a change in the entire textbook for the high school. This is the renewal of
textbooks which is considered the “most methodical” since the August Revolution. However, according
to the main content approach, the program is still heavily built on transmitting knowledge and basic
skills, not focusing on helping students apply the knowledge they have learned in practice. Although
the general education objectives have mentioned some common competencies such as problem-
solving, cooperation, creativity, the subject program has not yet described indicators and levels of need
to achieve specific competencies. The requirements for recognition, understanding, application based
on the standardization of knowledge and skills have not been understood and expressed consistently
between topics in the subject and between different subjects. Some standards of knowledge and skills
are not suitable with the general cognitive level of students and the objectives of the program of some
subjects. In this approach, knowledge is both the “material”/“input” and the “result”/”output” of the
educational process. Therefore, students have to learn and memorize a lot, but the ability to apply it to
life is extremely limited (Ministry of Education and Training, 2013, 2014). Vietnamese educators have
faced many difficulties in designing educational programs in the context of the rapidly increasing amount
of knowledge for each subject, including interdisciplinary knowledge; and educational managers, when
evaluating educational programs, only limited to a few factors such as updating knowledge content
feasibility, logic and pedagogy. Therefore, to match the context, in recent years, there have been various
research works towards building programs according to the learner’s competency approach and along
with teaching activities according to this approach. Even before the promulgation of Resolution No. 29-
NQ/TW dated November 4, 2013 (Central Executive Committee, 2013), along with studies on program
development according to the capacity approach, many works research has focused on teaching in the
direction of capacity development from many different angles in order to concretize the program, because
whatever approach the program follows, the teaching activities must follow that approach. Research on
the need to switch to competency-based education to train high-quality human resources, first of all,
Nguyen (1996) with the topic “Access to competency-based vocational training implementation and
development of professional standards”. It can be considered that this is the first work that comprehensively
studied the vocational training system according to competency implemented in Vietnam, contributing
to clarifying the theory and practice of the problem, especially the construction stages of the program
and development of national vocational skills standards. Despite not exactly aiming to develop learners’
competencies, author Thai (2001) has pointed out the importance of teaching methods in training people
and the limitations of schools in using teaching methods; from which giving a perspective on innovative
teaching methods, especially using active teaching methods in organizing teaching activities towards
learners. Nguyen (2006) also made the point that in the process of teaching, the subject must vividly and
specifically express the ideas of the program, and at the same time must know how to design and organize
the program’s spirit towards individual learners. In the studies on building educational programs oriented
towards the development of learners’ competencies, authors such as Do (2010a, 2010b, 2011), Luong
(2011a, 2011b, 2011c), Cao (2011), Phan (2012), Nguyen (2013),… initially oriented the teaching method
corresponding to the approach proposed by the program. Accordingly, along with the change in the goals
and contents of the program in the direction of developing learners’ competencies, the organization of
teaching and assessment activities also changes in this direction. In particular, on August 15-16, 2013, the
Ministry of Education and Training (2013) held a scientific conference, “Some general issues on building
general education programs after 2015”, which attracted the attendance of many participants of educational
researchers and educational managers at all levels. There have been nearly 50 reports that provided insights
on the viewpoints, goals, requirements, contents, methods, educational evaluation under the competency-
based approach in different fields and subjects of the general education program after 2015.
However, since Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW was issued (November 4, 2013), the new educational
administrators and scientists officially have a clear legal basis for organizing the implementation
experiments. Since then, the phrase “Teaching in the direction of quality and competence development”
is quite well-known and frequently repeated in professional activities at the general education school
level. Competency development-oriented teaching is one of the specific contents of the overall process
of radically and comprehensively renovating education and training at the general education level,
which means gradually changing from a learning style that emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge to
a learning style that emphasizes the application of knowledge. Many textbooks, topics, theses, scientific
articles, etc. have gone into each subject area at different levels and levels with research aimed at
developing specific or general core competencies) for learners. In general, the studies focus on changing
the elements of the teaching process (objectives, methods, teaching content, testing and assessment, ...)
in the direction of developing learners’ competencies, with some studies are as follows:
- Studies on lesson design oriented to develop learners’ competencies:
According to T. N. Nguyen (2014), in order to design a teaching plan to develop students’
capacity, lecturers need to: (1) Identifying the objectives of the subject and the needs of the learners;
(2) Analysing the course content and program; (3) Identifying knowledge related to the lesson; (4)
Planning teaching methods and techniques to promote students’ capacity; (5) Preparing teaching aids
to suit the lesson; (6) Anticipating student activities that take place during the lesson. Although not
recommending the process, Do et al. (2015) have outlined the requirements of the lesson designed
according to the competency approach, in which: Lesson objectives are oriented towards describing
learning outcomes and expectations rather than the content of knowledge imparted by the teacher; The
desired abilities/competencies formed in learners are clearly defined, observable and measurable, which
are the standards for evaluating outcomes; Promote the interaction between teachers - students and
between students - students; Create a friendly learning environment where students can feel comfortable,
interested, confident; Emphasize on activities of inquiry, discovery, and experience, especially applying
knowledge to solve real-life situations; Focus on developing higher-order thinking abilities; Emphasize
on self-learning activities through exploiting, searching and processing information; The teacher’s
prominent role is to change learners; At the end of the lesson, students feel they have changed and
know how to change/reinvent themselves… (p. 12). Authors Le and Phan (2016) put the process of
planning to develop learner’s capacity including the following steps: (1) Identifying the competencies to
be trained, define and describe the competencies structure. ; (2) Identify the training object; (3) Identify
the unit of knowledge to be applied as a capacity training tool for learners in teaching; (4) Developing
a process of competency-based training for learners in general education teaching. In particular, for
each active teaching method, the author also proposes a process to design teaching activities to form
and develop students’ competencies. According to Meier and Nguyen (2016), in competency-based
teaching, changing the concept and way of building tasks and exercises plays an important role, that is,
competency-based exercises. The advantages of competency-based exercise are: (1) The focus is not
on individual components of knowledge or skills but the coordinated application of different individual
achievements on the basis of learners acquiring a new issue; (2) This approach is not oriented towards
abstract learning content, but always follows students’ life situations, “challenges in life.” Learning
content is situational, contextual, and practical; (3) Competency-based teaching is stronger towards
students and preconditions than content-based teaching (p. 207). Meanwhile, Nguyen (2017) suggested
concrete steps to design lessons, including (1) Selecting the problem of the lesson and determining the
objectives of the lesson according to the requirements of competencies development; (2) Selecting the
core teaching content for the lesson in order to meet the requirements for competencies development;
(3) Designing learning activities to convey the core content (in class, at home); (4) Designing questions/
exercises suitable to the requirements to be achieved in terms of competence at each level, designing a
converging tool to evaluate learning results in the process; (5) Making adjustments in the lesson after
the students have completed the lesson (in class, at home). Going into specific competencies, author
Quach (2019) proposed a process of designing teaching plans in the direction of developing creative
competencies for students, including the following steps: (1) Determining the goal of the lesson learned;
(2) Choosing teaching methods; (3) Teacher and student preparation; (4) Designing activities of teachers
and students; (5) Evaluation and learning from experience. In addition, Doan (2017) also introduced and
analyzed teachers’ skills in designing lesson plans to develop learners’ competencies, including goal
writing skills, skills in identifying activities, and teaching methods.
In general, these studies are in-depth, step-by-step analyses with specific examples in each field/
subject, as well as recommending the skills that teachers need to design lessons that can fully target the
development of learners’ competencies. However, the theoretical issue (process) has not been concretized
in teaching practice, or theory has not yet been associated with the practice. Therefore, more research is
needed on lesson design in the direction of developing learners’ competencies.
- Studies on the organization of teaching activities in the direction of developing learners’
competencies
In the study “Teaching in the direction of developing learners’ competencies in natural - social
subjects in primary school,” Duong (2014) presented a way to organize teaching with examples. The aim is
to develop creative, functional, and practical applications in teaching natural and social subjects in primary
school. Dang and Nguyen (2014), with “Organization of teaching for the comprehensive development of
competencies for the young generation,” proposed three primary activities in schools to develop three core
competencies for students: cognitive activities, exchange activities, and practice improvement activities;
At the same time, some approaches were proposed to help students understand “what to learn for - what to
learn,” learners must master “how to learn,” that is, to organize their learning effectively to have actual and
sustainable competencies. However, according to T. N. Nguyen (2014), whether or not the teaching time can
promote learners’ competencies depends on the teaching organization of the teachers, so the organization
of teaching for learners needs to be organized in a detailed script by the teacher before going to class, as
well as having to practice some skills by themselves such as: Understanding the subject’s qualifications,
capacity, individual circumstances, needs, interests; organize and guide learning activities for learners;
handle situations arising during teaching hours; assign learning tasks, give feedback to learners; using
teaching aids… (p. 43).
According to Le and Phan (2016), in order to organize the formation and development of students’
competencies in teaching, it is necessary to apply active teaching methods such as problem-solving,
projects, case exercises, discovery teaching, group teaching; as well as active teaching techniques
such as brainstorming, tablecloths, puzzle pieces, XYZ, mind maps, lightning bolts, fish tanks, ball
bearings; and a variety of teaching methods and media. The author also proposed the teaching process
and illustrative examples for each of these teaching methods.
When teaching in the direction of developing performance competencies, teachers must innovate
teaching methods in a positive direction. This innovation is reflected in the following four fundamental
characteristics: (1) the teacher is the one who organizes and directs learners to conduct learning activities
such as observation, discussion, experiment... so that learners can promote their creative potential, and
at the same time can creatively apply known knowledge in learning or practical situations; (2) Focus
on training learners with methodological knowledge so that they know how to self-study; (3) Enhance
the coordination of individual learning with cooperative learning under the motto of enabling learners
to think more, do and discuss more; (4) Focus on assessing learning outcomes according to lesson
objectives throughout the teaching process, developing learners’ self-assessment and mutual assessment
skills (Le, 2016). In terms of teaching organization, teachers must also have skills in using teaching
methods, communication skills, language use, and pedagogical situation handling skills (Doan, 2017).
According to the definition, in the study “Organizing teaching according to the orientation of
competency development for pedagogical students in current educational innovation”, Nguyen (2019)
analyzed the concept, characteristics, and teaching methods in the direction of developing learners’
competencies. At the same time, the study provided some necessary competencies to carry out teaching
in the direction of competency development, some methods of organizing teaching in the direction of
competency development for pedagogical students (problem raising and solving teaching organization,
project-based teaching organization, micro-level teaching organization), with each method processed by
the author with detailed and specific steps.
In general, the researchers focused on innovating the way teaching is organized with methods,
measures, and techniques towards developing specific competencies; in which, the authors also mention
the skills of organizing teaching activities in the direction of developing learners’ competencies.
- Studies on testing and assessment in the direction of developing learners’ competencies

Author T. N. Nguyen (2014) observed that in the past, it was often only focused on testing and
evaluating learners’ knowledge, but not testing and assessing learners’ competencies; thereby comparing
the purpose of the assessment according to the content approach and the competency approach (p. 43).
Vu (2015) also affirmed that the development of integrated standards, criteria, and assessment forms
is the preferred trend in assessing students’ learning outcomes according to the competency approach.
Evaluating student learning outcomes is the process completed by lecturers during the teaching process
in order to make appropriate decisions to support and encourage students promptly. Therefore, the
tendency to shift from evaluating the final results to evaluating the whole learning process is the choice
of teaching according to the competency approach.
According to B. N. T. Nguyen (2014), the assessment of students’ competencies is the assessment
of the ability to apply, perform specific and practical tasks and develop higher-order thinking (analysis,
synthesis, evaluation) of students, not only limiting to the level of separate assessment of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes. H. T. Nguyen (2014) proposed that teachers must evaluate in many forms and
through many tools to assess students’ ability to meet the requirements. Thus, assessing students in
the direction of competencies development is the assessment of the ability to synthesize knowledge,
skills, and attitudes... to perform a learning task associated with the actual context. Nguyen et al. (2016)
asserted that competency assessment is a particular form of student assessment, with three primary
characteristics: (1) The evidence to be collected must be provable, where learners can follow specific
criteria and standards; (2) The assessment method comes from the behavioral criteria of the competency
standard; (3) The assessment results must help the evaluator to identify the student’s position on the
path of competency development and plan pedagogical interventions that can improve the learner’s
competencies (p. 197).
In their research, authors Le and Phan (2016) thoroughly presented and analyzed the concepts,
roles, characteristics, classification, testing, and assessment of learners’ competencies; from there, giving
the process, criteria, tools, and development path to evaluate learners in the direction of competency
formation and development. This is a reasonably complete, comprehensive, and profound study,
providing teachers and administrators with theoretical and practical issues in the current educational
reform context.
According to Doan (2017), in competency development oriented teaching, teachers guide students
to develop self-assessment skills to self-regulate their learning, creating favorable conditions for students
to learn and participate in the mutual assessment. Accurate self-assessment and timely adjustment
of activities are essential competencies for success in life that schools must equip students with. The
examination and assessment of students’ learning results are based on the learning process, not just on
the content of a subject or lesson. Therefore, the combination of the teacher’s assessment, the student’s
assessment, and the self-assessment can adequately identify the student’s learning activities and the
teacher’s teaching activities (p. 101).
Thus, in parallel with the research on innovation in lesson design, organization of teaching activities
in developing learners’ competencies, the testing and evaluation stage is also an area of interest for
researchers. As these three stages have a close relationship, they support each other in the teaching
process. In general, the studies focus on forms, criteria, and assessment tools for learning activities to
develop learners’ competencies.
IV. CONCLUSION
On the basis of an overview of research works in the world and Vietnam on teaching in the direction
of developing learners’ competencies, we draw out some outstanding issues as a basis for further studies
as follows: (1) As the researches mainly delve into each element of the teaching process; there is a lack of
research in a general, methodical, systematic, profound and comprehensive manner with all the elements
of the teaching process oriented towards the development of learners’ qualities and competencies
(objectives, content, methods, forms, testing, assessment, facilities and equipment for teaching activities)
for a whole school level at the general education system, especially at the lower secondary level; (2)
The studies all seek to process and give examples to illustrate the process to improve the effectiveness
of each element of the teaching process in the direction of developing learners’ competencies. However,
there is still no relatively unified process for teachers to apply in general education school teaching. This
study will synthesize and generalize to present the most common problems to help both teachers and
administrators in the general education system to have better management measures to achieve the goal
of developing students’ competencies.
The above research results are the basis for building a theoretical framework of teaching in the
direction of developing learners’ competencies in the most comprehensive terms suitable to Vietnamese
practice. This theoretical framework will help teachers and education administrators apply to teaching and
management practices in each general education school in the current context of educational innovation.
REFERENCES
1. Allan, C.O. (2012). Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues (7th Edition). Pearson
Educational Leadership, E-book Online curriculum.
2. Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for New Millennium
Learners in OECD Countries. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41, OECD Publishing.
3. Bernd, M., Nguyen, V.C. (2016). Modern teaching theory - The basis of innovation in teaching
objectives, content and methods. Hanoi: Pedagogical University Publishing House.
4. Boyatzid, R.E. (1982). The Competent Manager. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
5. Cao, T.T. (2011). Applying an integrated perspective in the development of general education curricula
in the post-2015 period. Report on summarizing the ministerial-level Science and Technology topic.
Code B2008-37-60, Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, Hanoi.
6. Central Executive Committee (2013). Resolution No. 29/NQ-TW dated November 4, 2013, on the
fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training to meet the requirements
of industrialization and modernization in the context of a socialist-oriented market economy,
internationalism, and integration.
7. Dang, Q.B, Nguyen, S.T. (2014). Organization of teaching for the comprehensive development
of competencies for the young generation. Vietnam Journal of Education, 347, 1-4.
8. Do, H.T. (editor), Nguyen, V.B., Tran, K.N., Tran, T.N, Tran, T.T.T, Nguyen, C.K., & Nguyen,
V.B.H. (2015). Competency-based integrated teaching. (Book 1: Natural Science). Hanoi:
University of Education Publishing House.
9. Do, N.T. (2010a). Renovating general education curricula and textbooks. Journal of Educational
Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 62, 7-12.
10. Do, N.T. (2010b). Korean education and some thoughts. Journal of Educational Sciences,
Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 59, 58-64.
11. Do, N.T. (2011). Building a general education program in the direction of a competency approach.
Journal of Educational Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 68, 20-26.
12. Doan, T.N. 2017). Fostering teaching skills in the direction of student competency development
for primary school teachers in Thu Duc district, Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Educational
13. Duong, H.C. (2014). Teaching in the direction of developing students’ competencies in natural
and social subjects in primary school. Vietnam Journal of Education, 338, 40-41; 48.
14. Elam, S. (1971). Perpormance Based Teacher Education: What is the State of the Art?. Amerrican
Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Washington, DC.
15. Kerka, S. (2001). Competency-based education and training. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult,
Career and Vocational Education, Columbus, OHIO. Available: hyperlink http://ericacve.org/
docgen.asp?tbl=mr&ID=65.
16. Le, D.T., Phan, T.T.H. (2016). Teaching in the direction of forming and developing learners’
competencies in high schools. Hanoi: University of Education Publishing House.
17. Le, M.D. (2016). Teaching in the direction of developing performance capacity in vocational
education. Vietnam Journal of Education, 378, 24-26; 56.
18. Luong, V.T. (2011a). Developing the program in the direction of competency development.
Journal of Educational Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 69, 11-16.
19. Luong, V.T. (2011b). Some features of the general education program oriented towards the
development of learners’ competencies. Vietnam Journal of Education, 269, 24-25; 31.
20. Luong, V.T. (2011c). Development of general education programs in the direction of developing
learners’ competencies. Summary report of ministerial-level scientific project Code B2008-37-
52TD, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, Hanoi.
21. Ministry of Education and Training (2013). Proceedings of the conference “Some general issues
on building the general education program after 2015”. Hanoi, August 15-16, 2013.
22. Ministry of Education and Training (2014). Proceedings of the Workshop “Building a
competency-oriented general education program.” Hanoi, December 2014.
23. Ministry of Education and Training (2018). General education program – Master program
(Promulgated together with Circular No. 32/2018/BGD-ĐT, dated December 28, 2018 of the
Minister of Education and Training).
24. Moon, B. (1998). A guide to the National Curriculum. Oxford University Press.
25. Nguyen, C.K. (2013). Building a competency framework in the post-2015 general education program.
Journal of Educational Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 95, 1-4; 8.
26. Nguyen, D.T. (1996). Access to vocational training based on competencies to implement and develop
vocational standards. Doctoral thesis in Education, Hanoi National University of Education.
27. Nguyen, H.C. (2006). The basics of the curriculum and the teaching process. Hanoi: Education
Publishing House.
28. Nguyen, N.T. (2014). Teaching in the direction of developing students’ competencies. Vietnam
Journal of Education, 339, 42-43, 39.
29. Nguyen, T.H. (2014). Competency-based teaching and assessment according to educational
competencies: Some fundamental theoretical issues. Scientific Journal, Vietnam National
University, Hanoi: Educational Research, vol. 30, No. 2, p. 56-64.
30. Nguyen, T.H. (2017). Designing lessons to meet competency development goals. Journal of
Educational Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences, 146, 14-17.
31. Nguyen, T.L.P. (editor) et al. (2016). Competency-based approach and assessment program.
Hanoi: Vietnam Education Publishing House.
32. Nguyen, T.N.B. (2014). Initial understanding of the concept of assessment by competencies and
proposing some forms of assessing students’ philological competencies. Journal of Science, Ho
Chi Minh City University of Education, 56, 157-165.
33. Nguyen, T.T. (2019). Organizing teaching in the direction of competency development for pedagogical
students in current educational innovation. Vietnam Education Science Journal, 21, 34-38.
34. Paprock, K.E. (1996). Conceptual structure to develop adaptive competencies in professionals.
IPN Ciencia, Arte: Cultura, Nueva Epoca, 2(8), 22-25.
35. Phan, T.L. (2012). Key competencies in the general education curriculum. Journal of Educational
36. Quach, V.L. (2019). Designing teaching plans in the direction of creative competency
development for high school students specializing in Organic Chemistry. Vietnam Education
Science Journal, 19, 48-53.
37. Richard, J., & Rodger, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.
38. Robert, E.N. (1987). Competency-Based Education and Training: A Humanistic and Realistic
Approach to Technical and Vocational Instruction. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on
Technical/Vocational Teacher Training in Chiba City, Japan. ERIC: ED 279910.
39. Robert, E.N. (1997). DACUM handbook. State University, Columbus, Ohio.
40. Thai, D.T. (2001). Modern education. Hanoi: National University Publishing House.
41. Vu, L.H. (2015). Innovative assessment of student learning outcomes in teaching according to
competency approach. Journal of Educational Sciences, Vietnam National Institute of Educational
Sciences, 115, 28-29; 32.
42. Weddel, K.S. (2006). Competency-Based Education and Content Standards. Northern Colorado
Literacy Resource Center.
43. Whetten, D.A., & Cameron, K. S. (1995). Developing Management Skills (3rd ed). New York,
NY: Harper Collins.
44. Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
45. William, E.B. (1982). Handbook for Developing Competency-Based Training Programs.
Prentice Hall, Inc., Ohio.
ENHANCED WELL-BEING OF SECOND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
THROUGH EXPERIENCE IN SCHOOL ACTIVITIES
Nguyen Hong Thuan


Abstract: Feel the well-being of students in school is a positive factor to promote the participation and
contribute to improving the academic performance of the children. The creation of a safe, healthy and friendly
school environment; in which, the main factor that can affect the children’s well-being is, the organization of
appropriate educational activities, creating opportunities to activate interests, excitement and promote experiences
and abilities. creativity of learners. Experimental research on groups of students at 06 secondary schools has
proved that, if organizing experiential activities with diverse forms and suitable topics for students, it will help
them well-being. However, it is necessary to improve the capacity of teachers and secondary schools to organize
experiential activities to help students improve their mental health and outcomes. study.
Keywords: well-being, experiential activities.
1. INTRODUCTION
Students’s well-being at school is a positive factor that promotes participation and contributes
to improving their learning outcomes. Creating a safe, healthy and friendly school environment is
the fundamental solution; in which, the main factor that can affect the children’s well-being is, the
organization of appropriate educational activities, creating opportunities to activate interests, excitement
and promote experiences and abilities creativity of learners. Thereby, the children experience positive
emotions, demonstrate their own abilities, discover new things, transform their own experiences, and
help them actively practice solving problems in their lives.
Research on a group of junior high school students in some provinces and cities has proven that, if
organizing experiential activities with diverse forms and suitable topics for students, it will stimulate the
interest of students promote the strengths of each learner and especially help those individuals feeling of
well-being; In other words, it helps to improve students’ mental health.
This study will examine feeling of well-being of secondary school students under the approach
well-being / or psychological and apply theoretical models PERMA (Seligman, 2011), with 05 elements
basically: (P ) Positive emotions; (E) Cohesion; (R) Social Emotions; (M) Meaningful; (A) Reach the
goal. According to Seligman, each of these factors contributes to improving people’s psychological well-
being/or mental health; At the same time, these are also very important issues that every human being
wants to have. Each element of the PERMA psychological well-being model is identifiable, relative
discriminant, and measurable/evaluable.
2. RESEARCH CONTENT
2.1. Feeling happiness in learning of junior secondary school students
Under the approach to intrinsic happiness, the concept of “well-being” is understood as an
individual’s subjective assessment of satisfaction with life, a healthy mental state that allows them
to deal with problems in life and realize their own goals, and at the same time, achieve harmony in
relationships with those around them. Thus, the well-being needs to ensure the personal aspect, at the
same time with the interpersonal relationship.
Secondary school students are at an age of complex physical and psychological changes, so their
perception of psychological well-being is multidimensional and unstable. Research results on a large
group of students at this age show that up to 43.4% of them have a moderate level of happiness and
23.2% have a low level of well-being (according to Khan, Taghdisi, Ourijelyani, 2015). And, individuals
with low levels of well-being are at an increased risk of depression.
In the learning process, students’ feelings of well-being are greatly influenced by factors belonging
to the school. For example, well-being is positively correlated with academic achievement, teacher
support, attachment to friends, etc. At the same time, it is negatively correlated with factors of academic
pressure, violence in school… (Aryilmaz, 2011).
Expression of feeling of well-being in learning of secondary school students when considered in
5 aspects (according to Seligman), can be described as follows: i/ Always expressing positive emotions
such as happiness, optimism and openness with friends, teachers; satisfied with themselves, in harmony
with others and the surrounding environment ii/ Being proactive, independent, creative, responsible and
enthusiastic when performing learning tasks or participating in joint activities ; iii/ Empathize, care,
help friends and others, show satisfaction in those social relationships; iv/ Always believe in the value
of self and others, believe in the meaning of right deeds, good things to individuals, the community/
or others; v/ Goal-oriented in the learning process and expect success; at the same time satisfied with
the learning results they have achieved. The expressions of well-being mentioned above are the goals
that the school / or educators are aiming to help students improve their mental health, contribute to
personality development and improve operational efficiency children’s learning dynamics.
2.2. The role of experiential activities at school with improving students’ sense of well-being
Research results based on the B-scol scale (2014) show that the level of well-being about school
of high school students is at an average level; Especially emerging dimension that creates the highest
satisfaction in children is extra-curricular activities and friendship relationships in school (Tran Thu
Huong & Ngo Thanh Hue, 2018). This can be explained as appropriate because extracurricular activities
themselves are experiential in nature, which is the most favorable environment for students to experience
emotions and satisfy their need to express themselves; explore yourself and interact, adapt to the natural
and social environment, find out new knowledge, practice skills and transform into personal experiences.
From there, the learning process takes place in a more active and effective way.
The theory of learning through experience (with representative author David Kolb, 1984) has
demonstrated the role of experience in the development and growth of each individual. Accordingly,
through the path of practical experience, individuals can discover, connect, practice and apply new
experiences to solve real-life problems. Therefore, the 2018 General Education Program has integrated
the experiential model into extracurricular activities / or outside of class time and put these activities into
the regular curriculum, with a new and very specific name. – “Experience activities, career guidance”.
Experiential activities in general and in the learning process at school in particular (collectively
referred to as Experiential Education) aim to create opportunities for each learner to be “dipped/
dropped” in an experience and then encouraged encourages thinking (reflecting) on those experiences
to develop new skills, attitudes, or ways of thinking” (Lewis and Williams, 1994, p5). The experiential
environments that educators create are tied to real or real situations that students care about, enjoy, and
feel close to in their lives. Thereby, the children have the opportunity to freely think, create, express their
emotions, behaviors, ... and self-review and evaluate the results achieved; Thanks to that, you will feel
the well-being of studying at school. Therefore, it can be concluded that:
i/ Experiential activities play an important role in developing students’ interest, motivation and
will in the process of performing learning tasks. Participating in many rich and diverse experiential
activities (including games, clubs, sightseeing tours, camping, cultural and artistic activities, ...) will
create opportunities to learn students can express, reveal, and assert themselves; create opportunities for
children to exchange, learn and connect with friends and people around; help relieve stress and pressure
in the learning process; create favorable opportunities for them to participate actively and confidently in
community life. Since then, students’ psychological happiness in learning has been improved.
ii/ The process of experiential activities helps to enhance the feeling of psychological well-being,
through promoting awareness, emotions, beliefs and positive behavior in students. On that basis, forming
core life values, such as: kindness, solidarity, responsibility, discipline, honesty, confidence, ...; At the
same time, develop competencies, such as: communication, management and personal development,
problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, cooperation, information search and processing, especially
the ability to practical performance, management and leadership. Those are the core competencies,
necessary for every citizen in the new context.
iii/ Experiential activities contribute to improving the feeling of well-being in students; Due to its
openness, flexibility and differentiation, it is able to meet the diverse needs of learners, creating opportunities
for them to express and promote their own strengths, unleash creativity and assert themselves throughout
the school year. process, from preparation to implementation and performance evaluation. The diversity of
experience activities can meet the diversity of: regions, localities; needs, interests and levels of students...
Flexibility and openness are reflected in the following aspects: scale, location, form of operation, time
and duration of activities; in order to ensure appropriate conditions and meet the needs of different types
of students.
iv/ Experiential activities help improve the feeling of well-being in learners by conveying
educational content in a more natural, active, gentle and attractive way. Thanks to the diverse forms, the
education of students is carried out in a natural, lively, non-binding and rigid way, in accordance with the
psycho-physiological characteristics as well as the needs and aspirations of the students. In the process
of designing, preparing, organizing, and evaluating experiential activities, both teachers and students
have the opportunity to express their creativity, initiative and flexibility, increasing their attractiveness
unique form of operation.
In summary, in order to enhance the feeling of well-being in learning for students, the choice of
educational path through experiential activities is very appropriate and appropriate.
2.3. Organize some experiential activities at school to enhance the well-being of secondary
school students
Within the framework of a research project, we have organized 06 experiential activities with
topics on environmental protection, in order to improve the feeling of well-being in learning for a group
of students (291 children) at 06 secondary schools, in Vinh Long, Tra Vinh and Can Tho. As follows:
Secondary Number of
Province/
No. School/ Students Activities
City
Grade (291)
Nguyễn Trãi
65 Design and fashion show environmentally friendly
(G7,8)
1 Vĩnh Long
Nguyễn
Survey, make a map of environmental pollution in schools/
Trường Tộ 42
communities
(G8)
An Trường B Competition for good communicators on the topic of

57
(G8,9) environmental protection
Trà Vinh
2
Thái Bình Make your own utensils from used materials to protect the
48
(G7,8) environment
An Hoà 2
40 Use energy saving to protect the environment
Cần Thơ (G8)
3
An Thới (G9) 39 Protection of water resources
2.3.1. The process of organizing activities and evaluation methods

- Each of the above activities is implemented in a secondary school, which has been designed by
the research team, quite clearly and specifically; which includes: i/ Objectives (about students’ skills
and attitudes/emotions); ii/ Conditions and means (to organize and evaluate operation results); iii/
Suggestions to organize activities according to the experiential process (discover, connect, practice,
apply); iv/ Duration (3 days/1 activity – including preparation time).
- Students participating in the activity are selected at random; The selected grade alone needs to
ensure the appropriate criteria between the content of experiential activities and the curriculum of the
main subjects.
- Teachers of the whole school are trained to improve their capacity to organize experiential activities
on the topic of environmental protection; then randomly select teachers who directly participate in
organizing activities for students.
- The research team participates in technical supervision, collects information to evaluate the
results of students’ participation in activities (based on tools: Teacher & Student Questionnaire, Student
Observation Form, Talk Sheet with Teachers) after the activity and based on the product of the student’s
activity). This study does not have conditions to evaluate the impact, based on the results of perceived
well-being in learning before and after students participate in experiential activities; however, we conduct
a reference to compare relative to the published results of previous studies on the perceived well-being
level of secondary school students; Especially based on the qualitative results obtained in the process of
observing and interviewing students; From there, it is possible to determine the level of improvement in
well-being of secondary school students.
Using Clarke’s psychological well-being perception scale (2011) designed a 5-level Likert form,
including: 1 - Not true, 2 - Very little true, 3- Partially true, 4- Fairly true, 5- Very true.
2.3.2. Results of experience activities
After finishing 6 experiential activities on the topic of environmental protection, at secondary
schools, based on information obtained from questionnaires and using Clarke’s psychological well-
being scale (2011), we obtained the results of the perception of psychological well-being (nature) in the
group of secondary school students are as follows:
Average score of mental well-being of secondary school students: M = 4.01 (SD = 1.15), 3.9%
of students have low level of psychological well-being related to learning (mean score < 3.0) , 75.4%
of students have a high level of well-being in learning (mean average >3.5). After participating in the
activity, the majority of the children felt the highest well-being in the element of trust in the good
meaning of the activity and experience with the protection of the local environment (average: 4.70)
and the experience with positive emotions, such as: enjoyment (mean: 4.58), feeling of being relieved
of learning pressure (measurement: 3.86); And, they also have a very high sense of well-being in the
element of engagement in the study group (measurement: 4.05 and 4.12); Next is the feeling of high
well-being in the element of confidence in themselves and others and especially satisfaction when
the children have asserted themselves in front of the group (DBT: 3.92). The factors of harmony and
adaptation to the operating and experiential environment are also quite high. (see Figure 2.1)
Chart 2.1. Feeling happy about learning of secondary school students
The outstanding feature, showing the psychological characteristics of secondary school students,
is that the need for self-assertion and the need to expand social relationships and connect with friends
tend to overwhelm other needs. Because in reality, many children want to assert themselves but lack
confidence in their own experience in new fields; especially the ability to cope with diverse situations in
the learning process at school and in life. The desire to explore the world around is also clearly expressed
in most students of this age.
Among the experiential activities that have been organized, each activity will contribute to improving
students’ feelings of well-being in different aspects. Such as: Activities “Environmentally friendly
fashion design and show competition”; “Excellent propaganda contest on the topic of environmental
protection” and “Making utensils from used materials” created a good opportunity for the children
to be creative and come up with unique ideas; to cooperate, support and care for others in the group/
class; be affirming the individual values of the individual and the study group; together with consensus
and determination towards common goals and results. PVLA, students in grades 8, the Nguyen Trai
Secondary School, said: “I think that the operation is very complementary alternative roll, exciting for
us to be together the idea and child were you elected to the fashion show, I feel happy and very proud”
For the activities “Surveying and drawing environmental pollution diagrams in schools/
communities”; “Save energy” and “Conserve water” create opportunities for students to expand their
learning space; satisfy their needs, feel excited when learning about and exploring the local environment
and natural landscape; have a desire to contribute and believe in experiences that are meaningful to others
and to the school and community in which they live. L.H C, grader 8, Nguyen Truong To Secondary
School excitedly shared: “We like this activity because we can tour around the school and discover quite
a lot of polluted places”.
2.4. Some recommendations for organizing experiential activities at school to enhance students’
feelings of well-being
Although the above research results have confirmed the important and outstanding role of organizing
experiential activities at school in enhancing the sense of well-being about learning of secondary school
students. But, in fact, there are still some shortcomings and inadequacies in the process of organizing
experiential activities at school; but mainly the limitation in awareness and capacity to organize
experiential activities of a large number of teachers today. Therefore, teachers have overlooked some
students who are not confident and ready to participate in activities. To ensure that students’ feelings of
well-being while participating in these activities are enhanced, the research team makes the following
recommendations:
i/ When designing experiential activities, teachers need to consult with students to choose suitable
topics to the interests and concerns of the majority of secondary school students; Define clear and
reasonable goals, within the framework of a specific activity; Make sure to design activities in accordance
with the process of 04 stages: Discover - Connect - Practice - Apply.
ii/ The organization of activities should be flexible (in terms of scale, form, space, time, duration, ...)
to suit the conditions of the school, the locality and the characteristics of the students;
iii/ Create opportunities for students to participate in all stages of the activity process; from design,
preparation, implementation to performance evaluation;
iv/ Motivating and encouraging students properly and timely, during their participation in experiential
activities and after the activity ends. Guide, suggest, assist students when required or when absolutely
necessary.
3. CONCLUSION
Perceived psychological well-being of students at school is positively correlated with their academic
performance. Organizing diverse experiential educational activities, with topics suitable for students,
will create opportunities to activate interests and excitement and promote their experiences and creative
abilities; contribute to improving students’ feelings of well-being and/or mental health. Teachers and
secondary schools need to focus on improving the capacity of organizing experiential activities, to
exploit its strengths in education to improve learning outcomes and improve mental health for students.
REFERENCES
1. Clarke (2011), Wawick – Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scal (WEMWBS), BMC Public Heath,
11-487, pp 1-9.
2. Đao Lan Huong (2020), Feeling the happiness of adolescents in their relationship with family,
PhD thesis, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, VNU
3. Khan. Y, Taghdisi H.M, Ourijelyani. K (2015), Psychological Well-being of school Adolessents
Age 12-18 yr, Iran J Public heath (6) pp. 804-813.
4. Seligman (2011), Flourish: Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well –being, Simon
& Schuster publisher
5. Nguyen Hong Thuan (Editor, 2018), Organization of experiential activities to develop
environmental protection capacity for secondary school students in the Cuu Long Delta, The
topic: B2018 – VKG37 – 06MT, Ministry of Education and Training

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON TALENTED EDUCATION

IN THE CONTEXT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 4.0
Tran Thanh Nam, Lu Thi Mai Oanh
Pham Minh Tam
(School of Foreign languages – Thai Nguyen University)
Abstract: Talented education has appeared for a long time and has become a basic requirement of education
in the 4.0 era. Many studies emphasize that talented education needs to be directed to a multi-dimensional scientific
approach to build an evidence base for learners, meet strengths and unique educational needs, and provide a
reasonable environment to develop learners to their fullest potential. Therefore, the review article of research on
talented education of high school students aims to clarify four contents: identification of talented students, talented
education programs, talented training models and teachers for talented education, thereby suggesting theoretical
and practical instructions towards building a talented training model which is suitable to the Vietnamese context
and meets the trend of talented training in the context of the industrial revolution. 4.0.
Keywords: talented, gifted, talented education, talented education in industrial revolution 4.0.
1. INTRODUCTION
The industrial revolution 4.0 is considered a new step in the development of science and technology,
profoundly changes the face of human civilization around the world. Advances in technology have
allowed automation to take place in almost every field; and is the motivation to continue operating,
innovating, becoming the foundation for scientific and technological developments, including the
industrial revolution 4.0, 5.0 and other new industrial revolutions in the future (Sima et al., 2020). New
technologies and approaches combine the physical, digital and biological worlds in a way that will
fundamentally change humanity. Therefore, in order to cope with the industrial revolution 4.0 and future
revolutions, it is necessary to prepare well the high-quality human resources, train talented resources,
including innovating the learning methods (Oke & Fernandes, 2020). Indeed, talented education and
training will play an important role in solving the problem of high-quality human resources to meet the
context of the 4.0 revolution (Q. Zhang, Jiang, Hu, & Pan, 2017).
In developed countries, the impact on the talent development of an individual who is engaged in a
talent search has shown to be pervasive over the long term. Finding the talents is seen as the gateway to
many other educationally beneficial, important opportunities. As a result, between 1995 and 1996, more
than 135,000 students registered for the SAT with a talent search agency, and 110,000 of them were
actually talented students who took the test (S. Graff, 1996). At the same time, another 31,000 students
took the AC exam and most of them met the talent search agency’s requirements (Dana, Personal
Communication, October 21, 1996); 11,498 students in grades 3 to grade 6 took the ACT exploratory
test (Dana, 1996) and more than 19,000 in grade 5 and grade 6 took the PLUS test (D. Freeman, 1996)
(compiled from Lee & Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). It can be seen that early identification of gifted
and talented students through many forms of measurement, assessment and testing is very important.
According to TDSP, early recognition and intervention are considered the key to creating favorable
conditions for gifted children to develop and show high potentials (MOE, 2011).
In Vietnam, so far, there have been many young talents in the fields of politics, economics, science
and technology, natural sciences, social sciences and humanities, management sciences, military
science, culture and art...They make important contributions to the stability and development of the
country. The Education and Training sector in general and universities in particular have obtained
certain results through important guidelines and measures to identify, train, foster and employ talents.
This is partly reflected in the results of the final-year students of gifted high schools who have passed
over 80% to universities. In which, schools and classes for the gifted have made important contributions
to discovering, training and obtaining many achievements in National excellent student competitions,
International Olympic competitions, contributing to the development of high-quality human resources
of the country. With the desire to attract gifted and talented students in learning, many colleges and
universities have implemented policies and practices to meet the needs of this high-quality resource.
Many schools decide to increase acceptance through early decision plans; support learners more based
on achievement; develop the instant programs, the honors programs and early enrollment programs.
In addition, the high-quality, advanced, talented bachelor training programs have been implemented
effectively in a number of key schools across the country. Therefore, the article aims to contribute
to supplementing theoretical research, suggesting in-depth research directions on talent identification,
talent training programs, models and teachers in order to contribute to improving the effectiveness of
talented education for the high school to meet the trend of high-quality education in the context of the
industrial revolution 4.0
Some related concepts
When referring to the concepts of “gifted” and “talented”, some researchers use the terms
interchangeably, while some authors attempt to distinguish the two terms. Renzulli (1999) emphasizes,
Gifted and talented children are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits
and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance (referred to in Leavitt, 2017).
In 1988, the United States Congress updated the concept of giftedness and talent: “the term gifted and
talented means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in such
areas as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need
services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.”
(United States Congress, Education Amendment 1998) (referred to in Leavitt, 2017). However, according
to Françoys Gagné, ‘gifted’ refers to an individual in the top 10% of people of the same age possessing
and using outstanding natural abilities which are untrained and manifests spontaneously. On the other
hand, “talented” refers to an individual in the top 10% who exhibits outstanding mastery of abilities
(or skills) and knowledge systematically developed in at least a field of human activity (referred to in
Leavitt, 2017). These two concepts are not necessarily mutually exclusive, an individual can be both
gifted and talented. Gagné also emphasized that, although some gifted children are talented, not all
talented children are gifted.
2. CONTENTS
2.1. Research organization and methods
In order to bring a comprehensive picture of talented education for high school students to meet
the trend of high-quality higher education in the context of the industrial revolution 4.0, the article uses
the main method, namely: reviewing and analyzing documents. The author group uses researches from
some main pages such as Google scholar, libgen.rs,... with some key phrases: “talent development, gifted
education, programming model, gifted and talented, talent development high school model, teachers
of the talented education, teachers of the gifted education, fourth industrial revolution, educational
institution, industry 4.0, technology revolution, industrial reform, technical and vocational education and
training”. Entire studies are selected that met the specific criteria: publication time (from 2005 -2020),
research subjects include issues of talented education in the context of revolution 4.0. The purpose of the
review analysis is to find theoretical as well as practical instructions for the author to detect and analyze
the research problem. At the same time, the review analysis helps the author to synthesize the necessary
information and data to point out the gaps in documentation, theoretical tools, and methods to identify
the new research tools and methods. After conducting data screening, the final result was that 50 studies
met the given criteria and were divided into four main content groups: (1) identifying talented students;
(2) talented training program; (3) talented model; (4) the teachers meet the talented education.
2.2. Research results
Talented training and development is seen as a comprehensive model for school reform. It affirms
that all children have the same learning opportunities and meets a high-expectation learning environment.
The central goal of talent development is to help transform urban high schools into strong learning
institutions that create positive learning environments that promote high academic standards for all gifted
students. In addition, educating the talents by using technology is the best way to shift the focus of the
education and training system from what students learn to how students learn, which is very important
to improve learning ability. Talented education with applying technology needs to be approached from
identification, education, talent training model to teaching methods and teacher capacity to meet learners’
needs. In particular, thanks to a new educational approach through technology, talented students can
experience a professional environment, stimulate brain development and think more comprehensively.
As a result, more and more people are advocating for the application of a question-based approach and
a comprehensive approach to learning (Gormally, Brickman, Hallar, & Armstrong, 2009).
2.2.1. Research on talent identification
Up to now, there have been many tools to assess intelligence, identify gifts and talents such as the
Bine-Simon intelligence test released in France (1905); Stanford - Binet test published in the United
States (1016); Wechsler – Bellevue test for adults (1939) and Wechsler test for children (1949); Wechsler
intelligence scale for pre-school and primary school (1967); the modified version of the Wechsler test
(WAIS-R) (1981); published WPPSI-R (1989); WISC-III (1991); WAIS-III (1997); WPPSI-III (2002);
WISC – IV (2003); WAIS-IV (2008) (compiled from Pomerantz, 2011). Previous researchers such
as Terman, Hollingworth mainly identified gifted and talented students based on their IQ scores and
general intellectual ability tests administered individually or in groups (Bracken & Brown, 2006).
Some individual tests such as the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale have produced a general measure
of intelligence, rather than scores for individual abilities (Karnes & Stephens, 2009). The group test
is expressed through the Otis - Lennon School Aptitude Test (OLSAT) on the thinking and reasoning
ability of children before the age of K to 18; Cognitive Ability Test (CogAT) presented through verbal,
quantitative and non-verbal testing. The Kaufman Children’s Intelligence Tests - 2nd Edition (KABC-
II) and the Kaufman Educational Achievement Test (KTEA-II) assess the student’s academic level and
overall level of reading, math, and writing skills. Different from the Wechsler Intelligence Assessment
of Children (WISC-IV); Wechsler intelligence scale for adults (WAIS-IV); KABC is a test set based on
theories of intelligence with 2 theoretical foundations: Luria’s neuropsychological model and the Cattell/
Horn/Carroll (CHC) approach. In general, individual tests are more reliable, but group tests also show
advantages in terms of low cost, efficient management, and entry requirements with minimal expertise
(Karnes & Stephens, 2009). However, according to Karnes and Stephens (2009), group tests show some
limitations when limiting the assessment of cognitive skills (reading, math, language, spelling, verbal
and nonverbal problem-solving, etc.) while neglecting to assess other important abilities such as the
thought process to answer questions.
Renzulli (2005) at the same time emphasizes the gifts and talents that can be found in some
people at certain times and in certain circumstances. The talent identification model needs to focus
on a combination of the three required components regardless of IQ scores. Those are creativity, task
commitment, and above-average intelligence. Some identification models such as Renzulli’s Three-
Ring Conception of Giftedness; Abraham Tannenbaum’s “Sea Star” model; High Performance Learning
(HPL) framework ; Gagné’s Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) Gagné’s model
supports the idea that all talents, who are developed from the natural ability and the learning, are
influenced by internal and external catalyst factors. Gagné ranks gifted children in the top 10% of
students. In addition, a number of other tools are measured to identify students such as the SAT student
assessment test; Clinical Assessment of Behavior (CAB) (Bracken & Keith, 2006). Kaplan, Rodriguez,
and Siegel (2000) suggest another screening option, in which extracurricular activities can be used to
assess student’s abilities, rather than the discrete measurement tools (compiled from El Khoury & Al-
Hroub, 2018). Extracurricular activities can be designed in a way that gives students many opportunities
to express their potentials by interacting with the materials.
According to Al-Hroub (2016), these tests only provide an estimate of a student’s intellectual ability,
and IQ tests cannot be the sole measure of gifted and talented students. Therefore, there is a need to provide
more valid and reliable talent identification methods in addition to suitable programs. Identifying the
gifted and talented students in the experimental phase means that relying more on scientific methods and
research, and being able to measure intelligence with different scales ( Sternberg & Davidson, 2005). In
favor of placing more students in gifted and talented programs has led to the consideration of a variety of
methods of student identification rather than just IQ scores (Bracken & Brown, 2006). The identification
tools have a more multi-dimensional approach such as providing a test toolkit, a scale to evaluate the
learning motivation, creativity in addition to intellectual characteristics (Al-Hroub, 2013). Results are
typically based on a combination of checklists, assessment scales, academic transcript, and teacher/
parent/colleague’s nominations. According to Bracken & Brown (2006), a teacher’s beliefs, experience,
and expertise can greatly assist in the process of identifying students’ talents. The research by Schroth
and Helfer (2008) on teachers’ beliefs in identifying talented students shows very high efficiency, only
after achievement assessment. In a study conducted in Jordan by Al-Hroub and Whitebread (2008), it also
found that the accuracy of teachers in nominating special students accounted for a very high accuracy
rate of 57.6%. Similar to Renzulli, Al-Hroub proposes to use psychometric test results, combined with
dynamic and informal assessment, historical data and task analysis, and information collection from
parents, teachers and students. This proposed model includes teacher and parent’s nomination and uses
school records, documentary evidence, behavioral observations, personally administered tests, the
perceptual and literacy skills tests, and dynamic assessments (compiled from Leavitt, 2017).
2.2.2. Research on the talented training program
While talent identification refers to formal and informal processes for finding and recognizing talents,
the talented training refers to the nurturing and development of talent by skilled and knowledgeable
people in this area (Subotnik et al. , 2011). Diversity in talent curricula is of paramount importance.
It requires educators and service providers to recognize individual strengths and acknowledge that
common curriculum cannot meet the needs of gifted and talented learners. Many studies emphasize that
gifted and talented students can grasp the content of the general education curriculum before the school
year begins, so shortening the curriculum will help learners to have more time with learning resources
at a more difficult level (Reis & Renzulli, 2005). Bloom and colleagues developed a classification of
educational goals that has proven useful in distinguishing the curriculum in six levels: knowledge,
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. However, to modify the curriculum,
instruction and outcomes to meet the needs of each student (Adams & Pierce, 2010); at least four
components should be considered: (a) information (content) provided to the student; (b) instructions
given to the student (procedure); (c) the end result or product the student must produce (product); or (d)
where instruction takes place and the relationship between members of the gifted and talented class (the
learning environment). Differentiation allows the diverse cultural and academic needs of students to be
met while mastering the same learning content (Tomlinson, 2009).
Gagne (2011) believes that developing students’ academic talents should provide a diverse K-12
curriculum; systematic daily enrichment; full-time ability grouping; custom tempo/acceleration;
outstanding personal goals; highly selective lesson access and early interventions. Besides, the talent
development process can be divided into three parts, namely: operation, investment and advancement.
Talent development activities begin when the individual has access to a structured program of rich
learning activities and a specific learning format. The investment component emphasizes the process of
developing talents over time, the psychological or financial energy. The progressive component includes
stage, speed, and turning point. In the school system there is only one system that recognizes the stages
of development as levels/classes and how quickly students master the curriculum compared to their
classmates. Moderate acceleration and radical acceleration are other important approaches recommended
for addressing the learning needs of gifted, talented children. The BILSEMs program emphasizes
adaptation; supportive education; recognition of individual talents; special ability development; the
project development. Goodlad, Klein & Tye proposed the ideological curriculum; the formal teaching;
teaching or awareness; (d) operations; and (e) experiential teaching. In addition, talented students
can participate in extracurricular activities and courses offered from 12-30 hours in a semester. The
primary goal of the gifted curriculum is the adjustment of learning arrangements, curriculum, materials,
resources, and activities to individual students or small groups or entire homogeneous classes in order
to achieve a higher level, compared to a heterogeneous classroom.
Thus, for gifted and talented curriculum, it is necessary to ensure academic rigor; demonstrate
interdisciplinary (to expose students to the structures, terminology, and methodologies of different
disciplines); respond to and respect the academic characteristics of gifted students. These characteristics
include “a student’s ability to learn at a faster pace; the ability to think abstractly about the challenging
content; the ability to think effectively, critically, creatively and analytically; and the ability to continuously
and rapidly increase knowledge; both factual knowledge and process knowledge” (Piirto, 2007).
2.2.3. Research on talented training model

The basic premise of the talent development model is the recognition of the importance in all areas
of talent and the nurturing and training environments in different areas of the development process of
society in order to provide opportunities to develop individual talents. In which, psychological and
social skills are an important factor contributing to developing, increasing and reforming effectively the
talented and gifted education goals (Subotnik et al 2011). Up to now, there have been many studies which
are interesting in talent model such as The Stanley Model of Talent Identification and Development;
Renzulli Schoolwide Enrichment Triad Model; Active/Autonomous Learner model; Gardner’s multiple
intelligence model; Kaplan’s grid model; Maker matrix model; Meeker’s intellectual structure model;
parallel curriculum model; Sternberg’s three-component intellectual model; VanTassel-Baska’s
integrated curriculum model, Tannenbaum’s talent development model, WICS model, DMGT model...
There are also a number of talent incubation models applied to achieve the goal of cultivating students
as a dual-script system model with a combination of businesses and schools with a commitment to the
talent training. The CBE model developed by Canada and the United States aims to train competencies
according to actual needs of vocational training positions with a proposed competency scale based on
course building, the teaching content organization, and capacity assessment. TAFE (Australia) model
with many levels, emphasizes a combination of government, industry and schools, student-focused
teaching activities that combine the secondary and higher education. The MES (Modules of employable
skills) model uses systems theory, information theory and control theory, and designs the necessary
knowledge and skills that are demonstrated in each module.
The talent development theory also emphasizes the core elements of the talent education model and
the main goals and outcomes that need to be achieved in order to improve student’s learning results. The
main content emphasized in the theory-based talent development model is expressed through the first
content, that is a structural element to have changes in organization, policy, and curriculum contents,
resource allocation and relationships with organizations outside the school. These include five key
elements: reorganization of schools into small learning communities; the research-based curriculum,
advanced course design in English and mathematics; opportunities for rehabilitation and additional
support for learners; developing a professional system of teachers to meet students’ needs; and parent and
community involvement to encourage students’ career development and higher education continuation.
The second is the learning opportunities and the support to improve the learning environment with positive
changes in behavior, experiences, and expectations of teachers and students; effective use of resources
inside and outside the school. Then, intermediate outcomes that improve student’s attitudes, engagement,
feelings of effectiveness, and competence will enhance student’s readiness and performance. Ultimately,
performance outcomes from intermediate outcomes lead to variation in learning outcomes such as
achievement, graduation, and successful transition to post-secondary education. The stages in the talent
development model structure in schools have shown an ideal orbit but are not entirely simultaneous in
practice. Some researchers have presented a more concise model of school talent development based on
students being attracted to school, attending school regularly, taking and passing more courses, tending
to continue to go to school. The result is a recognition of achievements, graduation of the study program.
The variety of talent models have contributed to providing a more comprehensive talent education
program when ensuring the resource room, the model includes clustering, self-contained classrooms,
and curriculum designed for special students. Each model has advantages and disadvantages and needs
to base on the diversity of talent types to apply the appropriate model. Therefore, the talent model is
only effective when programs and guidance are provided and implemented effectively (Bakken et al
2014). However, to choose the right model, it should be based on the criteria affecting the effectiveness
of learners; has been applied to the practical curriculum; positive reception of teachers and training of
teachers to meet the teaching capacity; sustainability of the model or conformity with world standards
in general and Vietnam in particular.
2.2.4. Research on the contingent of teachers who meet talent training
Until the mid-1960s, it was widely believed that schools and teachers made little difference to
student achievement, which was largely determined by genetics, family background, and socio-
economic context (Dinham, 2007b). However, there has recently been international evidence that the
main influence in schools on student achievement is the quality of teachers on class (Hattie, 2007; OECD,
2005). The goal of the gifted education program for students is the fullest possible development of the
learner’s proven abilities and potential. In addition to maximum academic achievement, study programs
must help students develop self values, the self-reliance and national pride, worker responsibility, career
guidance, capacity and potential. Therefore, in the broadest sense, in order to identify the learning needs
and create favorable conditions for the learning of talented students, teachers need to ensure knowledge
of cultural specificities as well as cognitive, academic, personal, and social characteristics.
According to Roeper (1997), real success in teaching the gifted and talented children can only be
achieved when passions, souls, and minds are accepted as the foundation for teachers to connect with
social expectations. As a result, with success as a measure of learning, teachers need to be involved in
intensive research instruction and appropriate curriculum recommendations to diverse learning styles
and skill levels of learners (Ford, 2011). The National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC, 2013)
emphasized that one of the standards for teachers to train gifted and talented students is to be aware of
their own professional learning needs and understand the meaning of lifelong learning, participation
in professional activities and the learning communities”. NAGC proposes standards of knowledge
and skills of teachers teaching the gifted students who need to recognize the differences in learning,
developmental milestones, perception/emotional values of gifted and talented students based on cultural
background, language and individual needs in terms of learning, social awareness; tailored learning
process design, creative attention, acceleration, depth and complexity in each intensive topic; adjusting
and using the teaching strategies to promote the learning motivation and activities of students.
With the trend of developing education 4.0, teachers must also change and catch up with the trend.
Teachers in education 4.0 must be the guide, limit to teach on the class, but instead be the one who
orients and communicates more with the learners, supervises and takes responsibility for the progress of
the learners in self-study process. Teachers must pay attention to the real knowledge needs of learners,
encourage and support learners to find the right knowledge for each learner. Teachers themselves must
make students constantly improve and supplement knowledge; Self-study must be extended not only
within the classroom, in the school but also in society. With education 4.0, learners also change, there is
a faster connection between academic knowledge and real life. Learners have easy access to a huge store
of data, information and events that will appear online. Social connections are expanded, learners have
the opportunity to interact not only with teachers but also with experts inside and outside the social field.
Individual learners can communicate themselves through other people, and their access to celebrities
becomes easier. Education is always changing from orientation, strategic approach and educational
management (Hill & Kumar eds., 2009). Therefore, towards education for sustainable development,
training teachers to meet talent needs to take strategic steps, ensure interdisciplinary knowledge, grasp
trend values, and be proficient in applying technology in the context of the current industrial revolution 4.0.
3. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

In the context of the industrial revolution 4.0, talent education is extremely important to meet the
needs of a quality workforce in general and the high-quality resources in particular. With the connection
of things thanks to the internet, students are not only met with the ability to self-study through the
application of technology, but also support to improve their skills in using technology, mastering
technology, helping accelerate the learning speed as well as expand the learning network. Hadley
Ferguson, CEO of Edcamp Foundation emphasized, change and access to modern technology is not
only about having computers in the classroom, but also about proper understanding of the applications
of technology to handle problems more rationally and effectively (Nguyen Hong Phuong, 2019). Hadley
also predicts that educational needs will change with technology, not that technology will change the
nature of education, and that modern educational technology will assist students in completing their
learning independently (Miraz, Ali, Excell, & Picking, 2015). So far, there have been many organizations
and programs that have offered contests, professional development, teacher resources, and information
on ideas for accessing in-depth subjects that have not been found in textbooks, or traditional schools
have been limited. Therefore, technology is a part that talented students can have access to, especially
for disadvantaged talented students and the difficult living conditions.
Talented education in the context of the industrial revolution 4.0 has shown the importance of
talent identification and access; talent program; talent training model and teachers to meet the trend
of talent training according to individualization of students. If in the past, education was often a one-
way approach in class, today, with the trend of personalized education, the modern education system
requires the application of pedagogical approaches or innovative delivery methods to enhance the way
of learning in order to encourage exploration and creativity. Therefore, the talented education program
should promote differentiation and increase challenges with specific talents. In addition, the curriculum
needs to have a multi-dimensional approach with high science to serve as a basis for evidence for talented
students such as cognitive ability, language ability, problem-solving, outstanding achievement. Student-
centered teaching method meets four factors: empowering students for autonomy, the personalized
education, building a learning society, and the competency-based teaching. At the same time, the talented
training model needs to be approached comprehensively, meeting educational trends and developing
psychological and social skills for learners to contribute to future success. To do all of the above, a
change is needed in the way education systems attract, prepare, support learners and develop the talented
teachers who can teach in a more attractive way. (Darling-Hammond, 2007).
REFERENCES
1. Al-Hroub, A. (2013). Multidimensional model for the identification of gifted children with
learning disabilities. Gifted and Talented International, 28, 51–69.
2. Al-Hroub, A. (2010). Developing assessment profiles for mathematically gifted children with
learning difficulties in England. Journal of Education for the Gifted, 34(1), 7–44
3. Al-Hroub, A., & Whitebread, D. (2008). Teacher nomination of ‘mathematically gifted children
with learning difficulties’ at three public schools in Jordan. The British Journal of Special
Education, 35, 152–164.
4. Bracken, B.A., & Brown, E.F. (2006). Behavioral identification and assessment of gifted and
talented students. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 24(2), 112–122
5. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp. 80–97). Cambridge: University Press.

6. Dinham, S. (2007b). ‘How Schools Get Moving and Keep Improving: Leadership for Teacher
Learning, Student Success and School Renewal’, Australian Journal of Education, 51(3), pp. 263–
275.
7. Development. (2005). Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers.
Paris: OECD
8. Hattie, J. (2007). ‘Developing Potentials for Learning: Evidence, Assessment, and Progress’, EARLI
Biennial Conference, Budapest, Hungary. Available at: http://www.education.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/
education/ staff/j.hattie/j.hattie_home.cfm
9. El Khoury, S., & Al-Hroub, A. (2018). Gifted education in Lebanese schools: Integrating theory,
research, and practice. Springer
10. Freeman, J. (2005). Permission to be gifted: How conceptions of giftedness can change lives.
In R. Sternberg & J. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp. 80–97). Cambridge:
University Press.
11. Ford, D. (2011). Multicultural gifted education. Source-books, Inc.. Kemple, J. J., Herlihy,
C. M., & Smith, T. J. (2005). Making progress toward graduation: Evidence from the talent
development high school model. MDRC.
12. Karnes, F.A., Reis, S.M., & Renzulli, J.S. (2005). Curriculum compacting: An easy start to
differentiating for high-potential students. PRUFROCK PRESS INC
13. Kaplan, S., Rodriguez, E., & Siegel, V. (2000). Nontraditional screening. Communicator,
31(2), 20–21. Karnes, F.A., & Stephens, K.R. (2009). Gifted education and legal issues. In L.V.
Shavinina (Ed.), International handbook on giftedness (pp. 1327–1341). New York: Springer
14. Leavitt, M. (2017). Your passport to gifted education. Springer.
15. Lee, S.Y., & Olszewski - Kubilius, P. (2006). Comparisons between talent search students
qualifying via scores on standardized tests and via parent nomination. Roeper Review, 28(3),
157-166.
16. Miraz, M.H., Ali, M., Excell, P.S., & Picking, R. (2015). A review on Internet of Things (IoT),
Internet of Everything (IoE) and Internet of Nano Things (IoNT). In 2015 Internet Technologies
and Applications, ITA 2015 - Proceedings of the 6th International Conference. https://doi.
org/10.1109/ITechA.2015.7317398
17. National Association for Gifted Children & Council for Exceptional Children, The Association
for the Gifted. (2013). NAGC -CEC Teacher Preparation Standards in Gifted and Talented
Education
18. Gagne´, F. (2011). Academic talent development and the equity issue in gifted education. Talent
Development and Excellence, 3, 3–22.
19. Hill, Dave & Ravi Kumar [eds]. (2009). Global NeoLiberalism and Education and its
Consequences. New York: Routledge
19. Sima, Violeta et al. (2020). “Influences of the Industry 4.0 Revolution on the Human Capital
Development and Consumer Behavior: A Systematic Review” in SUSTAINABILITY, Volume 12,
pp.1-28.
20. Subotnik, R.F., Olszewski-Kubilius, P., & Worrell, F.C. (2011). Rethinking giftedness and gifted
education: A proposed direction forward based on psychological science. Psychological Science
in the Public Interest, 12, 3-54
21. Pomerantz, A.M. (2008). Behavior therapy. In Corsini, R.J. & Wedding, D. (Eds). Curent
Psychotherapies. 8th Ed., (pp. 187-262). Thomson Brooks/Cole.
22. Gormally, C., Brickman, P., Hallar, B., & Armstrong, N. (2009). Effects of inquiry-based learning
on students’ science literacy skills and confidence. International journal for the scholarship of
teaching and learning, 3(2), n2.
23. Oke, Adekunle & Fatima Araujo Pereira Fernandes. (2020). “Innovations in Teaching and
Learning: Exploring the Perceptions of the Education Sector on the 4th Industrial Revolution
(4IR)” in Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, Volume 6(31),
pp.1-22.
24. Phuong, N.H. (2019). What solutions should be applied to improve the efficiency in the
management for port system in Ho Chi Minh City? International Journal of Innovation, Creativity
and Change, 5(2), 1747–1769
25. Zhang, Q., Jiang, N., Hu, Y., & Pan, D. (2017). Design of Course-Keeping Controller for a
Ship Based on Backstepping and Neural Networks. International Journal of E-Navigation and
Maritime Economy, 7, 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enavi.2017.06.004
IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES AT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL
IN THE CURRENT INNOVATION EDUCATION IN OUR COUNTRY
Nguyen Duc Huu

(Ministry of Education and Training)
Abstract: Inclusive education for elementary school students with disabilities in our country has been of
interest to the Party, the State and Ministries and Branches, especially in recent 20 years, and obtained some
results to ensure opportunities for all students with different circumstances and characteristics to have equal
opportunities in access to education and to school. However, the education quality in general and the inclusive
education quality for students with disabilities at the elementary school level in particular has also revealed
shortcomings due to various reasons. One of the main reasons is that the quality assessment activities are not yet
system-related and regular to find the cause for ensuring and improving the quality. This article presents related
basic concepts, how to build a quality assurance system and solutions to improve the inclusive education quality
for elementary school students with disabilities in the current education innovation in our country.
Keywords: Quality, Quality assurance, Inclusive education; Children with disabilities; Elementary School Students.
1. INTRODUCTION
Educating students with disabilities at elementary school level according to the method of
inclusive education is a right policy of many countries, and in our country. Inclusive education has been
selected since the beginning of the pilot in 1991. Implementing the legal documents of the State and
of the Education and Training Sector, according to the annual reports of the Departments of Education
and Training, there are now more than 600,000 out of a total of 1,329,000 children with disabilities
attending school, mostly study in Inclusive education methods and concentrate at the elementary school
level. However, at present, there is still a gap between the Inclusive education quality for students
with disabilities and the requirements of elementary education. The cause can be determined to be the
management mechanism, funding shortfalls, the qualifications of teachers, of support staff, etc. The
quality assessment has not been given enough attention to find the cause for the quality improvement.
In 2014, UNESCO introduced a set of documents “Enhancing the training and retraining of
inclusive education teachers” including 5 books: Introductions; Policies; Curriculums; Learning
materials; Methods [1]. In the country, scientists and educators have conducted researches on inclusive
education for students with disabilities and published many of their research works on and related to
the problem. However, there have not been many published research works on quality assurance for
inclusive education.
From practical requirements, it is necessary to build a quality assurance system and solutions to
improve the inclusive education quality for students with disabilities at the elementary school level in
the current educational innovation process. To solve the above problem, what must be handled and how
to proceed? This is a question that needs to be answered scientifically.
2. CONTENT
2.2.1. Basic concepts

2.2.1.1. Inclusive education for persons with disabilities
According to the Law on Persons with Disabilities, in Article 2: “A person with a disability means
a person who has a defect in one or more body parts or a impairment of function that is presentedas
a disability that makes it difficult to work, live and study”. In Article 3, there are the following types
of disabilities: a) Mobility disability; b) Hearing and speaking disabilities; c) Visual impairment; d)
Neurological and mental disabilities; d) Intellectual disability; e) Other disabilities [2].
The concept of inclusive education is flexible. Inclusion education is an activity in all activities.
What is required is dedication, hard work and a sense of humor from everyone to the challenges of
inclusive education [3].
The concept of inclusive education is currently being recognized and used relatively commonly in
our country. Inclusive education for persons with disabilities means “a method of sharing people with
disabilities with non-disabled people in educational institutions where children live” [2].
Inclusive education has the following basic characteristics: 1) Education for all children, regardless
of gender, ethnicity, religion, economic conditions and social backgrounds; 2) The children go to an
educational institution where they live; 3) Do not equate every child, every child is different; 4) Adjust
in accordance with the ability and needs of the children in terms of goals, contents, methods, and
assessment of educational results [4].
2.2.1.2. The quality of education

The quality of education is understood in different ways. We use the concept of quality of education
as “the degree of achievement of the educational goals required by the stakeholders. The quality of
education is verified by the quality of educational products” [5] [6].
To the overall approach, the quality of education to a large extent corresponds to the educational
category itself. The quality composition of the factors that create the quality of education. Partial or
partial approach, quality education emphasizes on considering the quality of education in each part,
stage or different field of the overall educational process. Both these approaches point out the quality
factors of the educational process itself, which have a great impact on the quality of input resources,
creating quality and improving the quality of education [7].
The quality of inclusive education for students with disabilities: On the basis of the overall approach,
the concept of the quality of inclusive education is understood in a wide range, including input quality,
implementation quality and quality output - results. To the divisional approach, the quality of inclusive
education emphasizes on different stages, divisions or areas, including the quality of resources, the
quality of activities - processes and the quality of products.
In any educational system, the school is always considered as the core unit of the system and all
activities of the school are aimed at best serving its customers, which are learners [8]. Therefore, it can
be understood that the quality of inclusive education for students with disabilities is the total quality
or the quality composition of the components of the entire process of vocational education in schools,
which is the result of the development of disability students.
2.2.2. Building a quality assurance system for inclusive education for students with disabilities at
elementary school level
2.2.2.1. Basic issues of quality assurance and quality assurance for inclusive education for students with
disabilities at elementary school level
In general, Quality Assurance is the process of applying appropriate theories, perspectives, policies,
objectives, resources, processes, measures, procedures and tools to ensure that the set standards or quality
levels are met throughout the entire activity from initiation to completion and product acquisition [9].
The quality assurance or the quality management at the quality assurance level (QA) can be
described as a systematic, structured, and ongoing concern for quality with respect to the maintenance
and improvement quality. In Vietnam, the concept of “Quality Assurance is the entire planned and
systemual activity conducted in the quality system and proved to be sufficient to create a satisfactory
confidence that they (object) will fully meet the quality requirements” (Vietnamese Standard 5814). The
Quality Assurance is considered “the total number of mechanisms and processes applied to ensure pre-
defined quality or continuous quality improvement – including planning, monitoring, encouragement,
assessment and quality control”. The quality assurance is the quality management process at the educational
institutions, which attaches great importance to prevention before and during the product creation process.
Quality assurance in education is the process of applying appropriate attitudes, policies, objectives,
resources, processes, measures, procedures and tools to ensure that standards or levels of quality are
defined throughout the entire activity from initiation to completion and product acquisition. It is one of
the basic stages of educational quality management as described in the diagram above [6].
Thus, ensuring the quality of inclusive education for disability students is the process of applying
the viewpoint of inclusive education quality, policies, objectives, appropriate resources, measures and
tools to ensure the implementation of the educational goals of students with disabilities (knowledge,
skills, behavior, language - communication, emotional - social, ...) have been set [10].
2.2.2.2. Building a quality assurance system for inclusive education for students with disabilities at
elementary school level
3 main contents must be implemented as follows:
a. Building the quality system suitable to the inclusive education process for students with disabilities
(including the quality policy and strategy for the inclusive education process for students with disabilities)
The quality system or the quality standards system include all standards and procedures to be
followed for all 3 stages: INPUT - PROCESS - OUTPUT of the inclusiveal education process. The
purpose of these standards is to “check” all elements of product creation activities, to prevent arbitrary
work, and to be the basis for “the quality supervision” at all stages, all people to do their jobs.
- For the INPUT: to build the quality standards for: (1) Inclusive education program and inclusive
education program development for students with disabilities; (2) Student quality; (3) Facilities and
equipments for teaching and learning (classrooms, function/thematic rooms, etc.) are fully equipped
and updated; (4) The dedicated library and learning resources are fully equipped and updated; (5)
Environmental, health and safety standards are determined.
The most important input for inclusive education for students with disabilities is the suitable
program for the educational objectives and objects. The content orientation of the inclusive education
program for students with disabilities at elementary school may include:
(i) The content of inclusiveal education teaching must be adapted to the needs of students. Therefore,
schools must have appropriate teaching contents and programs for children with different abilities and
interests; especially for each student with disabilities.
(ii) Students with disabilities must receive extra tutoring/individual lessons to be able to meet the
regular content and to be adjusted to suit them, not a separate program. The guiding principle is to give
children the same education and to organize extra tutoring to support for those who need help.
(iii) The educational content should be aimed at raising the standards and needs of each individual,
in order to enable children to actively participate in the process of personal development. Teaching must
be based on the characteristics of students with disabilities themselves and on the things they care about
to motivate them to make better progress.
(iv) In order to monitor the progress of the students with disabilities, it is necessary to review the
assessment process. Assessment must be integrated into the educational process to help students and
teachers know how well students have met their goals of inclusive education, and to identify difficulties
and help them to overcome.
(v) For students with disabilities who need regular help, which can range from minimal in-class help
to additional school assistance programs and beyond if necessary, is the help of specialized teachers and
support staff inside or outside the school”.
It is necessary to mobilize the support of resources for the inclusive education for students with
disabilities. When mobilizing, it should be noted:
+ Children’s differences are used as a source of teaching and learning support
+ The experience of staff, teachers and employees is made the most of.
+ Teachers, staff and employees develop resources to support learning and the participation of
those with related interests
+ Everyone participating in the process of inclusive education for students with disabilities must
know and use the support resources from the community
+ The school’s resources are evenly distributed to support inclusive education to achieve good results.
- For the PROCESS: Implementing the quality system or realizing a quality standard system
includes all standards with performance indicators and procedures to be followed when implementing,
and the program of all levels in general and inclusive education for students with disabilities in particular.
Organizing the implementation of quality standards with performance indicators and processes and
procedures for activities related to the teaching of the teachers, related to the organization of student
learning activities, related to support activities of the process of inclusive education for students with
disabilities at schools. When it comes to the PROCESS, it is also associated with a system that monitors
the compliance of standards with implementation indicators, with issued procedures for all stages of the
education process. Keeping the evidence for the assessment is also a requirement in this stage.
- For the OUTPUT: Assessing the achievement of the quality system with performance indicators
(implementation of the set out - standards, criteria and processes) and self-assessing the product quality
of the school: the quality standards system includes all standards with performance indicators and
procedures to self-assess the quality of the teaching products and support activities as well as the level
of satisfaction of those involved. The internal assessment is conducted by participants in the process of
creating the educational product quality in general, inclusive education for students with disabilities in
particular. The assessment must not be sentiment but stick to the quality objectives with the performance
indicators of each activity and have evidence to “be able to trust” the assessment results.
b. Operating the quality system
After “having written the right things to do” to achieve the quality goals with performance indicators
for each job and stage in the educational process in general, the inclusive education for students with
disabilities in particular, it is the turn to “do it right what has been written” through “job descriptions
and processes with performance indicators” and at the same time, it is necessary to thoroughly give
those involved a “quality culture” so that they are “committed” to doing exactly what is announced.
Monitoring the level of implementation of “commitments” when implementing work is very important
based on evidence of the level of performance indicators and the level of quality goal implementation. In
the process implementation, the content, the education program and the inclusive teaching for students
with disabilities should stick to the quality goals with the following notes:
+ The program quality is consistent with the purpose of the inclusive education for students with
disabilities and feasible under specific circumstances when implemented in practice.
+ The educational program aims to standardize knowledge and skills for all students. Students
with disabilities need to learn the same content as other students as possible. The difference between
students with disabilities and other students is that: a) Expected to meet specialized learning goals for
students with disabilities; b) To be required to carry out activities suitable to the level of competence and
characteristics of the students with disabilities.
+ The educational programs and contents are always supplemented and adjusted to adapt to
the needs of students with disabilities, rather than forcing them to follow all already in the program.
Therefore, the educational programs and contents need to be suitable for students with disabilities and
for their different benefits.
During the operation, it is necessary to record, monitor and take specific notes in detail the stages of
organizing the implementation of criteria and indicators to form the basis for editing and improving the
unspent stages, completing the built processes and ensuring the continuous operation of the management
process, in that way to ensure the expected education quality. Furthermore, during the implementation
process, regular control must be made so that the operation process does not deviate from the stated
objectives of the inclusive education quality. In the control, each member and leader of the department
always have to detect errors and defects to learn from and perfect according to Deming’s PDCA cycle
(Plan - Do - Check - Act) and, importantly, to create output products that satisfy the requirements and
needs of the students with disabilities, based on the evidence of how well the performance indicators are
achieved and the level of implementation of the published quality goals.
c. Creating and developing the quality culture
Culture is associated with beliefs, consciousness, knowledge, behavior, and when those factors
become stored values and form habits, culture is associated with self-discipline and voluntariness. With
the above concept, the concept of quality culture is associated with the belief that “without quality, there
will be no sustainable existence”; a sense of compliance with standards and implementation processes
so that the product is qualified; The quality culture is also associated with knowledge about quality and
quality assurance and the level of application of such knowledge to “behaviors” in the creation of quality
products. If the above factors are firmly formed, it will create habits, self-discipline and voluntariness
to carry out activities according to the set quality goals. The necessary condition to ensure quality is to
build a quality system and operate it effectively; The sufficient condition here is the quality culture. It is
necessary to build an inclusive, friendly educational environment, ensuring that students with disabilities
are respected, supported, cooperated and equally involved in all educational activities.
In order to build the quality culture, it is necessary to pay attention to 3 stages with very detailed
contents of each stage:
1. Stage 1. To find out the current level of quality culture in the school, including: a) To find
out the consciousness and awareness of teachers and leaders about the education quality; b) To find
out the consciousness and awareness of students and parents/guardians and people living in the local
community; c) To identify priority objectives for improving the education quality.
2. Stage 2. To build a development quality culture plan at schools in general and inclusive education
for students with disabilities associated with the stated quality goals. This is part of the participation of
members of the school’s quality planning team. This team will decide on the extent and scope of changes
to the quality plan after studying the inclusive education guidelines for students with disabilities. They
will incorporate the priorities agreed upon among teachers and staff at the end of the Stage 2 into the
school development plan.
3. Stage 3. To implement the priority objectives (continuously): a) To realize the selected priority
objectives into real-world implementation; b) To maintain the sustainable development of the achieved
quality; c) To record progress and plan for quality improvement.
2.2.3. Some solutions to improve the quality of inclusive education for students with disabilities
at elementary school level
2.2.3.1. To raise awareness, supplement knowledge and skills for management staff and teachers on
inclusive education for students with disabilities at elementary school level with quality assurance approach
Teachers must have been trained in the Faculty of Special Education, or have received intensive
training and fostering during the annual summer vacation to have knowledge and skills in inclusive
education for students with disabilities.
In fact, the number of graduated students from the Faculty of Special Education of Hanoi University
of Education and Ho Chi Minh City University of Education annually cannot meet the needs of inclusive
education in institutions teaching inclusive education across the country; On the other hand, it is difficult
for these students to be recruited as civil servants in the localities… therefore, it is necessary to foster
knowledge and skills for elementary school teachers (without special education training) in inclusive
education for students with disabilities. The content of the training should focus on the knowledge of the
biological - psychological characteristics of students with disabilities as well as their inclusive ability.
To foster an approach that is appropriate to students with disabilities as well as specific methods in
inclusive education for them; especially skills in creating learning environment and inclusive education
for students with disabilities at elementary schools.
2.2.3.2. To research to develop and apply a set of quality assurance standards to meet the requirements
of the inclusive education for students with disabilities at elementary school level
The quality assurance standards to meet the requirements of inclusive education for students
with disabilities at elementary school level are associated with the goals of the inclusive education for
students with disabilities in the current period according to the regulations of the Ministry of Education
and Training, and at the same time to ensure that the general principles of this set of standards must be
associated with the input, processes, output of the inclusive education for students with disabilities. It
is necessary to properly identify the content and characteristics of the input - processes - outputs of the
inclusive education for students with disabilities when developing this set of standards. When building a
system of standards and indicators for the inclusive education quality for students with disabilities, it is
necessary to master the specific and appropriate objectives of the inclusive education quality for students
with disabilities of the educational institutions to achieve the highest efficiency.
2.2.3.3. To train and foster a contingent of qualified teachers and support staff in inclusive education for
students with disabilities at elementary school level
A team of qualified teachers or support staff in inclusive education for students with disabilities at
elementary level is very necessary and important because teachers at schools participating in inclusive
education for students with disabilities can not avoid certain limitations and it is necessary to mobilize
support teachers (preferably those who have been trained in the Faculty of Special Education in
universities of education) or support staff (preferably those who have been working in centers of special
education or teachers who have been trained in topics of special education in universities of education).
In order for this team to work effectively, the school must let them participate right from the stage of
building the quality goals of inclusive education for students with disabilities and create conditions for
them to actively participate in the process of implementing the inclusive education for students with
disabilities at school.
2.2.3.4. To build a friendly inclusive education environment, and ensure the conditions of facilities,
means and equipment to support inclusive education activities for elementary school students with
disabilities according to the quality assurance approach.
In order to achieve the necessary quality, there must build a friendly inclusive educational
environment, ensuring the conditions of facilities, means and equipment to support the inclusive
education activities for the educational process in general, and the inclusive education for students with
disabilities in particular. To do this, the school must have a specific plan for this work and mobilize the
participation and contributions of all members of the school and its stakeholders.
2.2.3.5. To strengthen the inspection and supervision of the inclusive education implementation for
students with disabilities at the elementary school level according to the quality assurance approach of
educational management levels.
It is important to monitor the level of implementation of “commitments” when implementing
work based on evidence of the level of implementation indicators and the level of implementation of
educational quality goals in general, the inclusive education for students with disabilities in particular.
In summary, in order to improve the inclusive education quality for students with disabilities in
elementary school/and schools with elementary levels, it is possible to guide thinking according to the
diagram below:
3. CONCLUSION
The inclusive education for elementary school students with disabilities in our country has been
directed by educational administrators and implemented at elementary education institutions across
the country for many years and achieved some very respectable results to ensure opportunities for
all students with disadvantaged backgrounds, different characteristics to have equal opportunities in
accessing and going to school
However, the education quality in general and the inclusive education quality for students with
disabilities at elementary school level in particular have also revealed disadvantages due to many
different reasons. One of the main reasons is that the quality assessment has not been systematic and
regular to find the cause for ensuring and improving the inclusive education quality for students with
disabilities at the elementary level. The content of the article contributes to the correct identification of
the concept of inclusive education for students with disabilities and the issue of ensuring the quality
of the inclusive education process for students with disabilities in general, and for elementary-school
students with disabilities in particular. If schools do well in our research results, they will definitely
contribute to improving the inclusive education quality for students with disabilities in the context of
education innovation in our country today.
On that basis, we recommend the implementation of the proposed solutions to improve the quality
of inclusive education for students with disabilities at primary school level to improve the quality of
inclusive education for students with disabilities before the requirements of educational reform in our
country today.
REFERENCES
1. UNESCO (2014), Strengthening the training and fostering of inclusive education teachers,
Correction document, Bangkok.
2. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Law No. 51/2010/QH12 dated June 17,
2010 promulgating the Law on Persons with Disabilities, Hanoi.
3. Salamanca Declaration and Platform for Action on Special Educational Needs (2002), World
Conference on Education of Children with Special Educational Needs, Salamanca, Spain, April
1994, Main Publishing House National Administration, Hanoi.
4. Le Van Tac (editor) (2006), Inclusive education of children with disabilities at elementary level
(for elementary teachers), Social Labor Publishing House, Hanoi.
5. The Institute for Education Quality Assurance, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (2010),
“Quality Assurance, Evaluation and Accreditation”. National University Publishing House, Hanoi.
6. Terry Richarson (1997), Total Quality Management, Thomson Publishing Company, USA.
7. The Institute of Strategy and Educational Programs (2005), Basic criteria and indicators of education
quality, Summary report of ministerial-level science and technology topic “Theory and practice of
education quality and assessing the quality of education” B2004-CTeducation-01, Hanoi.
8. New Zeland Qualifications Authority (1995), Quality Assurance in Education and Training,
Quality Assurance for Degrees and Related Qualifications, Wellington.
9. Tran Khanh Duc (2004), Management and Quality Accreditation of human resource training
according to ISO & TQM, Education Publishing House, Hanoi..
10. Nguyen Xuan Hai (March 2013), Quality assurance of educational programs for students with
intellectual disabilities to learn inclusively in primary school, Journal of Education - Ministry of
Education and Training, No. 306, p22- 23-38.
ASSESSMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ CRITICAL
THINKING: A RESEARCH OVERVIEW
Tran Thanh Nam
Nguyen Phuong Hong Ngoc
Nguyen Thi Bich Lien
Tran Van Cong
Abstract: Critical thinking is a form of directed, problem-focused thinking in which the individual tests ideas
or possible solutions for errors or drawbacks. It differs from the logical appraisal of arguments extending beyond a
single argument, which is essential for any education system. A deep understanding of aspects, assessment criteria,
and critical thinking methods will provide a solid foundation for expanded and flexible national education. This
present study used the literature review method to give an overview of research on the basis sides of critical thinking
assessment for high school students from around the world and in Vietnam. The main contents included: assessment
methods and tools, challenges that exist in assessing critical thinking, developing and adapting assessment tools.
Some suggestions for evaluating critical thinking for high school students in Vietnam were provided.
Keywords: assessment, critical thinking, students, literature review.
1. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

1.1. Introduction
In the world, critical thinking was researched many decades ago. The definitions, frameworks,
assessment tools and methods, etc. were available for everyone who wanted to know about it. With
finding keyword “critical thinking”, google scholar gave 9.020 results embraced articles, reports, and
books. However, this critical topic was little in Vietnam and most of them focus on “critical thinking
skills developments” for secondary, high school and college students (Le Thi Thanh Truc, 2018; Ngo Hai
Yen, 2020; Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang, 2020; Hoang Thuy Xuyen, 2020; Nguyen Thi Ngoc Huyen, 2020;
Vu Thi Ha Thu, 2020; Chu Thi Mai Huong, 2021; Bui Ngoc Quan et al., 2021; Nguyen Thu Ha, 2021).
Meanwhile, the first primary step before implementing any program, solution or strategy was assessment.
There was not adapted tool/instrument process for Vietnam students. From 1993, Ennis determined
seven purposes of critical thinking assessment, as follow: (1) diagnosing the levels of students’ critical
thinking; (2) Giving students feedback about their critical thinking prowess; (3) Motivating students
to be better at critical thinking; (4) Informing teachers about the success of their efforts to teach students
to think critically; (5) Researching critical thinking instructional questions and issue; (6) Providing help in
deciding whether a student should enter an educational program; and (7) Providing information for holding
schools accountable for the critical thinking prowess of their students (Ennis, 1993).
Regarding concept, it is essential to mention three definitions of critical thinking by leading

researchers. First, according to Robert Ennis: “critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that
is focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1985). Sternberg thought that “Critical thinking
comprise the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problem, make
decisions, and learn new concepts” (Sternberg, 1986) and the last, Richard Paul defined that “critical
thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it” (Paul et al., 1988).
Besides, there were many other definitions of critical thinking. In the research report of Lai in 2011, this
author summarized about 20 definitions of critical thinking and arranged them into three approaches:
philosophy, cognitive psychology, and education (Lai, 2011). There were commonalities include:
critical thinking is a type of thinking; it applies to all subject matters; involves reflection, looking back,
suspending judgment; being a critical thinker includes knowledge, skills, attitudes, and dispositions
(Hitchcock, 2017). In general, these concepts had a unified idea that critical thinking was the process
of analyzing and evaluating thinking based on careful consideration of the evidence to make decisions.
Designing a critical thinking assessment is complicated and needed a combination of human

resources in different fields, such as experts, assessment developers, measurement experts, institutions
and faculty members (Liu, et al. 2014). Moreover, assessing critical thinking can meet challenges such
as differences in background beliefs when using multiple-choice tests (Ennis, 1993). It was difficult or
impossible to build a tool that can be applied for all students globally because an international scale,
inventory or questionnaire must be adapted when used in different countries. Even so, the combination
between choosing specific theory, screening cultural contexts and referring to available tools are core
criteria. This article will present available assessment tools and methods for high school students; the
process of developing and adapting assessment tools; and challenges that exist in the process of assessing
critical thinking. Some suggestions for evaluating critical thinking for Vietnamese high school students
are provided.
1.2. Critical thinking in education

The role of critical thinking in education
In total education innovation, new things are required on education for the human model that
schools need to aim to form in learners. One of the new requirements is the ability to think critically,
which is a dialectical thinking process that involves analyzing and evaluating existing information from
different perspectives for the problem posed to clarify and confirm the correctness of the problem.
Critical arguments must be clear, logical, full of evidence, meticulous and fair. Critical thinking is an
essential thinking skill in all fields, especially in education. The ability to think clearly and rationally
is crucial in education and teaching. The ability to think well and solve problems systematically is an
essential condition for creating talent in education. Today critical thinking is critical when it is fueled by
information and technology. The developing society places increasing demands on using flexible minds,
analyzing data, and integrating diverse knowledge sources into problem-solving. Good critical thinking
promotes and helps teachers and learners adapt to educational innovation. Critical thinking can improve
the presentation and language skills of teachers and learners. Thinking clearly and systematically can
improve the way teachers and students express ideas. Critical thinking also develops the ability to link
and interact with parents to jointly organize collaborative activities to improve the quality of education
and training. Critical thinking drives creativity. Finding a creative solution to a problem requires more
than just new ideas. The new ideas themselves must be useful and relevant to the problem at hand.
Critical thinking plays a pivotal role in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones, and adjusting them
if necessary. Critical thinking contributes significantly to the innovation of teaching methods and the
cooperation of teachers to jointly innovate teaching methods in schools.
Critical thinking is important to self-reflection. To take control of our lives and make it meaningful,
we need to recognize our self-worth and be alert when making decisions. Critical thinking is what will
help teachers control themselves when educating students. Critical thinking provides an opportunity
to understand differences in conclusions, assumptions, and hypotheses, frequently asking for the
views of others and making an effort to recognize errors in others’ views, possible biases in those
views, and the danger of misinterpreting the evidence influenced by personal opinions. Good critical
thinking is the foundation of science and equality in education. Science requires the use of argument
in testing and validating theories. The more effective functioning of education requires teachers and
learners to reason about educational issues to spread the correct values and overcome false biases and
prejudices (Lipman, 2003).
The role of critical thinking in high school students
In education that emphasizes thinking critically, learners play a central, self-aware, active, and
proactive role, creatively developing themselves. Encouraging learners to access various sources of
information and knowledge through many forms of activities and practice, research, argue, critique, and
select statements obtained to discover new knowledge, ideas, and creativity. Create and practice a variety
of skills. In the educational process aimed at developing critical thinking ability, learners and teachers
together learn and solve problems of interest to learners through debate and dialogue. Learners can learn
and share with friends and teachers by finding arguments, discussions, and conversations to defend their
point of view, listening to other people’s opinions, supplementing and perfecting knowledge, and training
logical thinking when combining absorbing good ideas from teachers friends. Then new knowledge
and skills are formed for each individual—the student. Developing critical thinking is a condition for
training students’ presentation skills and language use. Through the process of reasoning and debating;
Students learn to express their thoughts and ideas more clearly, logically and convincingly. Critical
thinking is a condition for developing students’ creative ability. Through exploring and researching to
see problems from many different angles, students will have the opportunity to come up with new ideas,
avoiding stereotypes and machines. Thinking critically helps students have no prejudice in the learning
process (know how to listen and accept opposing opinions, know how to consider different points of
view, and will change their views when inferences show that change must be made). Through critical
thinking, students can apply required standards and certain conditions for a statement to be believable.
Students are trained and developed the ability to argue (make arguments with supporting evidence,
identify, evaluate and construct arguments) and reasoning ability (capable of drawing conclusions from
one or more information by seeing the logical relationship between the information). The ability to think
critically, see problems flexibly will help students practice self-control in the face of pressures in study
and life (Beyer, 1995).
According to Ngo Vu Thu Hang (2018), Vietnam is innovating a general education program to
strengthen students’ competencies. As a result, more studies outlining the competencies are required as a
foundation for educators to construct appropriate lessons to assist form and develop these competencies
in children. Problem solving and creativity are two mainly targeted skills among the key competencies
aimed at by the New General Education Program (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018). Developing
these skills cannot be separated from developing critical thinking skills because they are intimately
connected.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
This study used the literature review method to collect research on critical thinking assessment for
high school students. We found materials in Google Scholar, Researchgate, Wiley Online Library, VNU
Journal of Science with words: definition/concept of critical thinking, assess/evaluate critical thinking,
critical thinking tools, critical thinking tests, etc. The selected research met the following criteria: (1)
Research on assessment tools and methods of critical thinking included available tools and tools that were
building or adapting; (2) These methods and tools involved high school students. There were not criteria of
published time.
After that, we arranged these studies into the following groups:
- The first was critical thinking assessment methods and available tools for high school students.
The main contents or subdomains, age, Cronbach’s alpha, etc., would show in this part.
- The second was design research to develop and adapt critical thinking assessment instruments
for high school or college students. There were a lot of tools that were built or adapted in many
different countries. These would be essential reference materials for our or other researcher’s
next research in the future.
- The last were challenges in the process of assessing critical thinking and building tools for
high school students. This part would present difficulties, even traps, when conducted the
assessment tools.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Assess high school student’s critical thinking
There was a note that the assessment method would vary with the assessment purpose and criteria.
In 1995, Paul offered several criteria for assessing critical thinking, as follow: It should assess students
skills and abilities in analyzing, synthesizing, applying, and evaluating information; It also should
contain items that, as much as possible, are examples of the real-life problems and issues that people
will have to think out and act upon (Huffman et al. 2000). Several methods/strategies were used to
test critical thinking. For example, Oermann (1997) lists five techniques for measuring critical thinking
in nursing and nursing clinical practice: (1) observation of students in practice; (2) questions for critical
thinking; (3) conferences; (4) problem-solving strategies; and (5) written assignments. Critical thinking was
also evaluated on the products of learner learning, such as essays (Elisanti et al. 2017; Saputra et al. 2018;
Triastuti et al. 2021). In addition, there were surveys, tests, portfolios - a collection of student work, written
or multimedia (Possin, 2008; Sarigoz, 2012; Fuad et al., 2017).
In the world, the tools built to assess critical thinking, the aspects evaluated were diverse, such as:
- California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory included seven scales: open-mindedness,
analyticity, cognitive maturity, truth-seeking, systematicity, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence,
with Cronbach’s alpha for the overall instrument was 0.92. This tool was used to assess critical
thinking disposition in high school through the graduate level (Facione et al. 1994).
- Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal measured high-level reasoning and critical thinking.
It included five parts: inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation, and
evaluation of arguments (Ennis, 1958).
- Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test was a general test of critical thinking ability in
argumentation. It took the form of a letter to the editor of a fictional newspaper. In the letter, the
writer proposed and offered a variety of arguments in support of it. The Ennis-Weir was most
appropriate for use with high school and college students. Inter-rater reliabilities of 0.86 and
0.82 for 27 college students and 28 eighth-grade students (Ennis et al. 1985).
- The Cornell Critical Thinking Tests (CCTT; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko, 2005) assesses general
critical thinking ability, including induction, deduction, evaluation, observation, the credibility
of statements, assumption identification, and meaning. The technical manual does provide some
score reliability and validity information reporting internal consistency reliability estimates
ranging from 0.67 to 0.90 for Form X (student grade 5-12+) (French et al. 2014)
- In addition, there were other tools included: Collegiate Learning Assessment+ (Council for
Aid to Education, 2013), Collegiate Assessment of Academic Proficiency (CAAP Program
Management, 2012), Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (Halpern, 2010), etc. These tools
assess aspects such as the ability to reason, analyze, debate, and evaluate, decision-making,
problem-solving, etc. The authors also discussed how to design tools in Likert or multi-selection
style or qualitative questions (Liu et al., 2014).
In Vietnam, some tools have been adapted. For instance, Van Nguyen et al. (2020) translated and
assessed the psychometrics of the critical thinking questionnaire for medical professionals and nurses
during clinical practice, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.98, the internal correlation coefficient of 0.81.
Confirmatory factor analysis indicates that this Vietnamese version is consistent with the proposed model.
Another approach to assessment included was based on learners’ products. For instance, Doan Thanh
Huong (2010) evaluated the critical thinking expressed in the essays of 3rd-year students based on the
aspects outlined by Stapleton, with reference to Ennis-Weir’s criteria. Research by Pham Ngoc Thinh
(2018) used Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal to assess critical thinking for undergraduate
students. However, most critical thinking assessment tools are built and adapted for undergraduate
students, the number of assessment tools for high school students is limited.
3.2. Develop and adopt critical thinking assessment instruments for high school students
According to some authors who have developed thinking tests (Watson-Glaser, 1980; Taylor &
Getzels, 1975), the general criteria for selecting a thinking test are: (1) It must be related to the theory of
thinking; (2) It must involve creative and critical thinking behavior in the real world; (3) It must contain
different aspects of thinking behavior; and (4) It must be attractive, attract respondents; (5) It must be
designed in such a way that a person can respond to their experience with whatever they want; (6) It
must generate information that can be reliably attributed to meaningful aspects of thinking; and (7) It
must clearly state guidelines, scoring instructions, testing time, and scoring procedures.
The following table summarizes some processes for developing and adapting a tool for assessing
students’ critical thinking:
Table 1. Development/adaptation process and psychometric characteristics
of some critical thinking assessment tools for high school students
Author(s)
(Publishing Country Sample Development/adaptation process Psychometric characteristics
year)
Gülen Turkey 807 students in grades Five steps: - Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha values were
(2019) 6, 7, 8 1. Preliminary Research examined for the reliability of the factors.
Pilot: 307 students According to analyze the reliability value of
Main application: 500 - Literature review
the optional scale as calculated as 0.66 in pilot
students Identify dimensions
implementation. After the pilot implementation,
- Define measurement content the reliability values of the two scales
Prepare the scale increased. Accordingly, the value of the Likert
2. Prepare the scale scale was 0.699, and the value of the optional
scale was calculated as 0.755.
- Write the items on the scale
section 3: educational sciences with the renovation...
- Ask for expert advice - Validity: KMO values of all scales are
above the acceptable value. Bartlett’s Test of
- Conduct scale testing
Sphericity test values shows high jump values
- Analysis of scale test data
depending on the number of participants.
- Check the validity and reliability of the scale
Adjust the scale
3. Collect data
- Implement the scale on the sample
4. Research on validity and reliability
- Research on reliability
- Research on the validity
- Data analysis
5. Results
- Results of the scale by gender and grade level
- Final version of the scale
517
518
Author(s)
(Publishing Country Sample Development/adaptation process Psychometric characteristics
year)
Redhana et Indonesia Students in junior high Four steps: The inventory was based on seven scales
al. (2017) school 11-15 years old 1. Research and data collection of critical thinking disposition of American
Philosophy Association, including (a) truth-
- A summary of related documents
seeking consisting of five subscales, (b)
- A survey of 90 teachers and 406 students from open-mindedness consisting of three
ten secondary schools was conducted. subscales, (c) analyticity consisting of eight
2. Preparation subscales, (d) systematicity consisting of four
- Determine the scale and sub-scale, the number of subscales, (e) critical thinking self-confidence
items, the type of the items, and the questionnaire consisting of five subscales, (f) inquisitiveness
format for students to fill out. consisting of two subscales, and (g) cognitive
maturity consisting of six subscales. Results
3. Create a preliminary product.
of expert validations and readability testing
- Set up items for each subscale, both positive showed that, in general, the inventory being
and negative. developed was very appropriate to measure
4. First product testing the critical thinking disposition of students.
- Expert validation is part of instrumental testing.
There are two specialists (psychology and
language) who assess the scale and modify it
suitably. The modified scale was based on a group
discussion of 10 students’ reading comprehension.
They attentively study each statement and attempt
to comprehend the meaning of the things. If an
item is difficult to comprehend, it will be changed.
Gelerstein Chile Primary school Research overview to find critical thinking patterns
Before the item analysis, Cronbach’s alpha
et al. (2016) students for the test was 0.917. Following the item
Sample identification
analysis, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.909, which
Design the content and form of the survey based shows that the test is reliable.
on the overview, Delphi research report Check the
The inter-item correlation is = 0.25. The Pearson
tool’s psychometric characteristics
product-moment correlation between the test
scores and the student’s grades was 0.805 for
3rd grade and 0.723 for 4th grade.
PROCEEDINGS OF 1 ST HANOI FORUM ON PEDAGOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
3.3. The challenges in assessing and building critical thinking tool for high school students
According to Adams et al. (1996), critical thinking was an abstract and complex concept that was
difficult to measure and evaluate. The assessment of critical thinking might face several difficulties,
challenges and problems such as the validity and reliability of the assessment tool, students need to
seriously implement a assignments that they could not include in the course or graduation requirements,
resources for implementing assessment, and how to help teachers understand the need for assessment,
etc. (Bers, 2005).
Some of the challenges in critical thinking assessment in higher education were highlighted by
Liu et al. (2014). Firstly, a significant issue in developing a critical thinking assessment was striking
a balance between the evaluation’s authenticity and its psychometric quality. Secondly, developing a
standardized critical thinking tool for education is needed to ensure that the assessment is instructional
relevant. Teachers were generally concern about the limited relevance of assessment findings for general
student learning outcomes, because these assessment are often developed in isolation from curriculum
and teaching. Thirly, the evaluation should be designed to give information for institutional or individual
use, affecting psychometric characteristics such as reliability and validity. The results of an institutional
level assessment must only be valid at the group level, but the results of an individual assessment must
be valid at the personal level. Fourthly, as mentioned earlier, each of these approaches defines critical
thinking differently. Because they were based on different definitions, the development of critical thinking
assessment tools will be diverse. Until now, many existing frameworks and assessments describe critical
thinking as a general skill. This could indirectly impact the assessment tool development, particularly in
determining the structure and content that the tool assesses.
The time to conduct the assessment and the cost are issues that needed to be considered while
using the available assessment tests. Some existing tests needed relatively extensive testing durations for
each person to complete. For example, the Cornell Critical Thinking Test takes 50 minutes to complete,
the Critical Thinking Assessment Battery takes 2.5 hours to complete, the California Critical Thinking
Skills Test takes 45 minutes to complete, etc (Liu et al., 2014). Furthermore, the cost of using these tools
is an issue that should be considered.
4. CONCLUSIONS
There are various measures available now that have been developed to assess critical thinking
in high school students. However, the number of available tools remains limited. According to our
literature review, no critical thinking assessment tool for high school students has been studied and
implemented in Vietnam.
The process of developing and implementing a critical thinking assessment takes into account
many challenges. The tool development process needs to unify the approach and definition, taking into
account the learning outcomes of high school students. Before being put into practice, assessment tools
must be psychometrically evaluated on several groups of students. During the development of the tool,
the researchers noticed the cost and testing duration in relation to the context of Vietnamese students.
Furthermore, educational institutions and educators must increase their awareness and critical
thinking skills. This not only helps instructors assess students’ critical thinking skills, but it also helps
teachers understand students’ critical thinking skills, how to identify and assess critical thinking skills,
and students’ readiness to think critically. They can include critical thinking into their teachings, therefore
directly contributing to improving students’ critical thinking skills.
Acknowledgment: This study is funded by VNU University of Education, Vietnam National University,
Hanoi, under research project number QS20.04.
REFERENCES
1. Adams, M.H., Whitlow, J.F., Stover, L.M., & Johnson, K.W. (1996). Critical thinking as an educational
outcome: An evaluation of current tools of measurement. Nurse Educator, 21(3), 23-32.
2. Bers, T. (2005). Assessing critical thinking in community colleges. New Directions for Community
Colleges, 2005(130), 15-25.
3. Beyer, B.K. (1995). Critical Thinking. Fastback 385. Phi Delta Kappa, 408 N. Union, PO Box 789,
Bloomington, IN 47402-0789.
4. Elisanti, E., Sajidan, S., & Prayitno, B. A. (2017). The profile of critical thinking skill students
in XI grade of senior high school. Proceedings of the 1st Annual International Conference on
Mathematics, Science, and Education (ICoMSE 2017)
5. Ennis, R.H. (1958). An appraisal of the Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal. The Journal of
Educational Research, 52(4), 155-158.
6. Ennis, R.H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational
leadership, 43(2), 44-48.
7. Ennis, R.H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory Into Practice, 32(3), 179–186.
8. Ennis, R.H., & Weir, E. E. (1985). The Ennis-Weir critical thinking essay test: An instrument for
teaching and testing. Midwest Publications.
9. Facione, N.C., Facione, P.A., & Sanchez, C.A. (1994). Critical thinking disposition as a measure of
competent clinical judgment: The development of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory.
10. French, B.F., Hand, B., Nam, J., Yen, H.J., & Vazquez, J.A.V. (2014). Detection of differential
item functioning in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test across Korean and North American
students. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 56(3), 275.
11. Fuad, N. M., Zubaidah, S., Mahanal, S., & Suarsini, E. (2017). Improving Junior High Schools’
Critical Thinking Skills Based on Test Three Different Models of Learning. International
Journal of Instruction, 10(1), 101-116.
12. Gelerstein, D., Del Rio, R., Nussbaum, M., Chiuminatto, P., & Lopez, X. (2016). Designing
and implementing a test for measuring critical thinking in primary school. Thinking Skills and
Creativity, 20, 40-49
13. Gülen, S. (2019). Development of critical thinking skills scale for science lesson. European
journal of education studies
14. Nguyễn Thu Hà. (2021). Phát triển tư duy phản biện cho học sinh thông qua đối thoại trong
dạy học phương pháp tọa độ trong mặt phẳng ở trung học phổ thông, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học
Quốc gia Hà Nội.
15. Ngo Vu Thu Hang (2018), Critical Thinking Education for Enhancing the Effectiveness of
Education in Vietnam, VNU Journal: Educational Research, Vol. 34, Issue 1 (2018) 58-63
16. Hitchcock, D. (2017). Critical thinking as an educational ideal. In On reasoning and argument (pp.
477-497). Springer, Cham.
17. Huffman, K.J., Carson, C.L., & Simonds, C.J. (2000). Critical thinking assessment: The link
between critical thinking and student application in the basic course. Basic communication
course annual, 12(1), 7.
18. Chu Thị Mai Hương (2021). “Phát triển kĩ năng tư duy phản biện cho học sinh trong dạy học lịch
sử Việt Nam (1919–1975) ở trường THPT”. Tạp chí Khoa học, Đại học Tây Bắc, (21).
19. Doan Thanh Huong (2010). Assessment of critical thinking in third-year EFL students’ writings
at Hanam Teachers’ Training College. Master’s thesis, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
20. Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Huyền (2020). Dạy học Xác suất Thống kê theo hướng phát triển tư duy phản
biện cho học sinh trung học phổ thông, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
21. Lai, E.R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review. Pearson’s Research Reports, 6(1), 40-41.
22. Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education. Cambridge University Press.
23. Liu, O.L., Frankel, L., & Roohr, K.C. (2014). Assessing critical thinking in higher education: Current
state and directions for next - generation assessment. ETS Research Report Series, 2014(1), 1-23.
24. Oermann, M.H. (1997). Evaluating critical thinking in clinical practice. Nurse Educator, 22(5), 25-28.
25. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (1988). Critical thinking. Kennedy Recordings.
26. Possin, K. (2008). A field guide to critical-thinking assessment. Teaching Philosophy, 31(3),
201-228.
27. Bùi Ngọc Quân, Nguyễn Tuấn Đạt (2021). Đổi mới phương pháp dạy học triết học Mác-Lênin theo
hướng phát triển tư duy phản biện của sinh viên đáp ứng yêu cầu cuộc Cách mạng Công nghiệp
4.0. VNU Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 7(1), 33-44.
28. Redhana, I.W., Karyasa, I.W., & Atrisa, N.P.F. (2017, August). Development of critical thinking
disposition inventory. In 2nd International Conference on Innovative Research Across Disciplines
(ICIRAD 2017) (pp. 195-198). Atlantis Press
29. Saputra, M.D., Joyoatmojo, S., & Wardani, D.K. (2018). The assessment of critical-thinking-skill
tests for accounting students of vocational high schools. International Journal of Educational
Research Review, 3(4), 85-96.
30. Sarigoz, O. (2012). Assessment of the high school students’ critical thinking skills. Procedia-
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 5315-5319.
31. Sternberg, R.J. (1986). Critical Thinking: Its Nature, Measurement, and Improvement.
32. Vũ Thị Hà Thu (2020). Phát triển tư duy phản biện cho học sinh thông qua dạy học chủ đề tổ
hợp–xác suất ở trường trung học phổ thông, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
33. Nguyễn Thị Thuỳ Trang (2020). Dạy học chủ đề đường tròn lớp 9 theo hướng phát triển tư duy
phản biện, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
34. Triastuti, T., & Laksono, E.W. (2021, March). Validation of critical thinking test to senior high
school students. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1806, No. 1, p. 012201). IOP
Publishing.
35. Trúc Lê Thị Thanh Trúc. (2020). Dạy học chủ đề phương trình mũ và logarit theo hướng phát
triển tư duy phản biện cho học sinh lớp 12 trung học phổ thông, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học Quốc
gia Hà Nội.
36. Nguyen Van Tuan & Liu, H.E. (2020). The Vietnamese version of the nursing critical thinking in clinical
practice questionnaire: Translation and psychometric evaluation. Nursing Open, 8(4), 1840-1847.
37. Watson, G. (1980). Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation
38. Hoàng Thị Xuyên (2020). Phát triển tư duy phản biện cho học sinh trung học phổ thông thông
qua dạy học chủ đề ứng dụng của đạo hàm, Luận văn Thạc sĩ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
39. Ngô Hải Yến, Phát triển kỹ năng tư duy phản biện cho sinh viên trong thời đại công nghiệp
4.0. Khoa học và Công nghệ QUI, 39.
ESTABLISHING MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN’S
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS FOR VIETNAMESE GRANDPARENTS -
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BASIS
Tran Thanh Nam

Tran Thi Hai Yen
(National Academy of Education Management)
Abstract:
Objectives: Systematize the theoretical basis and survey the situation, thereby proposing recommendations
to develop a management program for children’s maladaptive behavior for Vietnamese grandparents.
Methods: Theoretical research to clarify the concept of “building children’s maladaptive behavior
management program” and survey 318 grandparents who are raising their grandchildren to define the actual state
of grandparents’ skill in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors by self-designed questionnaire.
Results: 11 researches work on programs to provide grandparents with children’s behavior management
skills are reviewed which suggested the following key contents: The role of grandparents in bringing up their
grandchildren; behavioral characteristics of children; Expressing the child’s needs; Children’s behavior
management skills; Emotional management skills for grandparents; How to monitor children’s social and academic
activities. On the other hand, the survey results show that the skill of Vietnamese grandparents in managing
children’s maladaptive behaviors is at an average level (M = 2.84). Grandparents found it more challenging in
responding to the children’s maladaptive behaviors and talk to them about maladaptive behaviors. Differences were
found in group of grandparents with different hours of taking care of their grandchildren. Grandparents who have
time to take care of their grandchildren from 1-3 hours and 7 hours/day have better skills than other grandparents
(p < 0.05). The predictors of grandparents’ skills are: Cognitive (about the effectiveness of behavior management
strategies, of punishment techniques), emotional (level of influence from children maladaptive bahaviors and
from disagreements with other caregivers). On that basis, we propose recommendations for the contents of a child
maladaptive behavior management program for Vietnamese grandparents.
Significance: The study of the theoretical basis and the current situation helps provide information that is
scientifically meaningful for program development and helps the program meet the needs and suit the current
situation of users.
Keywords: Maladaptive behavior management, building program, grandparents, children.
1. BACKGROUND
Behavior is often mentioned in psychology studies. Research results in Vietnam show that: 28.8%
of children and adolescents own maladaptive behaviors (Nguyen Ba Dat., 2012; Dam Thi Bao Hoa.,
2012). Researches on game playing as a signal of maladaptive behaviors, author Tran Thanh Nam
reflected that 41.4% of children and adolescents play games and 76.7% of them play games whenever
they have free time (Tran Thanh Nam., 2016).
Maladaptive behavior is a behavior that is incompatible with the circumstances, hinders the subject
from performing the desired activities, prevents him/her from achieving the goals, or makes him/her
achieve the goals in an inefficient way. Maladaptive behaviors show not only inappropriate responses
to the environment but also individual ability deficiency, making the individual unable to respond
appropriately to the environment. The inappropriateness of maladaptive behaviors manifests not only in
psychological responses but also through the individual’s lack of physiological functioning.
From the psychological perspective, we can generalize four hypotheses about the causes of
maladaptive behaviors: (1) Inappropriate reinforcement; (2) Lack of positive reinforcement; (3) Acquired
from external maladaptive behaviors; (4) Error in interpreting and encoding information (Leventhal, H.
et al., 1987; Dunbar, J., et al., 1979; Kazantzis, N. et al., 2010). Thus, it can be seen that the formation
of maladaptive behaviors is mainly due to inappropriate impacts from the living environment. That
inappropriate influence can directly affect the child’s behaviors through the mechanism of acquisition
or reinforcement, or it can affect them indirectly through the formation of false perceptions, leading the
child to performing inappropriate behaviors.
The presence of maladaptive behaviors children and adolescents for a long term and persistently
interferes their integration and development process (Izard, C.E. et al., 2008; Lane, S.D. et al., 2001;
Swerdlow, B.A. et al., 2020; Matson, J.L. et al., 2008; Bowins, B., 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to
have timely interventions to prevent and treat maladaptive manifestations of children. On the other hand,
modern psychological researches all concur on the view that environment is a factor that directly affects
behaviors of children and adolescents. Stephanie Smith emphasizes negative childhood experiences
(such as abuse) and caregiver factors such as parenting skills have direct impacts on the maladaptive
behavior of children and adolescents. Specifically, if the parents or the caregivers have parenting skills,
their children or adolescents will be able to shape and develop adaptive behaviors. On the contrary, a
parent or caregiver with no parenting skills will constitute one of the causes to maladaptive behaviors in
children and adolescents. Therefore, it is important to raise the problem of intervening the environment,
particularly family environment, to reach the goal of interventions for children and adolescents’
maladaptive behaviors (Smith, S., 2012).
In addition, it is now increasingly common in the world and in Vietnam that grandparents support
the parents to take care of their children (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012). In the context of Vietnamese society,
it is common for parents to send their children to grandparents to take care of. Research data by author
Le Van Hao (2008) shows that 40% of Vietnamese families live with grandparents, in which, 3 out of 10
families have grandparents involved in the process of raising grandchildren. There have been programs
for grandparents to manage children’s behaviors that have been implemented and proven effective in
the world (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2014; Leung, J. et al., 2014; Poehlmann, J., 2003; Hayslip, B.Jr. et al.,
2003; Campbell, F.L., 2012; Duquin, M., 2014; Kelley, S.J. et al., 2010; Cox, C., 2014; Strom, P.S. et
al., 2011; Bratton, S. et al., 2006). However, such programs for grandparents are absent in Vietnam.
From this reason, we conducted a survey on the status of grandparents’ skill of managing their
children’s maladaptive behaviors, the results showed that: Grandparents’ skill is at an average level and
76.1% grandparents need to be instructed to improve their children’s behavior management skill.
From the above reasons, we study the theoretical and practical basis to build a children’s maladaptive
behavior management program for Vietnamese grandparents.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
2.1. Literature Review
Literature we reviewed include scientific articles, theses and dissertations from PsycInfo,
PsyArticles, Medline, Vietnam National University’s library, National Library of Vietnam, a number of
books, textbooks and some open resources in Vietnam. We use data from the above mentioned sources
for: Having research overview; Generalizing theoretical basis on: Children’s maladaptive behavior
management, building program, Vietnamese grandparents. On that foundation, we build a theoretical
basis for this study.
2.2. Questionnaire-based Survey
We have built a questionnaire based on the theory about children’s maladaptive behaviors and
arguments about the grandparents’ skill. At the same time, we also refer to the literature of scales that
have been used effectively in previous studies (Parent Opinion Questionnaire – POQ (Twentyman et
al., 1981); Parenting Sense of Competence - PSOC (Johnston et al., 1989); Parental Anger Inventory
- PAI (Hansen et al., 1998); Parent Problem Checklist - PPC (Dadds et al., 1991); The Parenting Scale
– PS (Arnold et al., 1993). In result, in addition to the general information section, the questionnaire
that we designed for this study contains 3 parts to evaluate: (1) Grandparents’ skills of children’s
maladaptive behavior management: (i) Consistent implementation of behaviour management strategies,
(ii) appropriate responses to maladaptive behaviors, (iii) concise and effective explanations to children
about maladaptive behaviors; (2) Factors affecting in grandparents’ skills of children’s maladaptive
behavior management: (a) Grandparents’ awareness of managing children’s maladaptive behaviors
(92 items) on the basis of measurement of the following points: (i) Grandparents’ perspectives
on children’s behavior and children’s maladaptive behaviors (Perspectives of children’s self-care
behaviors; (ii) Children’s responsibilities to their families and siblings; (iii) Responsibilities to help
and gratitude to grandparents; (iv) Grandparents leaving children alone; (v) Behaviors and sense of
power of grandparents; (vi) Grandparents’ punishment; (vii) Grandparents’ satisfaction and excitement
with the strategies of behavior management; (viii) Effectiveness of behavior management strategies; (b)
Grandparents’ emotion when managing the child’s maladaptive behaviors on the basis of measuring the
following contents: (i) The degree that grandparents are affected by their child’s maladaptive behaviors;
(ii) The extent that grandparents are affected in case of disagreements with other caregivers.
After testing the questionnaire on the sample (n = 30), the findings showed that the questionnaire
was not only reliable enough but also enough validity to conduct the study (Alpha confidence coefficient
of all groups of factors were > 0.7; Correlation between factors and scales are > 0.3). We conducted
a survey on a target group of 350 grandparents with grandchildren from 0 to 15 years old, who are
taking care of and bringing up their grandchildren every day, with no limit on care and raising time.
350 grandparents were surveyed based on the criteria: engaging in bring up their grandchildren daily
regardless of other criteria. We obtained 318 valid responded questionnaires and used them for data
processing and analysis.
The results of data processing are divided by five levels: Skills: (1) Always can’t handle, (2) Most
situations cannot be handled, (3) About 50% of the cases can be handled, (4) Most situations can be
handled, (5) They can always handle; Awareness: (1) Totally disagree, (2) Somewhat disagree, (3) Neutral,
(4) Most agree, ( 5) Strongly agree; Emotion: (1) Absolutely not affected, (2) Basically not affected; (3)
About 50% of the time is affected, (4) relatively affected, (5) Significantly affected.
2.3. Statistical Methodology

We use SPSS version 26.0 including descriptive statistical algorithms, frequency calculation, T test
and linear regression to process and to analyze the obtained data.
3. RESEARCH FINDINGS
3.1. Theoretical basis of the children’s maladaptive behavior management program for
grandparents in Vietnam
To develop a program to manage children’s maladaptive behaviors for grandparents, we first
clarified the theory of managing children’s maladaptive behaviors. The term “Behavior management” is
not only used in psychology studies in Vietnam but also mentioned in many studies around the world.
The findings from literature review show that all of the authors have conducted research on “behavior
management” in the direction of “behavioral intervention”, i.e. through the analysis of the subject’s
functional behaviors, organizing the influence to correct the maladaptive behaviors or reinforce adaptive
behaviors (VandenBos, G. R., 2015). Therefore, in this study, we consider: Managing children’s
maladaptive behaviors is a process of psychological intervention on the basis of addressing causative
factors to improve maladaptive behaviors and help children gradually integrate into the environment
through the formation of alternative adaptive behaviors. The process of addressing the key causative
factors includes arrangement of the environment, selection of stimuli, control and supervision of stimuli
to influence the child.
With the above concept, we believe that: Building a program for grandparents to manage children’s
maladaptive behaviors is to design a list of contents that need to be carried out according to a certain plan
and time sequence in order to provide grandparents with skills of organizing, controlling and monitoring
the activities to affect the child’s maladaptive behavior, help the child to gradually integrate into the
environment through the formation of alternative adaptive behaviors.
The findings from literature review of the child’s maladaptive behavior management programs for
grandparents that have been deployed and proven to be effective around the world show that: Programs
instructing grandparents in managing their children’s maladaptive behaviors focus on the following
main contents: (1) The role of grandparents in raising grandchildren (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2014; Leung.,
C., 2014); (2) Mechanism of formation, development and characteristics of the child’s behaviors (Kirby,
J.N. et al., 2014; Hayslip, B.Jr. et al., 2003; Campbell, F.L. et al., 2012); Leung., C., 2014); (3) The
child’s needs (Kelley, S. J. et al., 2010; Cox, C. 2014); (4) Skills to manage the child’s behaviors: Skills
of communication and talking with their grandchildren, skills to play with their grandchildren, skills
to give effective directions, reward skills, positive discipline skills, skills to solve conflicts with their
grandchildren, skills to interact with children with special needs (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2014; Leung, C.,
2014; Hayslip, B.Jr. et al., 2003; Campbell, F.L. et al., 2012); Duquin, M. et al., 2014; Kelley, S.J. et al.,
2010; Cox, C., 2014; Strom, P.S. et al., 2011; Bratton, S. et al., 2006; Poehlmann, J., 2003; Lee, Y. et al.,
2014); (5) Emotional management skills for grandparents (Kirby, J. N. et al., 2014; Leung, C., 2014;
Duquin, M., et al., 2014; Kelley, S.J. et al., 2010; Cox, C., 2014; Strom, P.S. et al., 2011; Poehlmann, J.,
2003); (6) methods to monitor the child’s social and academic activities (Kirby, J. N. et al. 2014; Leung,
C., 2014; Strom, P.S. et al., 2011).
The forms of program implementation that have been effectively applied include: classrooms,
small groups, individuals; face-to-face at school or in a fixed location outside of the home environment,
at home, or communicating over the phone, or distributing materials. However, the main form of
implementation of programs is the direct, classroom-based groups. Implementation via telephone is only
applied in an interlacing way in some programs (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2014; Leung, C., 2014; Campbell,
F.L. et al., 2012; Kelley, S. J. et al., 2001, 2007, 2010).
In order to implement the above activities, the implementation techniques applied include:
presentation; demonstrating; playing roles; supervised practice; writing diary; discussion; case
management based on strengths/empowerment (identifying strengths, goals, self-studying documents,
self-processing experiences); building positive relationships; active listening; brainstorming; expert;
doing exercises; ignoring; interrupting; meditation; relax; playing.
The tools used in implementing the program are: Video; Phone; Handouts; Practice environment;
Checklist for assessing children’s behavior problems; Action plans; Family/case records; Diaries, pens;
Audio and video recording equipment.
In general, a program to guide grandparents to manage their grandchildren’s behavior often includes
between 8 and 14 sessions: Grand Triple P (Kirby, J. N. et al., 2014); Program of Cox, C. (2008, 2012,
2014); Program by Kelley, S.J. et al. (2001, 2007, 2010); Program by Leung, C. (2014); Strom, P.S. et
al. (2011). Programs that last 6 months to 1 year or more are often integrated intervention programs.
Some suggestions from grandparents after participating in the programs: (1) Regarding the
contents: Grandparents believe that the children have little chance of receiving special intervention
from the programs when performing time out and ignoring techniques (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012);
Grandparents would like to have more strategies for dealing with the stresses of parenting, especially
feelings of frustration and guilt (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012); Grandparents have difficulty agreeing with the
children’s parents regarding strategies for managing maladaptive behaviors (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012);
Grandparents would like to communicate with other grandparents and to have information to handle
situations: Picking up the grandchildren from school, socializing with neighbors (Kirby, J.N. et al.,
2012); (2) About the form of implementation: Grandparents have difficulty in remembering the learned
contents, difficulty with writing exercises; Grandparents have difficulty in self-monitoring and self-
assessment of results after each practice (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012); Some grandparents in the group lead
the sessions, preventing others from participating in the activities (Cox, C. et al., 2012); It is difficult for
grandparents to monitor their grandchildren regularly for signs of their needs. Grandparents also need
time off from caring for their grandchildren and also need more time to reinforce the contents and skills
learned from the program (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2014); Grandparents want to participate in the program on
their own without the presence of the children’s parents (Kirby, J.N. et al., 2012); Grandparents receive
little cooperation from the children’s schools, so grandparents do not have the opportunity to solve the
children’s behavioral problems at school (Hayslip, B.Jr. et al., 2003).
The studies on the child’s behavior management programs for grandparents do not focus on the
processes of building, testing, and evaluating the effectiveness of the programs on grandparents’ skills
improvement. All studies have been conducted with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness in improving
the extent of maladaptive behaviors of the children. Meanwhile, these behavior management strategies
are primarily those for parents as caregivers and have shown to be effective for improving children’s
behaviors. Therefore, the inheritance and development of a child behavior management program for
grandparents should first take into account whether it is suitable for the grandparents or not.
In general, the programs reviewed have proven to be effective with children. In terms of the purpose
of intervention to provide the grandparents with strategies to manage their grandchildren’s maladaptive
behaviors, Grand Triple P is considered as a program with the highest number of advantages: providing
diverse skills, dividing the skills into grades which are appropriate to the needs of each group of
grandparents corresponding to the extents of the child’s behavioral problems. The study on Grand Triple
P also showed many advantages: Long-term study, with evaluation of inputs and outputs and 6 months
after finishing the intervention; Evaluation on the intervened group and the control group; Evaluation
of the effect demonstrated on both the children and the grandparents. However, in terms of content, the
Grand Triple is adapted from the Triple P program (a program for parents), so it is only suitable for the
group of grandparents who have the same roles of caring and raising the children as children’s parents,
for example, full-time caring grandparents, grandparents completely taking over the parents’ roles in
special cases. Therefore, the target groups of this program, even though they are grandparents, own the
characteristics of parents and parents’ responsibilities. Thus, they do not represent all other grandparents
taking care of their grandchildren. Research on the implementation of the program only focuses on
evaluating effectiveness on the basis of the performance of the children’s behaviors rather than focusing
on evaluating the effectiveness on the key subjects directly receiving the intervention services, the
grandparents. Furthermore, although Grand Triple has focused on providing tools for grandparents to
practice at home, it has not provided them with a general handbook on the program. As a result, the
grandparents have difficulties in practice at home.
From the above mentioned judgement, we determined that the objective of this study is to develop
a program to manage children’s maladaptive behaviors that is suitable for grandparents in Vietnam, that
is, to design a description of the activities that Vietnamese grandparents need to implement to organize,
control and monitor factors affecting children’s behaviors. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to conduct
a survey to understand the current status of grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive
behaviors and factors affecting the skill formation (cognition and emotions).
3.2. Practical basis of a children’s maladaptive behavior management program for grandparents
in Vietnam
To provide a practical basis for program development, we examine the status of grandparents’
skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors and the impact of the following factors: from their
awareness, emotion to skills.
3.2.1. Current status of grandparents’ skills in managing their children’s maladaptive behaviors
Grandparents’ average skills score in managing their grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors is
2.84, which means about 50% of the situations can be handled by the grandparents and 50% of the
situations cannot. The minimum value of the average skill score is 1.97, the maximum value is 3.73,
the standard deviation is 0.26, which show that grandparents’ skills are quite concentrated and uniform.
The three groups of grandparents’ skill manifestation are at average level, in which: Skill 1 (strict and
consistent behavior management) has an average score of 3.0, skill 3 (Communicating with children
about maladaptive behavior in a concise and effective way) has an average score of 2.74, skill 2 (Reacts
appropriately to children’s maladaptive behaviors) has an average score of 2.80 _ all of these scores are
at the lower average level.
For each group of skill manifestation, the findings show a number of points as follows: Skill group
1; 69.5% grandparents with manifestation at average level, 14.5% of grandparents basically have skills,
12.9% of grandparents are basically unskilled; Skill group 2: 58.8% of grandparents with manifestation
at average level, 33% of grandparents are basically unskilled, 4.7% basically have skills; Skill group 3:
52.8% of grandparents with manifestation at average level, 34% of grandparents are basically unskilled,
7.9% of grandparents basically have skills. The lower and upper extremes ((1) no skill at all and (5)
good skill) are in very small proportions. This result shows that in the three groups of manifestation of
maladaptive behavior management skills, grandparents performed better in group 1 and worse in group
2 and 3. This hypothesized: Grandparents have more difficulty responding to their child’s maladaptive
behaviours and communicating with the child about the maladaptive behaviours. More attention should
be paid to supporting these two manifestations when working with grandparents. However, grandparents
have maintained a consistent style of behaviour with the child at an average level. It is important to
develop this characteristic when working with grandparents.
3.2.2. Comparison of skills in managing grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors among different grandparents
We perform T-test and conduct data analysis to compare children’s maladaptive behavior
management skills between different groups of grandparents: Between grandfathers and grandmothers;
Between paternal grandparents and maternal grandparents; Between grandparents with different health
conditions; Between grandparents have different numbers of hours to take care of their grandchildren;
Between grandparents of different ages; Between grandparents with grandchildren of different ages;
Among grandparents with grandsons and grandparents with granddaughters; Between grandparents
who have the need to participate in training on strategies to manage their grandchildren’s maladaptive
behaviors and those who do not; Between grandparents with different occupations and work statuses.
The findings showed that there was not much difference in skills of managing children’s maladaptive
behaviors between different groups of grandparents. There was only statistically significant difference
in skills between grandparents with different numbers of caregiving hours. Grandparents who are taking
care of their grandchildren 7 hours/day and 1 to 3 hours/day have better behavioral management skills
than other grandparents (p = 0.03 < 0.05)
Comparing each group of skill manifestation among grandparents who have different numbers of
hours taking care of their grandchildren, we found that manifestation of skill 2 (appropriate response
to children’s maladaptive behaviors) shows statistically significant difference between grandparents
(99.994%, p = 0.006 < 0.05). Manifestation of skill 1 (management of behaviors in a strict and consistent
manner) and 3 (Communicating with children about maladaptive behaviors in a concise and effective
way) shows difference level of 99.921% (p = 0.079) and 99.903% (p3 = 0.097), respectively. Thus, it can
be seen that the most obvious and statistically significant difference found between grandparents with
different numbers of caregiving hours is in the manifestation of appropriate responses to the children’s
maladaptive behaviors. This means that some grandparents already know how to respond appropriately
to their grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors, but others do not. The remaining manifestations of
grandparents are at average level and not different, showing that grandparents do not know how to
communicate with their grandchildren about maladaptive behaviors in a concise, effective way and the
way to deal with their grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors is inconsistent, fragmented, and changing,
which has not generated the desired effect.
Table 1: Comparison of skills between grandparents with different numbers of hours caring for their
grandchildren
General Skills Skills 1 Skills 2 Skills 3
Hours/day Score p Score p Score p Score p
7 3.04
1 2.98 0.03 0.34 0.08 0.46 0.006 0.41 0.097
3 2.92
3.2.3. Factors impacting grandparents’ skills in managing their grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors
To learn about the factors affecting grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive
behaviors, we surveyed: (1) Grandparents’ awarenesss of their children’s maladaptive behaviour
management skills (8 factors _ presented in section 2); (2) The extent to which grandparents are impacted
by the child’s maladaptive behaviors and by disagreements with other caregivers (2 factors _ presented
in section 2). The results show that:
The grandparent’s mean score of awareness was 2.67, which corresponds to the average level of
awareness. In which, the lowest mean score is 1.99, the highest mean score is 3.73, standard deviation
= 0.28. This shows that the mean score of the grandparents’ awareness is distributed quite evenly, there
is not much difference; The mean score for grandparents’ influence in the face of children’s maladaptive
behaviors and disagreements with other caregivers was 2.95, roughly 50% of the time. This level mean
that there are times when grandparents are affected in the face of children’s maladaptive behaviors
and parenting disagreements, but other times they are not affected. The minimum mean score is 1, the
largest value is 5, standard deviation = 0.65, which shows that there is a relatively wide distribution, the
difference is more significant emotional manifestation between grandparents (compared to awareness).
In particular, some grandparents are not affected by the child’s maladaptive behaviors or disagreements
with other caregivers, but other grandparents are highly affected by them.
Based on the status of grandparents’ s awareness, the level of impact, and kills in managing the
children’s maladaptive behavior, we performed a linear regression to predict the impact of awareness
on grandparents’ skills and forecast the combined impact of awareness factors (8 factors) and the level
of impact (2 factors) on grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors. The results
in Table 3 show that:
Table 2: Forecast grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors based on the awareness and
level of impact
Model Predictive factor Adjusted R Square B p
1 Mean score awareness 0.01 0.08 0.12
Awareness Impact
2 mean score Awareness* Impact 0.02 0.01
0.09 0.06
Model 1 (predicting skills based on awareness variable) shows that the model has no statistical
significance, with p = 0.12 > 0.05. This means that the independent impact of the awareness variable
on skills is not statistically significant. In other words, intervention on awareness only won’t change
grandparents’ skills.
Model 2 (predicting skills based on the variable of awareness combined with the level of impact)
shows that the model has statistical significance, with p = 0.01 < 0.05. This means that if the intervention
is to change the awareness combined with the level of impact will have an impact on the skills of
grandparents. In other words, intervention to change awareness and control the impact of children’s
maladaptive behaviors and disagreements with other caregivers will help improve grandparents’ skills
in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors. The prediction rate of this model is 2.2%. The regression
equation of model 2 is:
Skills = 2.62+0.09*Awareness+0.06*Impact
The results of the prediction show that in the condition that the awareness factors and the level of
impact are unchanged, if increasing by 1 point, on average, in grandparents’ awareness of the behaviour
management strategies, it will result in an increase of 0.09 points, on average, in grandparents’ skills in
managing children’s maladaptive behaviors; a 1 point increase in level of impact on grandparents will
increase their average level of skills by 0.06 points in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors. This
shows that awareness and level of impact are positively correlated with grandparents’ skills. This result
rejects the hypothesis “the less affected grandparents are, the better their skill”. Instead, the result shows
that if grandparents are affected to a certain extent (coefficient B = 0.06) in combination with increased
awareness of behaviour management strategies will help develop their skills.
To find out the impact of each awareness factor on each skill manifestation, we analyze the
linear regression model to predict the three component skills of grandparents in managing children’s
maladaptive behaviors based on 8 perception factors. The results show that:
Table 3: The model predicting the component skills of grandparents based on cognitive factors
Skills 1 Skills 2 Skills 3

Model
Adj-R Square p Adj-R Square p Adj-R Square p
3 0.02 0.01 0.022 .00 -0.001 .46
4 0.017 0.02 0.02 .02 0.009 .09

5 0.017 0.04 0.018 .03 0.01 .11
6 0.02 0.04 0.018 .05 0.007 .18
7 0.017 0.07 0.017 .06 0.004 .29
8 0.018 0.07 0.042 .00 0.026 .03
9 0.016 0.11 0.04 .01 0.023 .05
10 0.034 0.02 0.077 .00 0.025 .04
In which:
Model 3: Predicting skill 1,2,3 based on awareness factor 1
Model 4: Predicting skill 1,2,3 based on awareness factor 1 combined with awareness factor 2
Model 5: Predicting skill 1,2,3 based on awareness factor 1 combined with awareness factors 2,3
Model 6: Predicting skill 1,2,3 based on awareness factor 1 combined with awareness factors 2,3,4
Model 7: Predicting skill 1,2,3 based on awareness factor 1 combined with awareness factors
2,3,4,5
2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6,7
2,3,4,5,6,7,8.
The results in Table 3. show that, model 10 has the best predictive ability for skill 1 and skill 2, with
the prediction rates of 3.4% and 7.7%, p < 0.05. The prediction rate of this model for skill 3 is 2.5%,
while model 15 has a prediction rate for skill 3 of 2.6%, p < 0.05. Based on this result, we continue to
consider the predictive significance of each factor in the models with the best predictive ability.
The results show that, for the model of predicting skill 1 from the combination of 8 awareness
factors, there are only 2 factors have with statistically significant predictability: Awareness 1 (p = 0.08)
and awareness 8 (p = 0.01). The remaining factors all have p > 0.05, there is no predictive significance
in the statistical population. Therefore, we remove these cognitive variables from the model, the results
show that the model has a predictive rate of 4% with p < 0.05. The equation for predicting skill 1 based
on awareness factor 1 and awareness factor 8 is as follows.
Skill 1=2.35+0.12*Awareness8+0.09*Awareness1
The above results show that: Both awareness variables 1 and 8 are positively correlated with
skill 1 with a small impact coefficient. In case of the constant effect of the two variables above, if
increasing 1 point of awareness 1, an increase of 0.09 points of skill 1 will occur, if increasing by 1
point of awareness 8, an increase of 0.12 points of skill 1 will occur. This shows that in order to develop
grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors in a strict and consistent manner, it
is necessary to apply intervention to increase grandparents’ awareness of their grandchildren’s ability
to take care of themselves and the effectiveness of the behavior management strategies. In the current
context, grandparents’ awareness of children’s ability to take care of themselves is at an average level;
grandparents’ awareness of the effectiveness of behavior management strategies is at a higher average
level; interventions are still necessary to raise the grandparents’ awareness of these two contents.
For the model to predict skill 2 based on the combination of 8 cognitive factors, the predictive factors
with statistical significance is: awareness 1,2,5,6,8. The predictive ability of the remaining cognitive
factors (3, 4, 7) is not statistically significant. Therefore, we remove these three cognitive variables
from the model, the results show that the predictive rate of this model is 8.5%, which is statistically
significant (p < 0.05). In which, awareness factor 2 and awareness 6 are negatively correlated with skill
2, awareness factors 1,5,8 are positively correlated with skill 2. The prediction equation is as follows.
Skill2=2.16+0.12*Awareness1-0.1*Awareness2+0.12*Awareness5
0.1*Awareness6+0.16*Awareness8
In the condition that the awareness factors of the above model do not change; if increasing by 1 point
of awareness 1 and awareness 5, an increase of 0.12 points will occur in skill 2; if increasing by 1 point
of awareness 8, an increase of 0.16 points will occur in skill 2; if decreasing by 1 point of awareness 2,
an increase of 0.12 will occur in skill 2; if decreasing by 1 point of awareness 6, an increase of 0.1 point
will occur in skill 2. Thus, if you want to develop skill 2 (appropriate response to children’s maladaptive
behaviors), it is important to have combined intervention to develop grandparents’ awareness of children’s
ability to take care of themselves, their ability to understand others, and the effectiveness of their behavior
management strategies; At the same time, it is necessary to have a combined intervention to change
awareness of grandparents about children’s responsibilities to family and siblings, about punishment.
For the model to predict skill 3 based on the combination of 8 awareness factors, the factor with
statistical significance is awareness 2 and awareness 6. The predictability of the remaining factors
(1,3,4,5,7,8) was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Thus, we remove these elements from the model.
The results show that the prediction rate of this model is 2.9%, which is statistically significant (p <
0.05). In which, awareness 2 is negatively correlated with skill 3, awareness 6 is positively correlated
with skill 3. The prediction equation is as follows.
Skill 3 = 2.69-0.11*Awareness2+0.14*Awareness6
In the condition that the awareness factors of the above model do not change, if 1 point of awareness
2 is reduced, it will increase 0.11 points in skill 3; if increasing by 1 point of awareness 6, an increase of
0.14 points will occur in skill 3. That means in order to develop grandparents’ skill 3 (Communicating
with children about maladaptive behaviors in a concise and effective way), it is necessary to apply
combined intervention to change their awareness of the children’s responsibilities to the families and
raise their awareness of punishment.
Thus, the results of analysis of linear regression models show that: To develop grandparents’ skills
in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors, it is necessary to influence grandparents’ awareness and
emotions in order to: (1) Develop their awareness of children’s ability to take care of themselves, of
children’s ability to play and stay alone, of the effectiveness of behaviour management strategies, of
how to implement punishment techniques ; (2) Change their awareness of children’s responsibilities
to the families and siblings, about the role of punishment. Therefore, it is necessary to influence the
awareness so that grandparents can better understand the responsibilities of children corresponding to
their age, to avoid having too high expectations for children, leading to inappropriate interactions. It
is also necessary to influence awareness so that grandparents can properly understand the nature of
punishment: Punishment is a form of reducing children’s maladaptive behavior, not a form of expressing
negative emotions of grandparents; Provide grandparents with logical consequences of punishments so

that they respond appropriately to the child when punishing; (3) Help grandparents manage negative
emotions that arise due the impact of the child’s maladaptive behaviors and due to disagreements with
other caregivers. Make sure that grandparents are affected by these factors but to a certain extent, avoid the
situation where the impact results in negative emotions. If this goal of emotion management is achieved,
this will be a factor affecting the process of impacting awareness associated with grandparents’ skills,
contributing to the development of grandparents’ skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors.
4. DISCUSSION
Findings from the literature review shows that a children’s maladaptive behavior management
program for grandparents need to meet the following requirements:
Regarding the contents: (1) The role of grandparents in raising grandchildren; (2) Mechanism of
formation, development and characteristics of the child’s behaviors; (3) the child’s needs; (4) Skills to
manage the child’s behaviors: skills of communication and talking with their grandchildren, skills to play
with their grandchildren, skills to give effective directions, reward skills, positive discipline skills, skills to
solve conflicts with their grandchildren, skills to interact with children with special needs; (5) Emotional
management skills for grandparents; (6) methods to monitor the child’s social and academic activities.
About the form of implementation: The classroom format is encouraged so that grandparents have
the opportunity to exchange, discuss and share experiences with experts and other grandparents. This
means that it is necessary to promote the form of discussion, practice, and role-playing right in the
classroom so that grandparents can overcome the traditional problem-solving habits. Grandparents also
need to practice at home the strategies they have been learned, so it is necessary to have tools to support
the practice process at home such as: Content summary manual, audio and video recording equipment,
sample video channels so that they can review themselves at any convenient time or the templates that
help them maximize their documentation of their home practices.
The findings from the research presented above show that, in general, Vietnamese grandparents
have average skills in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors. However, awareness is not a
predictor of such skill, the factor that can influence the formation of grandparents’ skills is a combination
of awareness and the level of impact of grandparents in the process of child behaviour management.
Specifically, with current awareness, if grandparents are affected by their grandchildren maladaptive
behaviors but were affected (to a certain extent) by disagreements with other caregivers, have a positive
impact on their skill improvement. This represents a difference with Western grandparents. In the study
by Kirby, J. N. (2012), grandparents said that they had difficulty in resolving disagreements with the
children’s parents about ways to manage behaviors, care and rearing of the children. These conflicts
affect their effectiveness in managing the children’s behaviour and they need strategies to resolve
these conflicts. However, for Vietnamese grandparents, these disagreements serve as an incentive for
grandparents to develop their skills.
Hence, inheriting the achievements of programs for grandparents that have been effectively
implemented in the world, based on the actual status of Vietnamese grandparents’ capacity, we propose
to develop and implement children’s maladaptive behavior management program for grandparents in
Vietnam with the goal: to influence grandparents’ awareness and emotion, thereby helping grandparents
form skills to organize, control and monitoring activities that influence their grandchildren in order to
reduce the degree of maladaptive behaviors among the children, helping them gradually form alternative
adaptive behaviors. Specific objectives are as follows:
(1) Awareness: (i) Develop grandparents’ awareness of the child’s age-appropriate abilities and
responsibilities (children’s ability to take care of themselves, children’s ability to play and stay alone),
avoid the situation that grandparents have too high expectations for the children, leading to inappropriate
interactions; (ii) Develop grandparents’ awareness of the effectiveness of behaviour management
strategies; (iii) Develop grandparents’ awareness of how to implement penalty techniques; (iv) Change
the awareness of grandparents about children’s responsibilities to family and siblings; (v) Change
grandparents’ awareness of the role of punishments.
(2) Emotions: Helping grandparents manage emotions in the process of managing children’s
maladaptive behaviors (reduce the impact on grandparents due to children’s maladaptive behaviors;
maintain the impact on grandparents due to disagreements with other caregivers).
(3) Skills: Help grandparents form skills: Behavioral analysis to properly identify children’s needs;
Logical penalty, appropriate purposes and consistency; Give appropriate and effective instructions;
Manage their emotions.
5. CONCLUSION
The results show that: A children’s maladaptive behavior management program for grandparents is
effective for grandparents and grandchildren. On the other hand, the survey results show that: Vietnamese
grandparents are at an average level of awareness of strategies to manage their grandchildren’s
maladaptive behaviors as well as of the effectiveness of those strategies; grandparents are affected by
their children’s maladaptive behaviors as well as disagreements with other caregivers, 50% of cases
that the children have maladaptive behaviors where grandparents can’t handle them. In addition,
grandparents need guidance on how to manage their grandchildren’s maladaptive behaviors. Based on
the above mentioned theory and practices, we realize that it is necessary to develop and implement a
children’s maladaptive behavior management program for grandparents in Vietnam, thereby instructing
grandparents with the strategies for their grandchildren’s maladaptive behavior management.
REFERENCES
1. Arnold, D.S. et al. (1993). The Parenting Scale: A measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline
situations. Psychological Assessment, Vol. 5, No. 2,137-144.
2. Aza, S.T. et al. (1986). Child Abuse and Unrealistic Expectations: Further Validation of the
Parent Opinion Questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(6), 867–868.
3. Ballard, S.M. et al. (2012). Family life education with diverse populations. SAGE Publications.
4. Bowins, B. (2010). Repetitive Maladaptive Behavior: Beyond Repetition Compulsion. American
Journal of Psychoanalysis. Vol 70, 282–298.
5. Bratton, S. et al. (2006). Filial/ Family play therapy: An intervention for custodial grandparents
and their grandchildren. Educational Gerontology, 24:4, 391- 406.
6. Bowins, B. (2010). Repetitive maladaptive behaviour: Beyond repetition compulsion. The American
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 282–298.
7. Campbell, F.L. et al. (2012). Examining the effectiveness of a case-management program for
custodial grandparent families. Nursing Research and Practice, Volume 2012, 6 pages.
8. Cox, C. (2014). Personal and Community Empowerment for Grandparent Caregivers. Journal
of Family Social Work, 17(2), 162–174.
9. Dadds, M.R. et al. (1991). The relationship of interparental conflict and global marital adjustment
to aggression, anxiety and immaturity in aggressive nonclinic children. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 19(5), 553–567.
10. Dunbar, J., et al. (1979). Behavioral strategies for improving compliance. In: Haynes RB ed.
Compliance in Health Care 174-1901. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
11. Duquin, M. et al. (2014), A faith-based intergenerational health and wellness program for
grandparents raising grandchildren.
12. Dykens, E.M. et al. (1992). Adaptive and Maladaptive behaviour in Prader-Willi Syndrome.
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol 31, Issue 6, 1131-1136.
13. Hansen, D.J. et al. (1998). Manual for the PAI: The Parental Anger Inventory. Lincoln: University
of Nebraska, Clinical Psychology Training Program.
14. Hayslip, B.Jr. et al. (2003). Grandparents Raising Their Grandchildren: A Review of the
Literature and Suggestions for Practice. The Gerontologist, Vol. 45, No.2, 262–269.
15. Hayslip, B.Jr. (2003). Working With Custodial Grandparents. Springer publishing company.
16. Izard, C.E. et al. (2008). Accelerating the development of emotion competence in Head Start children:
Effects on adaptive and maladaptive behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 369–397.
17. Johnston, C. et al. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Jounal of Clinical child
psychology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 167-175.
18. Poehlmann, J. (2003). An attachment perspective on grandparents raising their grandchildren:
Implecations for intervention and research. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(2), 149–173.
19. Kazantzis, N. et al. (2010). Cognitive and Behavioral Theories in Clinical Practice.
20. Kelly, S.J. et al. (2001). A multimodal intervention for grandparents raising grandchildren:
Results of an exploratory study. Child Welfare, Vol. 80, Iss. 1, 27-50.
21. Kelley, S.J. et al. (2007). Results of an interdisciplinary intervention to improve the psychosocial
well-Being and physical functioning of African American grandmothers raising grandchildren. Jour-
nal of Intergenerational Relationships, Volume 5, Iss 3, 45-64.
22. Kelley, S.J. et al. (2010). Grandmothers raising grandchildren: Results of an intervention to
improve health outcomes. Jounal of nursing schoolarship, Vol 42, Issue4,379-386.
23. Kirby, J.N. et al. (2012). Using consumer input to tailor evidence-based parenting interventions
to the needs of grandparents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(4), 626–636.
24. Kirby, J.N. et al. (2014), A randomized controlled trial evaluating a parenting programdesigned
speciﬁcally for grandparents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol 52, 35-44.
25. Lane, S.D. et al. (2001). Risk Taking by Adolescents With Maladaptive Behavior Histories.
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9(1), 74–82.
26. Leder, S. et al. (2007) Grandparents raising grandchildren: Stressors, social support, and health
outcomes. Journal of Family Nursing, 13(3), 333 - 352.
27. Leung, C. et al. (2014). The effectiveness of the Grandparent Triple P program with Hong Kong
Chinese families: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Family Studies, 20(2), 104 - 117.
28. Leventhal, H. et al. (1987). Behavioral theories and the problem of compliance. Patient Education
and Counseling, 10(2), 117 - 138.
29. Lee, Y. et al. (2014). We’re GRAND: A qualitative design and development pilot project
addressing the needs and strengths of grandparents raising grandchildren. Child & Family Social
Work, 21(4), 381 - 390.
30. Martin, G. et al. (2019). Behaviour Modification-What It Is and How to Do It?
31. Matson, J.L. et al. (2008). The relationship of self-injurious behavior and other maladaptive
behaviors among individuals with severe and profound intellectual disability. Developmental
Disabilities. Vol 29, Issue 2, 141 - 148.
32. Pugliese, C.E. et al. (2014). Increasing Adaptive behaviour Skill Deficits From Childhood to
Adolescence in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Role of Executive Function. 45(6): 1579 - 1587.
33. Smith, S. (2012). Do Parenting Practices Mediate the Relation Between Maternal Depression
and Child Adaptive Behaviours. The University of Southern Mississippi, The Aquila Digital
Community.
34. Strom, P.S. et al. (2011). Grandparent Education: Raising Grandchildren. Educational Gerontology,
Volume 37, Iss 10, 910-923.
35. Swerdlow, B.A. et al. (2020). Maladaptive Behavior and Affect Regulation: A Functionalist
Perspective. Emotion, 20(1), 75 - 79.
36. Twentyman, C.T. et al. (1982). Inappropriate expectations of parents who maltreat their children.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38(3), 497 - 503.
37. VandenBos, G.R. (2015). AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION - Dictionary of
Psychology.
38. Nguyen Ba Dat. (2012). Maladaptive behaviours children and adolescents in families with
violence , Psychological Journal, No. 4.
39. Le Van Hao. (2008). The behaviour of grandparents in educating grandchildren through their
adult children’s assessment. Psychological Journal, No. 6.
40. Dam Thi Bao Hoa. (2012). Research on behavioural disorders in Thai Nguyen primary school
students, Journal of Medical and Pharmaceutical Information, No. 11/2012.
41. Tran Thanh Nam. (2016). Students’ behaviours in classrooms, the consequences of playing games,
Journal of Digital Psychology, No. 5.
RESEARCH ON CONDITIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
OF SMART SCHOOL MODEL IN HANOI
Nguyen Trung Hien
(VNU International School)
Vu Minh Trang, Lai Phuong Lien
(Faculty of Pedagogy, VNU University of Education)
Bui Thi Thuy Hang
(School of Engineering Pedagogy, Hanoi University of Science and Technology)
Abstract: The rapid advances of the industrial revolution 4.0, along with the trend of globalization,
international integration, and outstanding achievements of the knowledge economy, requires Vietnamese
education to adapt and make efforts to innovate its policies, contents and training methods for a generation of
citizens to meet the requirements of human resources in modern society. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to
build a theoretical basis for smart schools, to design 12 criteria for evaluating smart school models to assess the
status quo and the accessibility to the smart school model at all educational levels in Hanoi, Vietnam. The study
was conducted for 238 primary school pupils, 244 secondary school pupils and 245 high school students in 25
schools in the inner city and suburbs of Hanoi. The survey questions cover six aspects: perceptions of learning,
perceptions of teachers, perceptions of the schools, methods of communication with teachers, learning materials,
facilities, and smart services. The results received through the data analysis have shown a panorama picture of
the current situation in schools, thereby, assessing the ability to apply the smart school model in Hanoi based
on the evaluation criteria of the smart school model in the world and within the country. Then, the next step is
to propose recommendations for the development and implementation of a suitable smart school model to the
practical conditions of schools in Hanoi.
Keywords: smart school model, schools in Hanoi, the evaluation criteria of the smart school.
1. INTRODUCTION
To build a smart nation, many countries have aimed to build a smart education to train generations
of smart citizens. As an advanced school model, smart schools create opportunities and conditions for
schools to enhance their adaptive capacity and balanced development in the need of rapid changes
in society in general; Learners can discover and create knowledge, develop self-control and adaptive
capacity, and think creatively through personalized pedagogical instruction, tailored to their individual
characteristics and needs (Ghonoodia & Salimi, 2011); increase the importance, reliability, usefulness,
flexibility of the curriculum content. The application of smart technology to school education has reshaped
the educational landscape by transforming the contents and methods of receiving/delivering learning as
well as the ways of guiding, supporting, organizing, and managing school (Attarana et al., 2012).
With the smart school model, learners are considered to be the center of the educational process, in
which learners can express their perceptions of the world, develop personal capacities, and express their
ideas independently in virtual classrooms so that good learners quickly access more complex contents,
Therefore, the model also creates an equal learning environment, suitability, fairness, and objectivity in
the educational process; and narrows the gender gap, between classes in society, towards narrowing the
gap between countries.
The advancement of science and technology help teachers to perform their professions well,
effectively delivering knowledge, easily creating learning activities to develop soft skills, life skills for
students, and creating the best learning conditions for their students. In smart school model, teachers and
students will interact with online lectures, and lessons via virtual reality to improve capacity, skills and
save time. At the same time, students can approach high technology and express their abilities and with
teachers to create lesson content with practical applications. Compared with the traditional school model,
the smart school model focuses on innovation and optimization of equipment and teaching resources,
opening opportunities for two-way interaction between students and teachers, enabling students to be
more active during class time. It is a good and favorable condition for students to develop and apply
creatively the results obtained in the learning process (Dinh Van De, 2018).
For the above reasons, Vietnamese education needs to deploy the smart-school model as soon as
possible. It is recommended to try first in Hanoi, to set up an educational institution that flexibly and
effectively uses resources based on applying digital technology advancement to improve the quality of
education, meeting the requirements of society in training the young generation (Vu Thi Thuy Hang,
2018).
2. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SMART SCHOOLS IN THE WORLD AND VIETNAM
Bătăgan and Boja (2011) mentioned that when implementing a smart education system, it is
necessary to pay attention to the following factors: 1) A system for data collection, synthesis, analysis and
presentation of information on key factors, knowledge and school orientation; 2) Clustered education,
to involve all stakeholders in the educational preparation for future generations; 3) Cloud Computing
at school, whereby learners can connect, access different software and hosted resources. The use of
technology is expected to make it easier for all ages and levels to access educational features from public
libraries to computer classes, providing training and higher education to support the implementation
of formal education in the real world. With the spread of IT, cities can revolutionize the relationship
between learners and teachers as well as schools and educational activities.
A study by Frost & Sullivan (2014) titled Strategic Opportunity Analysis of the Global Smart City
Market, mentioned that the variables of smart education including policies and digital services from
the support of the Government to implement a smart and green solution through incentives, subsidies,
promotions and others. Smart Education includes eLearning services for schools, universities, businesses
and government organizations. Smart education in 2020 will have the biggest business opportunity
among various aspects of smart city, accounting for 24.6% of market demand in the smart city industry.
A study by Deloitte (2015) with the title: Smart Cities - Rapid advancement in technology is
reshaping our economy and society mentioned that in the field of smart education, Education that can be
done in the smart city is an education that supports virtual, digital, augmented reality (AR) learning that
has changed the way students learn. Education, equipped with rich data and abundant analytics will help
teachers tailor learning and mentoring practices for students’ success. The focus of the teaching process
has changed from digital content to real-world experiential learning, where most students, teachers and
professionals connect – the environment most suitable for learning.
A study by Supangkat et al., (2018) mentioned that technology is used in the process and IT
products are used to solve problems in education and learning activities in Indonesia. To develop
strategies for optimal and appropriate use of learning technology, the important thing to consider is
existing conditions. Smart cities show massive support to the use of technology to improve government
performance and citizen welfare as well as cut government spending. The smart city also produces
technology and encourages the community to participate and invest in education, smart city is expected
to cooperate with the education office at the local government level.
The study by citiAsia. Inc. (2016) shows that the development of digital technology must be used
to improve the quality of learning and education, starting from the way of school enrollment to the
teaching/learning process, student assessment and technology use in the form of applications and systems
for management. By developing smart school applications, the school management can become more
efficient, starting from checking the attendance of students and teachers to the financial organization of
the school. Apps and systems have been used as a tool for more efficient academic assessment, payment
and campus management, as well as making the educational process available to more people. The
concept of smart education in a smart city must ensure educational opportunities for groups of people
who have not had the opportunity to learn. The existence of digital technology as part of smart education
also allows any local government to improve the community’s access to acquiring knowledge through
digital libraries or to facilitate management and exchange knowledge for the community.
Halim et al., (2005) proposed four parameters that contribute to the success of the smart school
system. These four parameters are the teacher’s curriculum, pedagogic method, assessment, and learning
materials. The Smart Curriculum will ensure that children are equipped with critical and creative
thinking skills, inculcate appropriate values and are encouraged to improve their language proficiency.
The curriculum will therefore be designed to help learners achieve overall balanced development;
internalize knowledge, skills, values and correct use of language; state the intended learning outcomes
for different ability levels; provide multidisciplinary, thematic and continuous learning; cultivate the
right knowledge, skills and attitudes for success in the Information Age (Jaafar, 2008). In terms of
pedagogic methods, smart pedagogical schools will seek to make learning more enjoyable, motivating,
stimulating and meaningful; intrigue students’ minds, spirits and engage physical bodies in the learning
process; build basic skills to help students prepare for greater challenges in the long run and serve a
wide range of needs and abilities of learners. Smart school assessments will be flexible and learner-
friendly while ensuring the quality of assessment information using a variety of methods and tools.
Smart schools will also need teaching materials designed for new teaching strategies. These materials
will meet the diverse needs and abilities of learners, leading to a comprehensive realization of their
potential, and allowing learners to take greater responsibility in managing and monitoring their learning.
In addition, the learning environment is also another important factor to consider in the learning process.
The learning environment must be supportive and encouraging and provides learning opportunities for
both students and teachers.
According to Zajda and Donna (2009), the operation of Smart School is different from that of a
regular school. Authority in school management is assigned to both staff and stakeholders, so relevant
data can be collected and used to ensure the school fits into the local teaching and learning environment.
School governance also involves pedagogical communication, and review of policy, curriculum,
community, and school management. Learner’s issues include expertise, assessment, implementation,
consultation, health, testing, management, medical, insurance, v.v
We can summarize the study above into 12 criteria evaluating a smart school that the authors
mentioned as shown in Table 1 below:
Table 1. Criteria for smart schools through analyzed studies
Frost &
Halim Bătăgan Deloitte Supangkat CitiAsia.
Criteria Sullivan
(2005) (2011) (2015) (2015) Inc. (2016)
(2014)
Education digitization x x
Adaptive Learning and Consultation x
Solving educational problems x
Personalized Education x
Lifelong learning x
Cooperation with the university x
Virtual classroom x x
Computer-based training x
Infrastructure x x x
Facilities: software, hardware, personnel x
Online system, network connection, data x x x x
management
Learning methods x x
Learning program x
Assessment x
Learning materials x
Environment x
In Vietnam, the smart school model is still quite new, but from 2003-2004 up to now, many
provinces and cities have developed projects or are piloting this model, such as: Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh
City, Da Nang, Quang Ninh, Thanh Hoa, Thai Binh, Hai Phong... In the process of implementation, the
schools have encountered difficulties and challenges but also achieved remarkable results. However, the
evaluation of the effectiveness of the current smart school model has not been conducted and implemented
synchronously. Therefore, the research on the evaluation/assessment criteria and assessment procedure
of the smart school model has not been widely researched and developed to prove the effectiveness of
this model.
According to Vu Thi Thuy Hang (2018), although there are differences, the descriptions of smart
schools emphasized on several contents: (1) the goal of smart schools is to prepare and promote the
workforce - the owner of the 21st century having the knowledge and skills to meet the needs and
challenges of modern technological society; (2) learners is the center, provided with modern and quality
learning services; (3) learning tailored to individual needs and pace, individual characteristics and
circumstances; (4) the smart nature of the school that leans towards flexibility, adaptability, modernity
and continuous development dynamically balances with the development of the modern technological
world; (5) smart school model provides a smart educational environment for learners; (6) mart technology
plays an important role in building and maintaining that smart educational environment. Technology
includes hardware and software. Hardware is essentially devices that help learners learn effectively and
conveniently, software refers to flexibility and adaptability to adaptive learning technologies such as
cloud computing, big data, analytical learning, adaptive tools, ... create appeal for, expand development
opportunities and provide services of the schools.
From the studies mentioned, we can gather that smart school does not only focus on facilities and
technological equipment but the smart school model also needs to be concerned with the criteria of
goals and programs, assessment, teaching methods, teaching-learning materials. Aside from that, there
are additional factors of policy, people, process, and technology background. Therefore, to evaluate the
smart school model, these criteria need to be considered so that the smart school model can be evaluated
most effectively.
3. RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS
Instrument
Based on a set of criteria to evaluate the smart school model in the world and Vietnam, a
questionnaire was developed including 7 areas to assess the current situation and accessibility to the
smart school model in Hanoi. That is:
i) Perceptions of learning, including 8 statements related to students’ feelings about learning in
general, for example: I feel interested in learning.
ii) Perceptions of teachers, including 3 statements related to teaching style, the supporting of
teachers, trust and sharing with teachers. For example: My teacher has an attractive teaching style.
iii) Perceptions of the school, including 11 items to assess students’ feelings about learning and
living at school, for example: I feel comfortable at school.
Each statement in all three areas – perceptions of learning, teachers and the school is designed on
a 4-point Likert scale ranging from Disagree (1) to Totally Agree (4).
iv) Methods of communication with teachers: explore about 6 ways that students can use to
communicate with teachers, which are: face-to-face (in class), online, forum, conference, videos, emails.
v) Learning materials: Explore about 9 types of learning materials that students are provided,
which are: Textbooks, Workbooks, Worksheets, Electronic Lectures, Software/Apps, Websites, CDs,
Videos, Audios.
vi) Facilities: explore the facilities used for teaching in the school, including 32 items of
infrastructure/equipment/learning materials.
vii) Smart services: explore about 11 smart services provided in schools.
Questions about quality of smart facilities and smart services were answered on a 5-point Likert
scale: None (0), Poor (1), Medium (2), Good (3), Very Good (4).
Participants
The survey subjects in this study are 238 primary school pupils (118 girls, 120 boys), aged from
8 to 11 years old, average 9.28 years old; 244 secondary school pupils (132 girls, 112 boys), aged from
11 to 15 years old, average 12.46 years old; 245 high school students (146 girls, 99 boys) from 15 to
18 years old, average 16.13 years. All of whom belong to 25 schools in the city and suburbs of Hanoi.
Results
Fistly, we used descriptive statistics to find out how students feel about learning, teachers and
schools at all levels. Then, we used Analysis of Variance to compare the mean scores of students’
perceptions of learning, of teachers, of schools at all levels. Depending on the probability coefficient of
the Levene test, the Tamhane T2 or Bonferroni tests in the Post Hoc Tests will be analyzed to test the
hypothesis of the difference in mean scores between groups of primary school pupils (PSP), secondary
school pupils (SSP) and high school students (HSS).
3.1. Perceptions of learning
Mean score, standard deviation and range of score of students’ perceptions of learning at all levels
is shown in the table 2 below:
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of Learning
Variable Mean Standard Deviation Range of Score
PSP 24.48 4.02 [14; 32]

SSP 22.86 4.41 [8; 32]
HSS 22.44 4.98 [8; 32]
Looking at Table 2, we can see the group of PSP has the highest average score, then SSP, and lastly,
HSS has the lowest.
When comparing the average score of the Perceptions of learning scale according to 3 groups
of survey subjects: PSP, SSP and HSS, the Levene test results have a probability coefficient <0.05 so
there is a variance difference between the three groups. Using the Tamhane T2 test in Post Hoc Tests,
the results of comparing the mean scores of the 3 groups of the survey subjects and the probability
coefficients are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Post Hoc Tests Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of Learning
Mean P
Variable PSP SSP HSS

(1) (2) (3) (1)-(2) (1)-(3) (2)-(3)
(N=231) (N=244) (N=245)
Perceptions of learning 24.48 22.86 22.44 0.00 0.00 0.69
Comparing the average scores of 3 groups of students, we see that there is a statistically significant
difference between the groups of PSP and SSP, between PSP and HSS. However, there is no statistically
significant difference between the groups of SSP and HSS.
3.2. Perceptions of teachers
Mean score, standard deviation and range of score of students’ perceptions of teachers at all levels
is shown in the table 4 below:
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of Teachers
PSP 9.50 2.14 [4; 12]

SSP 8.81 2.17 [3; 12]
HSS 8.75 2.27 [3; 12]
Looking at Table 4, we see, PSP have the highest average score, then SSP and the last are HSS.
When comparing the average score of the Perceptions of teachers according to 3 groups of survey
subjects: PSP, SSP and HSS, the Levene test results have a probability coefficient >0.05 so there is no
variance difference between the three groups of subjects. Using the Bonferroni test in Post Hoc Tests,
the statistical results comparing the average scores of the 3 groups and the probability coefficients are
shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Post Hoc Tests Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of Teachers
Mean P

(1) (1) (1) (1)-(2) (1)-(3) (2)-(3)
(N=231) (N=244) (N=245)
Perceptions of Teachers 9.50 8.81 8.75 0.00 0.00 1.00
Comparing the average scores of the 3 groups, we realize that there is a statistically significant
difference between the PSP and SSP and between the PSP and HSS. However, there is no statistically
significant difference between the group of SSP and HSS.
3.3. Perceptions of school
Mean score, standard deviation and range of score of students’ perceptions of school at all levels is
shown in the table 6 below:
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of School
PSP 33.20 5.79 [20; 44]
SSP 30.90 6.91 [11; 44]
HSS 32.27 6.69 [11; 44]
Looking at Table 6, it can be observed that the group of PSP have the highest average score, then
the group of HSS and the last is the group of SSP.
When comparing the average score of the Perceptions of school according to 3 groups of survey
subjects: PSP, SSP and HSS, the Levene test results have a probability coefficient > 0.05 so there is no
variance difference between the three groups of subjects. Using the Bonferroni test in Post Hoc Tests,
the statistical results comparing the average scores of the 3 groups of survey subjects and the probability
coefficients are shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Post Hoc Tests Statistics Students’ Perceptions of School
Mean P

(1) (1) (1) (1)-(2) (1)-(3) (2)-(3)
(N=227) (N=244) (N=245)
Perceptions of school 33.20 30.90 32.27 0.00 0.36 0.06

Comparing the average scores of the 3 groups, we realize that there is a statistically significant
difference between the PSP and SSP. However, there is no statistically significant difference between the
group of PSP and HSS as well as between the group of SSP and HSS.
3.4. Methods of communication with teachers
Table 8. Methods of Communication with Teachers
Sum
PSP SSP HSS

(N=238) (N=244) (N=244)
face-to-face 223 234 233

online 71 46 99
forums 9 10 16
seminars 7 6 9
video 7 14 21
email 45 20 39
At all three education levels, methods of communication between students and teachers are quite
diverse, in which face-to-face communication in class is the most common form, followed by online
communication through social networks such as Zalo, Viber, messager, Email ... The methods of
communication via forums, seminars, videos are less used, high school students tend to communicate
with teachers more through these methods.
3.5. Learning materials
Table 9. Learning Materials Provided
Mean
PSP SSP HSS

(N=238) (N=244) (N=245)
Textbooks 225 211 205
Workbooks 207 161 141
Worksheets 204 137 221
Electronic lectures 72 35 90
Software/apps 24 29 54
Website 65 27 42
CDs 81 18 18
Videotapes 27 8 21
Audio 2 6 19
Among the types of learning materials, textbooks, workbooks, and worksheets are used the most.
These are traditional learning materials at school. Next are the types of electronic lectures, software/
apps, websites. CDs, videotapes, and audio are the least used learning materials by teachers. Currently,
electronic lectures are a relatively common type of learning material used in teaching, we can see it is
used the most at high school level but used the least at secondary school level.
3.6. Facilities and technology infrastructure for teaching

Among 32 basic infrastructure/ equipment/ learning materials categories to build smart schools,
students’ answers indicated that: 3 categories of Smart Classroom, STEM Classroom, Smart platforms
have not yet been equipped in most primary schools; 3 categories of Student Touch Desk, E-learning
lecture system, Online Question Bank are missing in many secondary schools; 3 categories of Smart
Attendance Management Software System, Electronic Book System, and Online Question Bank have
not been equipped in most high schools.
Results of descriptive statistics of facilities quality are shown in the table 10 below:
Table 10. Descriptive Statistics of Facilities Quality
PSP 32.82 21.73 [3; 125]
SSP 41.08 21.89 [0; 128]
HSS 40.80 26.11 [0; 128]
Looking at the table 10, we can see that the quality of facilities is rated the highest by SSP, followed
by HSS, and finally by PSP.
When comparing the average score of the facilities quality according to 3 groups of survey subjects:
PSP, SSP and HSS, the Levene test results have a probability coefficient > .05 so there is no variance
difference among the three groups of subjects. The average scores of the 3 groups of survey subjects and
the probability coefficients of the Anova test in Post Hoc Tests based on the Bonferroni test are shown in
Table 11.
Table 11. Post Hoc Tests Statistics of Facilities Quality
Variable Mean P
PSP SSP HSS (1)-(2) (1)-(3) (2)-(3)

(1) (2) (3)
(N=223) (N=244) (N=245)
Facilities Quality 32.82 41.08 40.80 0.00 0.00 1 .00
Comparing the average scores between the two education levels, we see a statistically significant
difference between the 2 groups of PSP and SSP, between the 2 groups of PSP and HSS. However, there
is no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups of SSP and HSS.
3.7. Smart services
Among the 11 services surveyed, the 3 most lacking services at the primary school level are:
Consulting and providing appropriate digital learning materials, Smart parking service, Student
transportation service; the 3 most lacking services at the secondary school level are: Smart parking
service, Snack supply service, Student transportation service; the 3 most lacking services at the high
school level are: Providing main meals, Snack supply service, Student transportation service.
Results of descriptive statistics of smart services quality are shown in the table 12 below:
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics of Smart Services Quality
PSP 14.34 9.43 [0; 44]
SSP 13.28 10.16 [0; 44]
HSS 14.13 10.45 [0; 44]
The results of comparing the average scores of smart service quality of the three education levels
indicate that PSP have the highest scores, followed by HSS, and finally is SSP.
Comparing the average score of smart service quality according to 3 groups of survey subjects:
PSP, SSP and HSS, the Levene test results have a probability coefficient > 0.05 so there is no variance
difference between the three groups of subjects. The results of the Anova test in Post Hoc Tests based on
the Bonferroni test for the average score and the probability coefficient are shown in Table 13.
Table 13. Post Hoc Tests Statistics of Smart Services Quality

Mean P

(1) (2) (3) (1)-(2) (1)-(3) (2)-(3)
(N=228) (N=244) (N=245)
Smart Service Quality 14.34 13.28 14.13 0.75 1.00 1.00
The Bonferroni test results in the Post Hoc Test showed that there was no difference in the average
scores between the 3 groups of subjects.
4. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The overview of study results on the evaluation criteria of smart schools in the world shows that the
smart school model does not only focus on facilities, technology equipment, but is also related to many
other constituent factors such as learners, teachers, learning materials, learning environment. Based on
the approach to the constituent factors, we have built a survey sheet of implementation conditions on
students at all levels from Primary, Secondary to High School. The conclusions and discussions of the
main findings from the survey are presented respectively below.
- Perceptions of learning includes the attitudes and behaviors required in smart learners that
smart schools with active teaching methods and effective exploitation of advanced technologies have
contributed to training. Thanks to the power of modern hardware and software technology, learners can
access the world of knowledge and information, search and receive information to master knowledge,
practice skills to integrate into the current global environment. The survey results on students’ feelings
about learning, in general, show that they tend to express positive attitudes and behaviors towards
learning; PSP have a more positive feeling about school than SSP and HSS.
- Perceptions of teachers includes assessment questions about teaching style, teacher support,
trust and sharing with teachers. Research on the smart school model in the world has shown that the
teaching methods used in the smart school model are smart teaching and learning strategies, called smart
pedagogy (Uskov et al., 2016). They are teaching and learning strategies that teachers use to identify
learners’ characteristics and establish appropriate learning environments to help students achieve their
specific learning goals (Uskov et al., 2019). Smart pedagogy can be understood as learner-oriented
teaching and learning strategies and use supporting technologies effectively and actively. The survey
results at all levels have shown that the students rated the teacher quite positively, PSP have a more
positive feeling about their teachers than SSP and HSS. It can be explained that the higher the education
level, the wider the student’s interest, the higher the student’s requirements for the teacher, so the teacher
evaluation results of the higher education level students will be less positive than lower-level pupils.
- Perceptions of the school includes questions assessing the satisfaction level of students when at
school. The survey results show that students tend to be satisfied at school, PSP have the most positive
experience at schools. This result is consistent with the research results on the level of students’ happiness
and satisfaction, those who are at higher education levels have lower levels of satisfaction than students
at lower education levels (Guimard et al., 2015; Bacro et al., 2017).
- Regarding the form of communication with teachers, the statistical results show that face-to-face
communication is still the most popular, while online communication method is frequently used. The three
most commonly used materials are textbooks, workbooks, and worksheets regarding learning materials.
HSS are most exposed to electronic lectures, software/apps. We realize that communication forms, as well
as learning materials, are used quite diversely at all 3 education levels, forms of communication using
technology, electronic learning materials h ave been applied in teaching at different education levels.
- Smart school model needs to exploit various learning materials to carry out teaching according
to new teaching strategies. These materials will meet learners’ different needs and abilities, helping
them become more aware of their full potential, thereby taking more responsibility in managing and
regulating their learning (Halim et al., 2005). The survey results on the types of learning materials
used in teaching show that students are provided with various materials. Except for the widely used
traditional learning materials such as textbooks, workbooks and worksheets, e-learning materials have
been used at all 3 education levels.
The research results on smart school models in the world indicate that the investment in facilities,
smart technology equipment is the foundation for deploying smart pedagogical activities, bringing
about changes in teaching and learning quality (Smart City Council, 2013; Suhono Supangkat, 2015).
Especially, smart schools rely heavily on advanced information technology systems at the school level,
at district and national levels to facilitate teaching activities and support school management to take
place smoothly (Lorena Batagan, 2011; Smart City Council, 2013; Frost & Sullivan, 2014). Combined
with studying the current situation of implementing the smart school model in some provinces and cities
across the country, we have identified 32 items of infrastructure/equipment/learning materials needed to
build a smart school. A survey aimed at determining which items are already equipped in schools and
their service quality shows that many items are not yet equipped in most schools. In terms of quality,
the survey results show that facilities are better evaluated at the secondary school level and high school
levels than at the primary school level.
- Similarly, smart services provided in schools are still lacking, many services have not been
provided to meet the essential needs of learners, that is, consulting services and providing digital
technical learning materials, Smart Parking Service, Student transportation Service; snack supply
service, Providing main meals, while these are services that contribute to creating a friendly learning
environment and creating a connection between learners and the school. Therefore, when these services
are set up and deployed synchronously, it will be the basis for maintaining and operating the entire smart
school system effectively.
The basic characteristics of smart school are supported by smart technology, using smart tools and
devices, and highly interactive software applications (Nguyen Huu Duc et al., 2020). However, the survey
results on the status quo and accessibility of the smart school model at all levels show that the facilities,
technology infrastructure and smart devices in schools are still inadequately equipped. Some basic items
such as Smart Classroom, Smart Platform, Content Production Room to build e-learning lecture system,
smart attendance management software system, e-book, Online question bank is not yet available in
many schools. As for the facilities, equipment and technology infrastructure that are equipped, the quality
of teaching services is still very poor, especially at the primary school level. The survey results on the
components of smart school show that learners have relatively positive attitudes and behaviors towards
learning, and teachers are evaluated as having used learner-centric teaching methods, focusing on the
comprehensive development of learners, the learning environment has brought satisfaction and comfort
to learners. Moreover, the interaction between teachers and learners has been enhanced through forms
of communication that are face-to-face and online. The learning materials exploited by teachers are
quite diverse, not only traditional materials such as textbooks, worksheets but also electronic lectures,
software, and websites. In conclusion, the human resource factor has shown the smart learner-oriented
and smart teacher-oriented proactiveness, positiveness, but factors in terms of facilities, infrastructure
equipment, and smart technology are still in shortage. To promote the construction of the smart school
model, it is necessary to pay attention to and properly invest in facilities, technology infrastructure while
at the same time, continue to exploit and enhance the power of the human factor.
Acknowledgement:
This research was funded by the Hanoi department of Science and Technology Viet Nam under grant
Number: 61X-12/01-2019-3.
REFERENCES
1. Attarana, M., Aliasb, N. & Sirajc, S. (2012). Learning Culture in a Smart School: A Case
Study. International Educational Technology Conference IETC2012, Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 64, pp. 417-423, Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2. Bacro, F., Guimard, P., Florin, A., Ferrière, S. & Gaudonville, T. (2017). Bien-être
perçu, performances scolaires et qualité de vie des enfants à l’école et au collège : étude
longitudinale. Enfance, n°1, pp. 61-80. ⟨hal-01697750⟩
3. Bătăgan, L., & Boja, C. (2011). Smart educational systems and education clusters. International
Journal of Education and information technologies, 5(4), pp. 452-460.
4. Citiasia (2015). Smart Nation: Mastering Nation’s Advancement from Smart Readiness to
Smart City, Jakarta: 2016.
5. Deloitte, S.L.U (2015). Smartphone owners in India are increasingly obsessed with their devices.
Deloitte Mobile Consumer Survey 2015Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu India LLP. Press Release
https://www2.deloitte.com/in/en/pages/technology-media-and-telecommunications/articles/
deloitte-mobile-consumer-survey-2015–- deloitte-india–-technolo.html.
6. Dinh Van De (2018). Applying information technology to smart schools with the goal of
optimizing the teaching and learning process. ICSS International Conference 2018 “Smart
schools in the context of Industry Revolution 4.0”, pp. 85-94 (in Vietnamese).
7. Frost and Sullivan. (2014). Smart Cities – Frost & Sullivan Value Proposition. https://ww2.frost.
com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/SmartCities.pdf
8. Ghonoodia, A. and Salimi, L. (2011). The study of elements of curriculum in smart schools. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 28, pp. 6871, Published by Elsevier Ltd.
9. Guimard, P., Bacro, F., Ferrière, S., Florin, A., Gaudonville, T. & Ngo, H.T. (2015). Le bien-être
à l’école et au collège. Validation d’une échelle multidimensionnelle, analyses descriptives et
différentielles. Education et Formations, n°88-89, pp. 163-184.
10. Jaafar, A. (2008). Malaysian Smart School courseware usability study: the effectiveness
of analytical evaluation technique compared to empirical study. WSEAS Transactions on
Information Science and Application Faculty Technology and Information Science. Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysi
11. Supangkat, S.H., Arman, A.A., Nugraha, R.A., & Fatimah, Y.A. (2018). The implementation of
Garuda Smart City framework for Smart City readiness mapping in Indonesia. J. Asia-Pacific
Stud., 32(4), pp. 169-176.
12. Vu Thi Thuy Hang (2018). Smart schools: Origins, definitions and lessons learned for Vietnam.
Vietnam Journal of Education, No. 432, pp. 6-10 (in Vietnamese).
13. Zajda, Joseph, Gibbs and Donna (2009). Comparative information technology: Languages,
societies and the Internet. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Springer
LITERATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE:
APPROACH TO PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS OF PRESCHOOL TEACHERS
Tran Thanh Nam, Nguyen Thieu Da Huong
(Faculty of Educational Sciences, VNU University of Education)
Abstracts: Social-emotional competence of preschool teachers is still a new concept for Vietnamese
researchers. The purpose of this article is to introduce an overview of research on social-emotional competence
of preschool teachers by collecting and systematizing research evidence on the influence of social-emotional
competence of preschool teachers and preschool children as well as this capacity building measure from 29
typical studies can be found in databases and search engines to find relevant studies. Research results show that
teachers’ social-emotional competence has recently been recognized as an indicator of quality assessment of Early
Childhood Education (ECE) staff; its importance affects the mental health and love of the job of the preschool
teacher as well as the relationship between the teacher and the stakeholders; Some measures to improve this
capacity for preschool teachers should be based on national efforts to strengthen and maintain a high-quality
preschool workforce. This result is the basis for proposing to recognize the social-emotional competence of
preschool teachers in the Professional Standards and become an important educational content of the training
program from the perspective of capacity-building for Early Childhood Education teachers in Vietnam.
Keywords: competence, social-emotional competence, preschool teacher, Early Childhood Education
1. INTRODUCTION
The “Happy School” model in Vietnam is inspired by the “Happy School” model of UNESCO,
which has become the movement “Implement the plan to improve the pedagogical and ethical behavior
of teachers for a happy environment” (April 22, 2019) to spread the values of love, safety and respect in
schools. Happy schools need to start with the teacher, so many studies have emphasized the importance
of supporting teacher happiness.
According to Jennings et al (2019, p.186) “Teacher stress is at an all-time high and negatively
impacting educational quality and student outcomes”. Oliveira, S. (2021) emphasizes that teaching is
one of the most emotionally demanding jobs, affecting teachers’ personal lives and work performance.
Research by Buettner et al (2016) indicates that the psychological burden of teachers (including
depression, stress and emotional exhaustion) is related to the negative responses of preschool teachers
to children. Therefore, identifying the occupational characteristics of preschool teachers is intended
to assist them in coping with their own emotions and promote positive relationships between teachers
and stakeholders (children, children’s parents, colleagues, administrators) is very suitable for the
development of students and professional happiness of teachers. In this regard, there are many studies
have emphasized the central role of teachers’ social-emotional competence (Jennings et al., 2009).
As instructional stressors are primarily emotional and social, Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
interventions aimed at teachers have increased rapidly in recent years. According to the Collaborative
Organization for Learning in School Culture, Social and Emotional Subjects (CASEL, 2003), social-
emotional competence (SEC) is a set of competencies that help people know how to deal with
themselves, with others, with relationships, and function effectively. In 2013, this organization proposed
social–emotional learning (SEL) as a process through which children and adults effectively acquire and
apply knowledge, attitudes, and attitudes. the skills and attitudes necessary to understand and manage
emotions, set and implement positive goals, empathize with and show empathy for others, establish and
maintain positive relationships, responsible decision making.
Since 2004, Illion was the first state in the United States to create a framework for the social-
emotional learning (SEL) program, also known as social-emotional education including goals, academic
standards, and benchmarks for high school students. By 2013, the state had revised its framework to
apply social-emotional education curricula not only in schools but also in preschools. Currently, all
preschools in the United States have developed social-emotional competency standards for both teachers
and young children. Content on social-emotional learning SEL has been widely developed not only in
the US but almost all EU countries, in Australia, New Zeland and some developed countries in the Asia
Pacific. Therefore, social-emotional competence (SEC) is considered an important criterion to evaluate
the competence of a teacher, including preschool teachers.
Regarding the social-emotional competence (SEC) of teachers, Maurice J. Elias (2009) said that
to become a qualified teacher of Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) means that they not only have skills
but also self-awareness and management; perceive and manage relationships with others. If teachers feel
confident with their emotional skills, they will better recognize and understand students’ emotions and
their role in student behavior (Huynh V.S, Nguyen T.T, 2019, p. 4-5).
In the world, since 2009, there have been many studies on social-emotional competence (SEC),
but for Vietnam, this issue is still new and has received little attention. Some studies can be mentioned
by Le M.D (2015), Tran T.T.A & Nguyen P.C.T (2016), Tran T.T.A & Trinh T.T. (2017), Huynh V.S
& Nguyen T.T. (2019), Giang Thien Vu (2021) focusing on the social-emotional competence of high
school students. The authors all affirmed that it is necessary to invest in research on social-emotional
competence and organize activities to develop social-emotional competence for primary school students
and adolescents.
In the research conducted in 2019, the authors Huynh V.S. and Nguyen T.T. surveyed on the
current situation of applying the SEL social-emotional competence education model of teachers to
lower secondary education activities. In Ho Chi Minh City, the results were only average, significantly
affecting the social-emotional competence of junior high school students. Therefore, teachers need to be
facilitated to approach, research, understand and apply the SEL model of social-emotional competence
education in educational activities at school in order to enhance social-emotional competence of children
and also their own.
Studies on the SEC of preschool teachers in Vietnam, with Phan T.T.H. (2020) surveyed over 35
preschool teachers at a local preschool, showed that the awareness of the SEC’s emotional and social
competence of preschool teachers is still at a low level, many teachers still have difficulty in understanding
and self-training this important competency. In addition, Nguyen T.D.H. (2021) investigated the
cognitive status of social-emotional competence (SEC) of 25 preschool administrators working in some
cities in Vietnam. The whole cities show that for managers, they want to be able to coordinate with
higher management levels to carry out this capacity-building activity for Early Childhood Education
(ECE) teachers extensively and synchronously.
Regarding the concept of social-emotional competence of preschool teachers, Phan T.T.H.(2020)
and Nguyen T.D.H. (2021) propose the following understanding: The social-emotional competence of
preschool teachers is an individual attribute of each preschool teacher in order to demonstrate the
ability to be more aware of their own emotions, know how to create a harmonious relationship with
children and others, make informed, responsible decisions and effectively address issues relevant to the
preschool educational environment.
In addition, according to Tran T.T.A & Trinh T.T. (2017) can synthesize studies on social-emotional
competence into three main groups, which are: (1) Life skills; (2) Emotional Intelligence (Emotional
Intelligence); and (3) Social-Emotional Learning (Social-Emotional Learning, SEL). This is a suggestion
for learning about the related factors and measures to affect the social-emotional competence (SEC) of
preschool teacher.
Thus, in Vietnam, up to the present time, the social-emotional competence (SEC) of a preschool
teacher is still a new issue that has not yet been explored. This article focuses on reviewing previous
studies on social-emotional competence (SEC) of a preschool teacher from the perspective of
Occupational Standards to clarify the influence of social-emotional competence (SEC) of the teachers.
Early Childhood Education for the profession, the core elements of the social-emotional competence of
ECE, and some measures that can improve this capacity for ECE staff.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
The author has used secondary data, and groups of theoretical research methods including analytical
method - theoretical synthesis, classification method - theoretical systematization to collect information
from documents related to the research topic.
First, secondary data is collected from articles, reports, and scientific works published in prestigious
domestic and foreign journals such as International Journal of Public Sector, Public Administration
Review, Advance in Developing Human Resources, Education Magazine, Vietnam Educational Science
magazine... aims to build a theoretical framework on social-emotional competence of preschool
teachers in countries in the region and around the world. The author used the database, and search
tools of PsychLIT, ERIC, ASSIA, Sociofile, the Social Science Citation Index, Psychology Articles,
Google Scholar… to find related studies. The reason the author chooses these databases is that they
are highly academic databases, showing the richness and diversity of fields that can be related to the
issue of emotional competence – early childhood teachers’ social studies such as psychology, education,
communication, and social sciences in general… Articles and research were limited to 15 years (since
2006) back in time. The language to use for the search is English. The keyword used to search is
“preschool teachers’ social-emotional competence” which is limited to display in the title of the article.
By July 20, 2021, the initial search yielded 137 results, after checking the names and excluding
duplicate articles by searching using different databases, there were 109 articles left. Next, the author
skimmed the abstract to select articles that satisfy the following conditions:
(a) Indicate the frequency of occurrence of “social-emotional competence of preschool teachers”
and related factors;
(b) Is basic, qualitative, quantitative, and mixed researchs.
(c) Exclude introductory, critical, or summative article studies related to “social-emotional

competence of preschool teachers”.
In the end, only 29 articles satisfying the stated conditions were used to synthesize information for
this article.
Second, the secondary data source is collected through legal documents including Government
decrees and circulars of the Ministry of Education and Training such as Preschool Teacher Professional
Standards 2018, Circular 01 /2021/TT-BGDĐT of the Ministry of Education and Training on professional
title standards as well as references from the Southeast Asian preschool teacher’s competency framework
proposed by SEAMEO.
Figure 1: Screening process of studies used in the literature review
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
3.1. Comparing the social-emotional competence of preschool teachers with the Teacher’s
Professional Standards
The goal of improving teacher quality, output quality and school quality has become the top
policy of politicians, since then many reports on teaching, pedagogical training and profession have
been published. Therefore, standards have become an indispensable requirement for standards-based
educational programs to evaluate all aspects of a teacher’s needs. To help learners have the opportunity
to integrate into the economy and society of the 21st century, the development and development of
standards of teaching competence of teachers becomes an extremely important task in the education
system worldwide. In general, the competency standards of teachers and preschool teachers in particular
of many countries in the world share the same opinion: professional standards come from competency
standards. The trend is becoming more and more compact, covering the following directions: standards,
short criteria, but indicators or indicators can be many. Grade and grade of the standard according to the
level of competence that can be achieved by the teacher.
Currently, teacher training programs in the United States and many developed countries around the
world prepare teacher candidates to promote their own and their students’ social-emotional competencies.
Schonert-Reichl, 2017). According to the assessment of Buettner et al. (2016), although indicators of
curriculum structure and quality of classroom process have been widely explored, teachers’ social-
emotional competence recently recognized as an indicator of quality. This suggests that there exist
correlations between teachers’ social-emotional competence and their professional commitment and
responsiveness to the Professional Standards.
The excellent early childhood teacher professional development requirements proposed by the
National Council on Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) in the United States also outline a
blueprint for teachers’ professional standards good preschools in other countries. Specifically, reference
to the vocational standards of teachers and teachers of some EU countries, Australia, New Zealand,
the United States and developed countries in Asia shows that the competency framework of preschool
teachers is oriented towards common characteristics and attributes outlined in the teaching profession
with a preschool teacher including the necessary knowledge and skills with specialized specificity. For
example, the Singapore Institute of Education observes: 21st century learners need 21st century teachers
who not only possess the literacy of the 21st century, but also can to create a learning environment that
allows students develop 21st century skills. Therefore, Singapore teachers need to be adaptable, willing
to learn, and confidently deal with problems with no obvious solutions. They need to work effectively
with people of different races and nationalities and be able to communicate effectively. Similarly, refer
to the competency framework of Southeast Asian Early Childhood Teachers teachers proposed by
SEAMEO (2017), including seven focus groups of competencies and twelve values that create solid
beliefs and skills for decision-making and action in daily work. Besides in Vietnam, when compared
with the Professional Standards of Early Childhood Teachers (Ministry of Education and Training,
2018) and Regulations on Standards of Professional Titles (Ministry of Education and Training, 2021),
it shows that there are strict requirements for ECE teachers in terms of ability to manage emotions and
regulate social relationships. Therefore, it can be seen that there is an urgent need to study the social-
emotional competence framework suitable for preschool teachers and the specificities in improving the
social-emotional competence of this subject in the future.
3.2. Literature review of preschool teachers’ social-emotional competence
3.2.1. The influence of preschool teachers’ social-emotional competence on professional development
Table 1. Evidence on the influence of preschool teachers’ social-emotional competence

on career development from the reviewed studies
Role Evidence Source Citation
1. Impact on The relationship between the social-emotional competence (SEC)

(Jennings, et al. 2009)
mental health and teacher burnout.
of preschool Despite working in individual classrooms, early childhood teachers
teachers (Zinsser, Christensen, and
share a central level perception of the work environment, access to
Torres 2016)
support, psychological health, and job satisfaction.
Teachers’ psychological burden (depression, stress, and emotional
(Buettner et al. 2016)
burnout) is associated with teachers’ negative responses to
children.
For teachers, social-emotional helps teachers have a more
(Huynh V.S. & Nguyen
optimistic spirit in creating friendly relationships with students,
T.T. 2018)
reducing stress and controlling anger, and regulating emotions.
Higher levels of teacher burnout were associated with students
(Oberle et al. 2020)
receiving lower social-emotional competence (SEC) ratings.
Students notice stress in their classroom teacher.
This is the key to both the professional health of teachers and the
(Aldrup et al. 2020)
positive development of students.
The main stressors in teaching are related to social-emotional

(Oliveira et al. 2021)
factors
2. Influence When engaged in social-emotional learning (SEL), teachers are less

on the love
depressed, more satisfied with their work, feel more supported in
of preschool (Zinsser et al. 2016)
managing challenging behavior, and view the work environment at
teachers
their center as more active.
Correlations between teachers’ SEC and professional commitment

and ability to meet the demands of the profession.
Teachers’ satisfaction or displeasure with the social support

received was predicted by symptoms of burnout.
Supporting the health of preschool teachers is essential to

sustaining the workforce and fostering the quality educators-child
(Patricia Eadie et al. 2021)
relationships that are central to young children’s learning and
development.
3. Affect the Early childhood teachers develop their own emotional socialization
quality of the skills so that they can be more effective emotional socialization (Morris et al. 2013)
relationship agents for the children in their care.
between
preschool The student’s home environment; Psychological characteristics of
teachers and students; Teacher-student relationship; The surrounding community
(Le T.M.D, 2015)
stakeholders environment are factors affecting the social - emotional skills of
(children, primary school students.
parents,
colleagues, Teachers’ ability to cope (emotional reevaluation and problem-focused
managers) coping strategies) is related to their positive responses to children’s (Buettner et al. 2016)
negative emotions.
Teachers’ perceptions of emotional intelligence (EQ) and social-

emotional learning (SEL) were not associated with students’
(Poulou. 2017)
emotional and behavioral difficulties, while teacher-teacher conflict
and students mainly related to these difficulties.
Teacher stress is at an all-time high, negatively impacting the quality of

(Jennings et al. 2019)
education and student outcomes.
Teachers’ social-emotional competence is considered important

for mastering the social and emotional challenges inherent in their (Aldrup et al. 2020)
profession and for building positive teacher-student relationships.
4. Influence
on the
(Morris et al. 2013)
organization Early childhood teachers act as emotional socializing agents for the
and children in their care by modeling emotions, responding in a supportive
(Yelinek and Grady
management or stern manner to children’s emotional expressions, and engaging in2019)but not much work
of preschool engage in direct instruction about emotional experience. has shown how teachers
classrooms talk about emotions in
Explaining and questioning occur during teacher-led activities the classroom. We re-
when children are compliant in activities during free play and when corded preschool teach-
children act aggressively. ers’ (N = 13
5. Affects the Potential future interventions are designed to assist teachers in

development developing their emotional socialization skills so that they can (Morris et al. 2013)
of emotional become more effective emotional socialization agents for the
and social children in their care.
skills for
preschool Preschool teachers’ ability to cope (emotional reevaluation and
children problem-focused coping strategies) is related to their positive
responses to children’s negative emotions.
Test teacher and students’ perceptions of behavioral difficulties,

(Poulou 2017)
students’ emotions, and the level of agreement between them.
A student’s social-emotional learning (SEL) process does not

(Huynh V.S. & Nguyen
develop spontaneously. One of the factors that have an important
T.T. 2018)
influence on students is the teacher.
Based on an overview of empirical studies on the social-emotional competence (SEC) of preschool

teachers, it can be seen that the teacher’s SEC plays an important role in their professional performance.
The studies of the authors listed above all show that social interaction between preschool teachers and
children and the quality of their relationships is very important for cognitive, social and motivational
development. Young children’s affection for preschool teachers especially because teachers are
interested in working in the field of early childhood education will have a positive impact on the
emotional development of young children (Denham, Bassett, and Miller 2017). Furthermore, according
to Schonert-Reichl (2017), classroom stress is highly contagious. Simply put, stressed teachers often
have stressed students. However, Aldrup et al (2020) observed: when students do not follow the rules,
make noise and disturb the teaching, lose focus or focus, teachers often experience negative emotions
and struggle to maintain a positive relationship with them. In the long run, teachers’ feelings of anger or
anxiety and their inability to interact or build connections with students effectively are associated with
lower and lower levels of career happiness. Furthermore, this group of authors asserts: teachers who
feel emotionally drained are perceived to be less sensitive and less supportive in their interactions with
students and, therefore, their classes are less motivated less power and performance.
In studies on SEC emotional competence of preschool teacher, there are authors Jennings Patricia
A. (2009, 2019), Zinsser Katherine M. (2015, 2016), Schonert-Reichl & Kimberly A. (2017a, 2017b)
as well as CASEL (2003, 2013) have paid much attention to many related publications. With more
and more researches on this topic published in the last 5 years, it shows that learning about preschool
teacher’s social-emotional competence has scientific and practical significance.
3.2.2. Core component structure social-emotional competence of preschool teachers
In order to develop social-emotional competence, CASEL (2013) has proposed the social and
emotional learning (SEL) program focusing on developing social-emotional competencies for students
of different ages. The content and methods of implementing SEL programs are diverse and rich based
on different models. Among them is the model proposed by the Collaborative for Academic, Social,
and Emotional Learning (CASEL). This model includes five core components: Self-Awareness, Self-
Management (emotions, behaviors), Social Awareness, Social Relations, and Responsible Decision
Making. These components are cognitive, emotional and behavioral, and they have a dialectical
relationship with each other. However, in the process of conducting a review of studies on the social-
emotional competence of preschool teachers, it was found that the authors had different views on the
core component of this competency at the school level preschool teachers are shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Evidence on core component structure of preschool teachers’ social-emotional

competence according to previous studies
Source
Order Role Evidence
Citation
1 a. Psychological load The study examined and identified indicators (Buettner et al.
b. The ability to cope of teachers’ social-emotional competence and 2016)
established a two-factor structure, psychological
load and coping ability.
2 a. Emotional intensity Teachers’ social-emotional competence was (Fiorilli et al.

b. The ability to assessed through measures of emotional intensity 2016)
and emotional adjustment.
regulate emotions
3 a. Emotion management skills A greater sense of the source of work and control (Denham,
over work is significantly associated with positive Bassett, and
emotional expression, random responses, and
Miller 2017)
attitudes toward teaching children about emotions,
b. Ability to cope with
as shown by early childhood teachers. certified in
work pressure
preschool establishments; in contrast, a greater
sense of job demand was significantly associated
with teachers’ ability to express negative emotions.
(Specifically, teachers’ feelings about work
source, African-American ethnicity, and education/
experience level)
4 a. Emotion regulation skills Can assist in the distinction between two aspects (Aldrup et al.
of social-emotional competence: Emotional 2020)
regulation skills and Relationship management
b. Relationship
skills in emotionally and socially challenging
management skills
situations with students. born.
Although there are many different views on the core components of the social-emotional competence
of preschool teachers, according to the author, there are two basic elements: Emotional management
skills and social relations skills. The above views can be considered as suggestions on relevant elements
to build a framework of social-emotional competence of preschool teachers for further research.
3.3. Measures to improve the social-emotional competence of preschool teachers
According to Schonert-Reichl et al (2017), how to improve the social-emotional capacity (SEC)
of teachers because this is a profession with many limitations on social welfare is a question. It needs
the attention of the whole society. From the above analysis, it can be seen that supporting preschool
teachers in fostering to improve their social-emotional capacity (SEC) is very necessary and has long-
term meaning for the preschool teachers themselves and the whole society. This support should be based
on national efforts to strengthen and maintain a high-quality preschool workforce that can integrate into
the global labor market. Therefore, measures to improve the social-emotional competence of preschool
teachers have attracted the attention of many researchers.
Table 3. Evidence of measures to improve social-emotional competence of preschool teachers made
Source
Role Evidence
Citation
1. Having the policy to Promoting the advantages of “teacher-centered” pedagogy (Waajid et al.
recognize the social- 2013)
emotional competence Recommend further studies to identify components of training and (Buettner et
(SEC) of preschool professional development programs that can address preschool al. 2016)
teachers in the ECE teachers’ psychological difficulties and coping strategies.
training program and
Emphasize the importance of teacher training in helping teachers (Poulou
develop professional
develop personal and professional skills. 2017)
standards
Consider the extent to which the USA teacher education programs (Schonert-
prepare teacher candidates to promote their own and their students’ Reichl et al.
social-emotional (SEC) competencies. To reach students, teach 2017)
teachers about teacher preparation and social learning (SEL)
It is necessary to have supportive policies in terms of time, program, (Huynh V.S.

etc. so that teachers can implement the application of the SEL & Nguyen
model of social-emotional competence education for students in T.T. 2018)
specific educational activities.
2. Develop a plan to Illuminates ways in which in-service training and intervention (Zinsser et al.
foster social-emotional programs can be developed to help preschool teachers better meet 2015)
competence for children’s social-emotional education (SEL) needs.
preschool teachers
Childcare programs may also need efforts to support teachers’ (Buettner et
social-emotional competencies as a way to improve teachers’ al. 2016)
responsiveness and professional commitment.
Improving teachers’ social-emotional competence and stress (Schonert-
management in schools through the Social – Emotional Learning Reichl 2017)
(SEL) program for teachers
Refer to an intervention program to improve the social-emotional (Lam and
health of young children through the enhancement of the social- Wong 2017)
emotional competence of kindergarten teachers and a specially
designed curriculum, at a metropolitan city in East Asia.
Teachers need to be facilitated to approach, research, understand (Huynh V.S.
and apply the SEL social-emotional competence education model & Nguyen
to educational activities at school. T.T. 2018)
Teachers need to be facilitated to approach, research, understand (Oliveira et
and apply the SEL social-emotional competence education model al. 2021)
to educational activities at school.
3. Collaborate with The pro-social classroom model highlights the importance of social- (Jennings et
experts and consultants emotional competence (SEC) and teacher well-being through stress al. 2009)
to train and foster reduction and mindfulness programs.
the social-emotional Check out the intervention program to improve the social-emotional (Lam và
competence of preschool health of young children through preschool teachers’ social- Wong, 2017)
teachers emotional competence (SEC) and a specially designed curriculum ,
in a metropolitan city in the East Asian region
(Jennings et
Raising awareness and resilience in education (CARE)
al. 2019)
The findings add to growing empirical evidence on the impact of (Oliveira et

these interventions and contribute to the development of guidelines al. n.d.)
for the design of effective SEL interventions for teachers.
Use of early childhood teachers’ emotional socialization through a (Ornaghi et

multi-method study combining self-report measures and structured al. 2021)
observational situations in a daycare center.
4. Organize preschool Teachers self-completed reports on demographics, stress levels, (Denham et

teachers to self-practice and approval of socialization of emotional techniques. al. 2017)
social-emotional (Jennings et
Take part in an educational program (CARE).
competence with some al. 2019)
practical exercises (Stillman et
Through the use of an emotional intelligence (EQ) model
al. 2017)
Practice emotional socialization. Complete a questionnaire about (Ornaghi et

their emotional socialization style and emotional beliefs al. 2021)
5. Having appropriate The findings showed a relationship between emotional intensity (Fiorilli et al.
regimes and policies and satisfaction with the social support they received. 2016)
for preschool teachers
The importance of the welfare of preschool teachers has been (Patricia
(salaries, bonuses,
highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, as educators have Eadie et al.
benefits, etc.)
identified many other stressors while providing care and education 2021)
services to children as well as ongoing support for many others
learning at home. Identifying strategies to support and sustain the
well-being of early childhood teachers is particularly important as
a response to a global pandemic and provides lessons for both
common practice and critical future contexts.
It has been proven that it is possible to improve the social-emotional competence (SEC) and stress
management of teachers in schools through the Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) program for preschool
teachers. Thus, in order to develop social-emotional competence (SEC) of preschool teachers, the measure
that needs to be taken soon is to include social-emotional competence education (SEL) in the teacher
training program as follows: a strategy to improve the quality of staff and teachers to meet professional
standards. In addition, it is necessary to design a social-emotional competence education program (SEL)
for preschool teachers by the needs and practical conditions with the participation of a team of experts
and educators. Futhermore, it is necessary to create an environment that helps preschool teachers have
the opportunity to apply and practice skills to develop social-emotional competence (SEC) regularly
based on self-assessment and experience. With the efforts of the whole society in helping preschool
teachers understand and be aware of the importance of improving their social-emotional competence
(SEC), it will help them be more proactive in their professional development, from there will be happier
and more engaged with the work.
4. CONCLUSION
The social-emotional competence of preschool teachers has a clear influence on their professional
development and inclusion for children. This is considered as one of the important criteria to evaluate the
capacity of preschool teachers in the process of perfecting the teacher’s personality. In reality, the concept
of social-emotional competence (SEC) and the Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) model for preschool
teachers has been known as a new approach in improving professional competence for preschool
teachers in many countries around the world but still new to Vietnam. This leads to disadvantages of
preschool teachers in accessing human knowledge and enjoying advanced training programs in the
world. Therefore, in the future, it is necessary to focus on studying the social-emotional competence
framework suitable for preschool teachers and the specificities in improving their social-emotional
capacity. In addition, it is necessary to have specific policies in considering and recognizing the social-
emotional competence of preschool teachers in the Early Childhood Education (ECE) Standards and
becomes an important educational content of the ECE training program create conditions to improve this
capacity for ECE teachers, in order to develop a team of high-quality preschool teachers, international
integration.
REFERENCES
1. Aldrup, Karen, Bastian Carstensen, Michaela M. Köller, and Uta Klusmann. 2020. “Measuring
Teachers’ Social-Emotional Competence: Development and Validation of a Situational Judgment
Test.” Frontiers in Psychology 0:892. doi: 10.3389/FPSYG.2020.00892.
2. Buettner, Cynthia K., Lieny Jeon, Eunhye Hur, and Rachel E. Garcia. 2016. “Teachers’
Social Emotional Capacity: Factors Associated With Teachers’ Responsiveness and
Professional Commitment.” Early Education and Development 27(7):1018–39. doi:
10.1080/10409289.2016.1168227.
3. CASEL (2003). Safe and Sound: An Educational Leader’s Guide to Evidence-Based Social and
Emotional Learning (SEL) Programs. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.
Accessed from https://casel.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/safe-and-sound.pdf.
4. CASEL (2013). CASEL 2013 Guide: Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs -
Preschool and Elementary School Edition. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning. Accessed from https://casel.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/2013-casel-guide.pdf.
5. Denham, Susanne A., Hideko H. Bassett, and Susanne L. Miller. 2017. “Early Childhood
Teachers’ Socialization of Emotion: Contextual and Individual Contributors.” Child and Youth
Care Forum 46(6):805–24. doi: 10.1007/s10566-017-9409-y.
6. Eadie Patricia, Penny Levickis, Lisa Murray, Jane Page, Catriona Elek, Amelia Church. Early
Childhood Educators’ Wellbeing During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Early Childhood Education
Journal (2021) 49(5) 903-913. DOI: 10.1007/s10643-021-01203-3
7. Fiorilli, C., O. Albanese, … P. Gabola-Scandinavian journal of, and undefined 2017. 2016.
“Teachers’ Emotional Competence and Social Support: Assessing the Mediating Role of Teacher
Burnout.” Taylor & Francis 61(2):127–38. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2015.1119722.
8. Furlong, M. J., Nylund-Gibson, K., Dowdy, E., Wagle, R., Hinton, T., & Carter, D. (2020).
Modification and standardization of Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary-2020
edition. University of California Santa Barbara, International Center for School Based Youth
Development.
9. Giang T.V. (2021). The reality of Vietnamese adolescents’ ability to manage emotions is
approached from social-emotional health. Ho Chi Minh city University of Education Journal of
Science Vol. 18, No. 7 (2021): 1200-1212
10. Jennings, P.A, MT Greenberg-Review of educational, and undefined 2009. “The Prosocial
Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom
Outcomes.” Journals.Sagepub.Com 79(1):491–525. doi:10.3102/0034654308325693.
11. Jennings, Patricia A., Sebrina Doyle, Yoonkyung Oh, Damira Rasheed, Jennifer L. Frank, and
Joshua L. Brown. 2019. “Long-Term Impacts of the CARE Program on Teachers’ Self-Reported
Social and Emotional Competence and Well-Being.” Journal of School Psychology Volume 76,
Pages 186-202:186–202. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2019.07.009.
12. Journal, M.S Poulou - Early Childhood Education, and undefined 2017. n.d. “Social and
Emotional Learning and Teacher–Student Relationships: Preschool Teachers’ and Students’
Perceptions.” Springer.
13. Huynh V.S & Nguyen T.T (2018). The current situation of applying the SEL social-emotional
competency education model of teachers to lower secondary education activities in Ho Chi Minh
City. Journal of Educational Science, Dong Nai University No. 12-2019, p. 1-9.
14. Lam, Lawrence T., and Emmy M. Y. Wong (2017). Enhancing Social-Emotional Well-Being in
Young Children through Improving Teachers’ Social-Emotional Competence and Curriculum
Design in Hong Kong. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 2017 11:1
11(1):1–14. doi: 10.1186/S40723-017-0031-0.
15. Le M.D. (2015). Social-emotional skills of primary school students. Science Journal of Hanoi
National University of Education, Volume 60, No. 6A, p.61-69.
16. Morris, Carol A.S., Susanne A. Denham, Hideko H. Bassett, and Timothy W. Curby
(2013). Relations Among Teachers’ Emotion Socialization Beliefs and Practices and
Preschoolers’ Emotional Competence. Early Education and Development 24(7):979–99. doi:
10.1080/10409289.2013.825186.
17. MOET. (2018). Circular 26/2008TT-BGDDT dated October 08th, 2018 on professional standards
for preschool teachers
18. MOET. (2021). Circular 01/2021/TT-BGDĐT dated February 02nd, 2021 on regulations on codes,
standards for professional titles, and appointments in public preschool education institutions.
19. Nguyen, T.D.H (2021). Enhancing social-emotional competence of preschool teachers: Current
situation and some measures. Vietnam Journal of Education. Special issue 03/2021, p.39-43
20. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) in the United States. https://
www.nbpts.org/
21. Oberle, Eva, Alexander Gist, Muthutantrige S. Cooray, and Joana B. R. Pinto. 2020. “Do
Students Notice Stress in Teachers? Associations between Classroom Teacher Burnout and
Students’ Perceptions of Teacher Social–Emotional Competence.” Psychology in the Schools
57(11):1741–56. doi: 10.1002/PITS.22432.
22. Oliveira, S., MS Roberto, … NS Pereira-Frontiers in, and Undefined 2021. n.d. Impacts of
Social and Emotional Learning Interventions for Teachers on Teachers. Outcomes: A Systematic
Review With Meta-Analysis.” Frontiersin.Org.
23. Ornaghi, Veronica, Elisabetta Conte, Alessia Agliati, and Sabina Gandellini. 2021. Early-
Childhood Teachers’ Emotion Socialization Practices: A Multi-Method Study. Https://Doi.Org/
10.1080/03004430.2021.1918124. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2021.1918124.
24. Phan T.T.H. (2020). Enhancing the socio-emotional capacity of preschool teachers: A new
approach in improving the professional capacity of teachers at Hoa Sen Kindergarten, Vinh city
- Nghe An. Science Journal of Hanoi National University of Education, Volume 65, Issue 11a,
25. Poulou, MS. 2017. “Students’ Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties: The Role of Teachers’
Social and Emotional Learning and Teacher-Student Relationships.”
26. Schonert-Reichl, K.A, … MJ Kitil-, undefined social, and emotional, and undefined (2017a)“To
Reach the Students, Teach the Teachers: A National Scan of Teacher Preparation and Social &
Emotional Learning. A Report Prepared for CASEL.” ERIC.
27. Schonert-Reichl, Kimberly A. (2017b). “Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers.” Future
of Children 27(1):137–55. doi: 10.1353/foc.2017.0007.
28. SEAMEO (2017). Competency framework of preschool teachers in Southeast Asia. https://www.
seameo.org/img/Publications/SEAMES/ECCE/EarlyChildhoodCare_Education_Vietnamese.pdf
29. Stillman, SB, P. Stillman, L. Martinez, … J. Freedman-Journal of Applied, and undefined
2018. 2017. “Strengthening Social Emotional Learning with Student, Teacher, and Schoolwide
Assessments.” Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2017.07.010.
30. Tran T.T.A & Nguyen P.C.T. (2016). Developing social-emotional competence in elementary
school students: Opportunities and challenges. Proceedings of the national scientific conference
“Training and fostering primary school teachers to meet the requirements of educational innovation
in the context of international integration”. Hue University Publishing House, p. 25-31.
31. Tran T.T.A & Trinh T.T. (2017). Developing social-emotional competence for 3rd graders
through teaching Vietnamese. Journal of Science and Education, Hue University of Education
ISSN 1859-1612, No. 04(44)/2017: p. 72-81
32. Waajid, B., PW Garner, JE Owen (2013). Infusing Social Emotional Learning into the Teacher
Education Curriculum. International Journal of Emotional Education, and undefined 2013. Vol
5, No.2, p.31-48
33. Yelinek, Jillian, and Jessica Stoltzfus Grady. 2019. “Show Me Your Mad Faces!’ Preschool
Teachers’ Emotion Talk in the Classroom.” Early Child Development and Care 189(7):1063–71.
doi: 10.1080/03004430.2017.1363740.
34. Zinsser, Katherine M., Claire G. Christensen, and Luz Torres. 2016. “She’s Supporting Them;
Who’s Supporting Her? Preschool Center-Level Social-Emotional Supports and Teacher Well-
Being.” Journal of School Psychology 59:55–66. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2016.09.001.
35. Zinsser, Katherine M., Susanne A. Denham, Timothy W. Curby, and Elizabeth A. Shewark. 2015.
“Practice What You Preach’: Teachers’ Perceptions of Emotional Competence and Emotionally
Supportive Classroom Practices.” Early Education and Development 26(7):899–919. doi:
10.1080/10409289.2015.1009320.
THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF BLENDED LEARNING
WITH MOODLE ON THEIR GOAL SETTING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
Tang Thi Thuy, Nguyen Thi Thao Linh, Pham Tuan Anh
Abstract: Blended learning plays an important role in the learning process of students during the Covid-19
pandemic. In consequence, the study aims to explore the impact of the Moodle platform on students’ goal setting
and learning strategies in a blended learning environment. The study employed quantitative research by using an
online survey created at Google Form involving 292 undergraduates at Vietnam National University - University
of Education (VNU-UEd). SPSS 25.0 was used to perform linear regression analysis of Moodle features, which
involved collaborative learning, perceived behavioural control, emotion and the intention to continue using the
platform. Additionally, the study inspected whether the mentioned features have a significant influence on students’
ability to set goals and strategize their learning process. The research findings could aid instructors to implement
Moodle efficiently and accelerate the self-directed learning process of students.
Keywords: Blended learning, Moodle, goal setting, learning strategies.
1. INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that the education industry has suffered from disruption and challenges posed
by the Covid-19 pandemic. Consequently, it is evident that the sector must undergo acclimatization to
the contemporary situation. This leads to a change in the form of education when traditional or online
teaching is no longer suitable for the current context, and that form is called blended learning or BL
(Tayebi Nik & Puteh, 2012).
In order to overcome the existing disadvantages of online teaching and inflexibility of traditional
teaching, an educational model that accentuates the merits of the two styles should be desirable. Results
show that the BL implementation in higher education institutions was quickly secured, as lectures
discovered that the diverse combination of learning forms could help students facilitate goal setting and the
development of effective learning strategies to achieve desired learning outcomes (Lim & Morris, 2009).
To be able to learn effectively in a blended environment, learners are recommended to be active,
prioritize tasks, and schedule timelines for assignments, etc. (Zimmerman, 1990). Therefore, setting
goals and strategies in learning is among the factors contributing to the process of forming and developing
self-regulation (Chang, 2018).
Moodle, the online learning platform, is widely used around the world because it offers more
flexibility than other learning environments in terms of location, time and pace of learners’ learning
(Hung, Chang, & Hwang, 2011). According to Maghfiroh (2017), Moodle encourages self-regulation
of learners by implementing the “Problem-based Learning” model. Unfortunately, the study only
encompasses the properties of the goal setting and planning components in the self-control capacity, but
neglects to show the impact of Moodle on the mentioned components
With the ability to create a highly interactive environment and a variety of resources, conducting
educational activities on Moodle increases learners’ self-regulation, including choosing appropriate
learning strategies (Núñez et al., 2011). For university students, Moodle promotes a series of strategies
which allow students to manage their learning processes in a more proficient and autonomous way.
Furthermore, students engaged in the Moodle platform could notice a significant improvement in their
knowledge as well as enrichment in academic understanding
In addition, linguistic communication skills are also improved, enhancing the communication
effectiveness between teachers and students as well as between students themselves (Al-Ani, 2013).
Siirak (2008) also believes that the application of information technology in the blended learning
environment like on Moodle may prove beneficial to building a suitable, safe, and convenient learning
environment for students.
In Vietnam, teaching in a mixed environment based on the Moodle platform has piqued the interest
of many educators and researchers. However, there has been limited literature focusing on its impact on
learners’ self-regulation involving goal setting and strategy formulation. Therefore, this study aims to
achieve the following objectives:
1. Discover the factors influencing the ability to set goals and develop learning strategies of students.
2. Describe the impact of characteristics of BL through learning on the Moodle platform on setting
goals and strategic learning.
3. Build a model showing the relationship between the mentioned factors, thereby making
conclusions and recommendations facilitating self-regulation among students.
2.1. Blended learning
2.1.1. Definition
The term “Blended learning” is generally understood to be a pedagogical method that combines
face-to-face and online learning. As depicted by Leibowitz and Frank (2011), the BL method synergizes
with both conventional and online classrooms, with the former regarded as an extension of the traditional
method. The integration of BL also enables educators to host a portion of classroom activities online
instead of undergoing the traditional means with the aim of achieving the highest educational efficiency
(Picciano, 2006). Another matter of importance is the ratio of the two educational methods. In their
analysis of blended learning, Allen et al. (2007) underlines that 30 percent to 79 percent of the course
duration conducted online is the requirement for one to be defined as a BL course.
There is a considerable amount of literature on the close correlation between the adaptation of
BL and usage of the Moodle software. Established on the socio-cultural model (Moodle, 2012), Moodle
boasts capabilities as a student-centered teaching method, in which both learners and educators are actively
engaged in the educational process. Tertiary institutions have a tendency to adopt BL in order to improve
the accessibility and flexibility of the learning environment as well as improve cost effectiveness, while
the vital goal remains to be the improvement of the quality of learning practices. In a study assessing the
academic results of learners in BL conditions, Means et al. (2013) points out a higher education efficiency
among students in BL courses than those solely following the traditional method.
2.1.2. Features of blended learning
2.1.2.1. Learning method flexibility
Jackson (2017) underlines the importance of flexibility in the Moodle application, which allows
students to have easy access to the course materials and adjusts itself to the schedule and ability of every
individual (Susana et al., 2015).
The learning methodology (LM) of BL consists of effective goal setting and a step-by-step learning
strategy. Sarah (2020) has established the following principles for LM:
1. Enrich the learning experience for learners by combining traditional and online learning
environments
2. Increase learners - learners and learners - teachers interactions through the application of
advanced technology and appropriate teaching methods..
3. Clearly define goals and learning plans in the learning process
4. Evaluate academic performance of students
Thus, learning method flexibility (LMF) creates a dynamic learning environment that encourages
interaction between class members, facilitates goal setting and strategic learning, and evaluates the
satisfaction of the set goals.
2.1.2.2. Collaborative learning
“Goal setting” is defined by Moeller et al. (2012) to refer to the process of setting clear and suitable
learning goals in accordance with the learners’ own abilities. In their seminal paper of 1991, Latham &
Locke asserted the modulation of behaviors of learners by GS, which has since been developed into a
standard framework for prediction, explanation, and improvement of a person’s motivation in a work
environment.
The GS theory suggests that there are two orientations in which learners could develop their goals.
The first direction is task-oriented with the purpose of self-improvement, while the other is competency-
oriented and fixating on endowments at the end of the course (Dweck, 1986).
Additionally, Latham, Locke, & Fasina (2002) mentioned in a study that people who set high and
specific goals achieve higher performance than those with ambiguous goals. Therefore, it could be inferred
that the established goal must be unambiguous and ambitious enough yet still attainable provided with the
ability of the learner.
2.2. Learning management system Moodle
Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is an open source Content
Management System (CMS) software that enables educators to provide learners with study materials
with the goal of building a quality online environment (Shrestha & Pokharel, 2021). According to Baker
and Yacef (2009), Moodle is simultaneously referred to as a Learning Management System (LMS) and a
Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) through which users could learn, participate in educational forums
and communicate with others. Through the means of Moodle, evaluation of education performances and
the effectiveness of learning materials would demand less effort than that following a traditional classroom.
Moodle has flourished especially at tertiary level for the last few decades. In actuality, educational
institutions use Moodle to deploy online learning solutions due to either the lack of the necessary
infrastructure and resources (Schredina et al., 2021) or external factors such as the Covid pandemic, the
former of which prevents students from attending face-to-face education.
Built with open source code, Moodle is susceptible to modification by adding of the desired
functionalities in the form of plugins, packages, or modules (Kolekar et al., 2018). The creation and
application of said modules could be carried out without interfering with the native system. However, to
be able to combine all these functions, one must be mindful of portability and apply a common standard
for modules. Regarding the Moodle software in the developmental stage, Magdin (2016) underlines the
need for easy access for facilitators and ability to integrate the educational content before applying it to
the teaching curriculum.
More than just a platform to host teaching videos and give students assignments, Moodle could
organize CL for learners through online discussion forums and keep a record of their activities through
the logging system (Aher & Lobo, 2012). Dutt et al. (2017) point out that learners generate large
amounts of data such as course completion rates, attendance, and academic results by interacting with
the software itself. As a result, the Moodle LMS could design a personalized course suitable for each
individual based on the original student model. The accumulated metadata would be used for research or
assessment purposes, thereby allowing the system to tailor the course to the learner’s expectations and
abilities (Limongelli et al., 2011).
2.3. Goal setting and Strategy learning

2.3.1. Goal setting
“Goal setting” is defined by Moeller et al. (2012) to refer to the process of setting clear and suitable
learning goals in accordance with the learners’ own abilities. In their seminal paper of 1991, Latham &
Locke asserted the modulation of behaviors of learners by GS, which has since been developed into a
standard framework for prediction, explanation, and improvement of a person’s motivation in a work
environment.
The GS theory suggests that there are two orientations in which learners could develop their goals.
The first direction is task-oriented with the purpose of self-improvement, while the other is competency-
oriented and fixating on endowments at the end of the course (Dweck, 1986).
Additionally, Latham, Locke, & Fasina (2002) mentioned in a study that people who set high and
specific goals achieve higher performance than those with ambiguous goals. Therefore, it could be inferred
that the established goal must be unambiguous and ambitious enough yet still attainable provided with the
ability of the learner.
2.3.2. Strategy learning

According to Pino-Juste & Lopéz (2010), the ability to learn is exemplified by an individual capable
of observing, experiencing new things, relating accumulated knowledge with new one, and applying said
knowledge in appropriate situations. A learning strategy would comprise a sequence of steps or actions
which learners would follow to have a more meaningful learning experience and satisfy the demands of
the course.
In a VLE, direct and immediate help from the educator might not always be available, necessitating
the modification of the learning process for students to achieve their learning goals. Contrary to the fixed
schedule in the traditional classroom, the VLE grants learners an opportunity to deliberately arrange
their schedule and access learning materials at their own discretion (Kizilcec et al., 2017).
Setting goals and having a learning strategy is among the first steps to develop self-regulated
learning. Should learners set specific goals and develop a practical study plan, the chance of academic
success and accomplishment of the course objectives would improve
3. METHOD
3.1. Sample
A sample is described as a part or representative of the population that must be studied (Iswanto,
2021). A total of 292 students studying at University of Education - VNU in the second semester of the
academic year 2020-2021 were randomly selected. This sample represents students who are using Moodle
as a type of blended learning on the courses. The description of the study sample is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The demographic description of the study sample
Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Female 256 87.7

Gender
Male 36 12.3
Freshmen 155 53.1
Sophomore 95 32.5
Study levels
Junior 25 8.60
Senior 17 5.80
GD1 155 53.1
GD2 57 19.5
Major group GD3 35 12.0
GD4 31 10.6
GD5 14 4.80
With 292 students participating in this study, 155 out of 292 are freshmen (approx. 53.1%), 95 are
sophomores (approx. 32.5%), 25 are juniors (approx. 8.6%), and the remaining 17 are seniors (approx.
5.8%). The majority of the students participating in the survey are female, which accounts for nearly
87.7%. More than half of the surveyees (approx. 53.1%) belong to the specialised group GD1, which
consists of Mathematics and Natural Sciences majors.
3.2. Research Instrument
According to Louis et al. (2000), questionnaires are a widely used tool for collecting useful
information and an effective statistical database. The questionnaire used in this research is close-ended
and built on Google Form. Its structure consists of three parts:
Part 1: Collecting personal information including gender, study-levels, majors and time spent on
the Moodle software.
Part 2: Measuring the ability to set goals and develop learning strategies with 2 constructs, namely
GS and SL, accompanied by 12 items. The components are adapted from those of Barnard et al. (2010)
Part 3: Collecting information about students’ attitudes when learning in a blended learning
environment (Moodle) through the 2 constructs.
All questionnaire items use 5-point Likert-type items scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
5 (strongly agree). According to Iswanto (2021), the closed data is divided into four levels which are
low average rating, medium average rating, high average rating, and very high rating. The low average
obtained according to the Likert scale is the class with an average value of 1.00-2.60, the medium
average is moderated with the range 2.60 - 3.40, the high average ranges from 3.40-4.20, and the very
high average is among the range of 4.20-5.00.
O determine the reliability of the device, Cronbach-Alpha was used, and a random sample of 30
students was selected. The value was found to be 0.943 out of total items, 0.906 for goal setting, 0.878
for strategic learning and 0.939 for the features of Blended learning. All of the mentioned values are
above 0.800, which indicates great liability of subsequent results.
3.3. Data collection
The survey was conducted from April 19 to April 30, 2021. The questionnaire was sent to each
student via Google Form. During data collection, we explained the purpose of the survey and their
participation was voluntary, anonymous and they could withdraw it at any time. Each student took
about 15-20 minutes to answer the questionnaire. The collected data was transferred to an excel file and
transferred to SPSS 25.0 for analysis.
3.4. Data analysis
The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 25.0, the statistical analysis includes qualitative
analysis and building a regression model that demonstrates the relationship between the features of BL and
student’s goal setting and learning strategies.
4. RESULT
Table 2. Moodle knowledge and use
Frequency Percentage
< 1 semester 16 5.50

1 semester 148 50.7
Major group 2 semesters 30 10.3
3 semesters 71 24.3
> 3 semesters 27 9.20
< 1 hour 51 17.5
Moodle 1 – 3 hours 145 49.7
experience 3 – 5 hours 63 21.6
> 5 hours 33 11.3
Regarding the Moodle experience, the large group of respondents (50.7%) reported having one
semester of experience and only 5.5% reported less than one semester of experience, suggesting that most
students use Moodle for the first time when they begin their university studies. Most participants used
Moodle from 1-3 hours a week (49.7%), and only 11.3% reported using it more than 5 hours a week.
This study identifies the features of BL that affect students’ attitudes toward learning and using the
Moodle online learning platform. The features are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviation of students’ responses for the features of BL
Features of BL Mean Std. Deviation
LMF1. The objectives and program outcome standards of courses on 3.75 30.691
Moodle are clearly defined and easy to understand
LMF2. The course content and materials provided on Moodle are 3.80 0.721
LMF arranged in a logical and efficient order
LMF3. I can develop a suitable learning method when using Moodle 3.66 0.773
LMF4. Thanks to Moodle, I can participate in class discussions more 3.65 0.835
effectively
LMF5. By using Moodle, I can access materials and participate in 3.88 0.734
educational activities anywhere and anytime
LMF LMF6. The academic resources on Moodle are diverse and substantial 3.64 0.793
LMF7. I can learn at my own pace using Moodle 3.75 0.723
LMF8. I can easily modify my study plan using Moodle 3.69 0.751
Total 3.73 0.608
CL1. I can interact regularly with my teachers and classmates on Moodle 3.46 0.866
CL2. I can exchange ideas with my classmates in discussion forums 3.54 0.882
on Moodle
CL CL3. Thanks to the discussion tool (or Forum), I actively participate in 3.44 0.873
discussions with the class
CL4. I get feedback and help from my teachers and classmates on 3.61 0.868
Moodle
Total 3.51 0.778
The results show the features of BL in learning at a high level of effectiveness ranges from 3.4 to
4.2 as a criterion for evaluation. A flexible learning method receives the highest agreement of 3.73 when
students were learning on Moodle. It makes students feel active in learning, choosing the suitable course,
understanding their learning process and being able to study at any time they want. Then, collaboration
and communication, the features of the Moodle platform, is 3.51.
Through students’ answers (Table 3), it is inferred that students can access documents and participate
in learning activities anywhere and anytime thanks to Moodle (3.88). Furthermore, students found they
could easily adjust their study plan using Moodle (3.69).
Getting the learning results as well as the feedback from teachers and classmates is considered
essential, and students receive them when learning on Moodle (3.61). Thanks to the discussion tool
(Forum), students feel that they are more actively engaged in discussions with the class on forums,
which helps them adjust and choose better learning strategies (3.54)
When studying in different environments, students will come up with different learning goals
and strategies to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviation of GS and SL
Std.
Mean
Deviation
GS1. I develop a study plan for all 4 years of university 3.64 0.865
GS2. I develop a study plan for each course to achieve my learning goals 3.70 0.831
GS GS3. I set specific goals for each of my assignments 3.63 0.808
GS4. My study plan is clear and detailed 3.50 0.876

GS5. I develop a study plan for each course to get good grades 3.74 0.817
Total 3.61 0.723

SL1. I take careful notes in class 3.90 0.872
SL2. I take pictures of the lecture slides in class 3.83 0.850
SL3. I read all materials required by the instructor 3.61 0.836
SL4. I look up more course-related materials that are not included in the course 3.57 0.803
SL requirements
SL5. I discuss with my classmates to revise what I have learned 3.81 0.829
SL6. I discuss what I know and do not know about the course with my classmate 3.86 0.782
SL7. I ask questions to the instructor whenever I have difficulties with the course 3.60 0.850
Total 3.74 0.623
Table 4 describes students’ perception about planning and learning strategies of students during
their study at the university. With goal setting or study planning, most students have planned for each
module to help them get a good result (3.74), especially if they have a study plan for the next 4 years at
university (3.64). Their goals are detailed for each of their learning tasks (3.63).
After setting detailed and clear learning goals, the choice of learning strategies plays an important role
in achieving those goals (3.74). Taking careful notes of lectures in class (3.9) or taking pictures slides of
lecturers in class (3.83) is one of the strategies that most students carry out in the learning process.
When they do not clearly understand a certain content or knowledge, students will choose to discuss
with their classmates (3.86), with lectures (3.6) or read the documents requested by lecturers (3.61) but
actively searching and reading more documents related to the course that are not included in the required
documents did not get high results compared to other criteria (3.57).
In summary, students agree on the need for goal setting and strategic choices during their study at
the University. In a blended learning environment through the Moodle platform, does it help students
improve goal setting and choose strategies to achieve better learning outcomes?
Table 5. Correlations among the features of BL with goal setting and strategy learning
GS SL LMF CL
GS 1
SL 0.673** 1
LMF 0.445 **
0.425** 1
CL 0.472** 0.386** 0.691** 1

**
. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
The correlations were all higher than 0.3 were statistically significant at the 0.01 confidence level.
In our correlation matrix, all correlations between factors are statistically significant at the 0.01 level,
with values greater than or equal to 0.4.
To see clearly which factors of BL had the strongest/least impact on GS and SL, we ran a
multivariable regression model and gave the results in Table 6.
Table 6. Coefficients features of BL with goal setting
Unstandardized Coeficients Std. Coeficients Collinearity

t Sig. VIF
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance
(Constant) 1.573 0.229 6.862 0.000
LMF 0.270 0.084 0.227 3.221 0.001 0.522 1.915
CL 0.293 0.066 0.315 4.472 0.000 0.522 1.915
Table 7. Coefficients features of BL with strategy learning
Unstandardized Coeficients Std. Coeficients Collinearity

t Sig. VIF
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance
(Constant) 2.085 0.204 10.202 0.000

LMF 0.309 0.075 0.302 4.140 0.000 0.522 1.915
CL 0.142 0.058 0.177 2.429 0.016 0.522 1.915
The results show that sig. Regression coefficients of the independent variables (LMF, CL) are all
less than 0.05, so these variables are all significant for the dependent variable (GS, SL), no variables are
removed. We have the standard regression model as follows:
GS = 1.573 + 0.227 LMF + 0.315 CL
SL = 2.085 + 0.302 LMF + 0.177 CL
All factors have significatively positive effects on GS and SL. In which, CL has a strongly positive
impact on GS (Beta = 0.315). While, SL is strongly influenced by LMF (Beta = 0.302). It means student’s goal
setting and strategy learning affected by student’s perception on blended learning. This is positive correlation.
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Moodle is an effective BL, and its application suffices as an online learning platform during the
pandemic (Iswanto, 2021). Therefore, determining learning goals as well as choosing a reasonable
strategy is necessary when learning in a BL environment.
The aim of this study was to identify the factors affecting students’ ability to set goals and develop
learning strategies, and provide a model illustrating the relationship between the mentioned factors.
When determining the learning goal, students will pay attention to the interactive process and ask
their classmates or lecturers about what you have learned through this module. Meanwhile, in order to
choose a smart and appropriate learning strategy, students believe that the flexible BL method helps
them better identify the needed process when learning from other classmates’ experiences.
Supposing students do not study in a blended learning environment, it may prove difficult for them to
set course goals and learning strategies for the coming school years. Therefore, the BL learning environment
has helped students improve these two skills through flexible and collaborative learning methods.
All in all, in order to increase the ability to plan and set learning goals, it is advised that teachers
tailor lessons to increase interaction and group activities on the Moodle platform, hence instigating their
desire to explore, discover their own abilities, and understand more about the content of the course.
Furthermore, diversifying the course materials provides a wider array of selection for learners to
do research on the extra information other than that is required. At the same time, being flexible in study
time and place helps learners to actively learn and develop appropriate learning strategies to achieve high
academic results.
REFERENCE
1. Aher, S.B. & Lobo, L.M.R.J. (2012). Course recommender system in e-learning, International
Journal of Computer Science and Communication, 3(1), 159-164.
2. Allen, I.E., Seaman, J., & Garrett, R. (2007). Blending In: The Extent and Promise of Blended
Education in the United States. Sloan Consortium.
3. Al-Ani, W.T. (2013). Blended Learning Approach Using Moodle and Student’s Achievement at
Sultan Qaboos University in Oman. Journal of Education and Learning, 2(3), 96-110.
4. Azizan, F. Z. (2010). Blended learning in higher education institutions in Malaysia. In Proceedings
of regional conference on knowledge integration in ICT, 10, 454-466.
5. Baker, R.S. & Yacef, K. (2009). The state of educational data mining in 2009: A review and
future visions. JEDM Journal of Educational Data Mining, 1(1), 3-16.
6. Barnard-Brak, L., Paton, V.O., & Lan, W.Y. (2010). Profiles in self-regulated learning in
the online learning environment. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed
Learning, 11(1), 61-80.
7. Chang, C.C., Liang, C., Chou, P.N., & Liao, Y.M. (2018). Using e-portfolio for learning goal
setting to facilitate self-regulated learning of high school students. Behaviour & Information
Technology, 37(12), 1237-1251.
8. Dutt, A., Ismail, M.A., & Herawan, T. (2017). A systematic review on educational data mining,
IEEE Access, 5, 15991-16005.
9. Dweck, C.S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41,
1040-1048.
10. Hung, M.C., Chang, I.C., & Hwang, H. G. (2011). Exploring academic teachers’ continuance toward
the web-based learning system: The role of causal attributions. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1530-
1543.
11. Iswanto, A. (2021). Students’ perception on the use of moodle in English language teaching during
Covid-19 pandemic. Language-Edu, 10(4).
12. Kizilcec, R.F., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., & Maldonado, J. J. (2017). Self-regulated learning strategies
predict learner behavior and goal attainment in Massive Open Online Courses. Computers &
Education, 104, 18–33.
13. Kolekar, S.V., Pai, R.M., & Pai, M.M.M. (2018). Adaptive User Interface for Moodle based
E-learning System using Learning Styles. Procedia Computer Science, 135, 606-615
14. Laal, M. & Ghodsi, S. (2012). Benefits of collaborative learning. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 31, 486-490.
15. Laal, M. & Laal, M. (2012). Collaborative learning: What is it?. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 31, 491-495.
16. Latham, G.P., Locke, E.A., & Fasina, N.E. (2005). The High Performance Cycle: Standing the
Test of Time. In Sonnentag, S. (Ed.), Psychological management of individual performance. A
handbook in the psychology of management in organizations, 201-228.
17. Lim, D.H., & Morris, M.L. (2009). Learner and instructional factors influencing learning
outcomes within a blended learning environment. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4),
282-293.
18. Locke, E. A. & Latham, G.P. (1991). A theory of goal setting and task performance. The Academy
of Management Review, 16, 212-247.
19. Magdin, P.M. (2016). Even in E-Learning is Important to Do Your Own Notes! The Turkish
Online Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 73-79.
20. Maghfiroh, L., Subchan, W., & Iqbat, M. (2017). Problem based learning through Moodle
for increasing self-regulated learning students (Goal setting and planning). The International
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Investigation, 4(8), 3880-3887.
21. Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended
learning: A meta-analysis of empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 115(3), 1–47.
22. Moeller, A., Thelier, J., & Wu, C. (2012). Goal Setting and Student Achievement: A Longitudinal
Study. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 153-169.
23. Moodle. (2012). Moodle Philosophy. Retrieved from
24. http://docs.moodle.org/22/en/Philosophy
25. Núñez, J. C., Cerezo, R., Bernardo, A., Rosário, P., Valle, A., Fernández, E., & Suárez, N. (2011).
Implementation of training programs in self-regulated learning strategies in Moodle format:
Results of an experience in higher education. Psicothema, 274-281.
26. Picciano, A.G. (2006). Blended Learning: Implications for Growth and Access. Journal of
Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(3), 95-102.
27. Pino-Juste, M. & López, B. (2010). Learning Strategies in Higher Education. International
Journal of Learning, 17, 259-274.
28. Shchedrina, E., Valiev, I., Sabirova, F., & Babaskin, D. (2021). Providing Adaptivity in Moodle
LMS Courses. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 16(02), 96-97.
29. Siirak, V. (2008). Moodle e-learning environment: An effective tool for the development of a
learning culture. Institution of Chemical Engineers Symposium Series, 154, 290-296.
30. Srinivas, H. (2011). What is Collaborative Learning?. The Global Development Research
Center, Kobe, Japan. Retrieved from: http://www.gdrc.org/kmgmt/c-learn/index.html
31. Tayebinik, M., & Puteh, M. (2012). Blended Learning or E-learning? International Magazine on
Advances in Computer Science and Telecommunications, 3(1), 103-110.
32. Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning:
Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 82(1), 51.
DIFFERENTIATED TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOL BASED
ON DAVID A. KOLB’ S LEARNING STYLES
Ho Thu Quyen
Abstract: Educators are striving to understand how the brain works and they are learning more and more
about individual differences and learning styles. They are taking advantage of opportunities to improve their
teaching practice in the classroom and becoming lifelong learners to benefit from the latest research on learning
theories. Differentiation of teaching is encouraged to accommodate student diversity. The literature on learning
styles provides a powerful knowledge base to teachers who are seeking to understand how students learn in
high school. Learning styles are different approaches or ways of learning. Most people would have a preference
to identifiable method of interacting with, taking in, and processing information. It involves personalizing the
educating methods, particular to an individual that are presumed to allow that individual to learn best. When
planning for instruction, inspiring teachers take into account individual differences in terms of knowledge levels,
learning preferences and abilities displayed by learners. This article helps the readers to understand the different
learning styles based on the research work of David Kolb and discusses the approach the learning styles of
learners to design effective teaching to meet the needs, interests, abilities, and experiences of the learners.
Keywords: differentiation; learning styles; personalised learning.
1. INTRODUCTION
Students come to class bringing with them their diverse cultural background, learning styles,
interests, abilities and multiple intelligences. The diversity of students in the classroom can result in a
significant challenge for teachers when it comes to meeting the needs of all students. Some students may
find the lesson too easy while some find it too hard; some may find the topic interesting while some find
it boring. It is the goal of differentiated instruction (DI) to reach out to each student and approach the
lesson in a way that fits their learning styles, interests, abilities or multiple intelligences.
Learning styles are various approaches or ways of learning. They involve educating methods, unique
to each individual that are presumed to allow him/her to learn best. Most people prefer an identifiable
method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information.
2. CONTENT
2.1. Context and purpose of the study
Differentiated teaching is a current trend that emphasizes the ideology of democratizing schools,
contributing to the diversion of students. Differentiated teaching develops capacity, creates learners’
interests, and turns passions into learning motivation. Thereby, career orientation for students was
formed. This study aims to understand some aspects related to vocational education for high school
students in Vietnam and suggesting some directions for developing differentiated teaching based on the
new national curriculum.
Differentiated Teaching is a beneficial teaching approach to address students’ varying educational

levels. Effective differentiation includes identifying students’ readiness levels, modifying instruction,
applying collaboration and autonomy in learning, and integrating teaching and practice to enhance
learning. It gives students tools and methods to be self-directed, creative, and contextually responsive to
seek for knowledge by using core principles and concepts.
Learning styles are rather stable characteristic behaviors in young children but they change with
maturity. Educators can identify learning style preferences by observing the choices learners make and
the behaviors they exhibit in the classroom. By identifying an individual learning style, the teacher
can deliver instruction that matches how he or she prefers to learn. During the majority of the school
day, learners are expected to listen, but listening is the least preferred sensory modality for taking in
information for the majority of the student population. Less than 30 percent of school age children
are auditory. When preferences are honored, learners demonstrate greater academic achievement and
stronger desires for learning.
Differentiated teaching was acknowledged to be a compelling and effectual means of restructuring

the traditional classroom to include students of diverse abilities, interests and learning profiles.
Differential teaching has drawn a great deal of support, proof of which can be found in the plethora of
testimonials, anecdotes and classroom examples available through a multitude of research, websites and
publications dealing with differential teaching.
2.2. Learning styles: a review of literature

Learning styles has appeared in the education literature for at least 40 years. From the 1980s to the
present day, different learning-style models have been developed building on previous discoveries. In
the ‘90s, the emphasis was placed on having teachers address learning styles in the classroom through
adjustments in curriculum that incorporate each style, giving an equal chance for students to learn.
Learning style has become a popular word in the field of education. In the world today, there are
hundreds of different learning style models, each author of each model, when building his theory, gives
a separate definition for problem solving. Therefore, to come up with a unified definition for learning
styles is not easy.
Keefe (1979) considers that learning styles as the “composite of characteristic cognitive, affective,
and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts
with, and responds to the learning environment.” (Keefe, J.W., 1979)
According to Rita Dunn (1983), learning style is based on the concept that individuals differ
significantly in the way (or style) that they concentrate, absorb, and retain new information. Rita
Dunn defines learning style as the way in which each person begins to notice, process, acquire, and
reproduce new content of knowledge. This style, as Dunn (1983) described, “comprises a combination
of environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological elements that permit individuals
to receive, store, and use knowledge” (Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Price, G. E., 1984) .
Stewart and Felicetti (1992) define learning styles as those “educational conditions under which a
student is most likely to learn” (Stewart, K.L., Felicetti, L.A., 1992). Thus, learning styles are not really
concerned with what learners learn, but rather how they prefer to learn.
Research into learning styles was originally associated with the theoretical domain of psychology
(Cassidy, S., 2004). However, as learning style research spread into other fields, especially that of
education, it began to influence teaching and learning practice (Curry, L., 1990).
Through studying the perspectives on learning styles, it can be seen that the core contents of the
learning style definition are as follows:
• Learning styles are individual characteristics;
• Learning styles that include cognitive, emotional, and physiological characteristics;
• Learning style indicates the dominant way an individual receives, processes, and stores
information in the learning environment;
• Relatively sustainable learning styles.
Recent years have seen a change in the trends of education from pedagogy to andragogy i.e. from
a teacher-centred learning to a student-centred learning. Therefore, it is not only desirable but also
essential for educators to recognize that students have different learning styles and that they should tailor
instructions to the characteristic ways in which they prefer to learn.
2.3. Kolb’s learning style and experiential learning theory
Kolb’s experiential learning theory posits four learning styles based on a four-stage learning cycle.
This theory helps us to understand the different and dominant learning styles of each individual learner,
and also explains how this experiential learning cycle applies to all learners. His experiential learning
theories and models have been recognized by teachers and educational administrators as one of the
greatest contributors to understanding and explaining human learning behavior and helping others learn.
It complements Gardner’s concept of Multiple Intelligences and expands the VAK concept of learning
styles, making it easier for teachers to apply teaching in the classroom. The nature of Kolb’s learning
styles and teaching design techniques will be detailed in the following sections.
David A. Kolb’s model is based on his experiential learning model, as explained in his
book Experiential Learning (Kolb D.A, 1984). Kolb›s model outlines two related approaches toward
grasping experience: Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization, as well as two related
approaches toward transforming experience: Reflective Observation and Active Experimentation.
According to Kolb’s model, the ideal learning process engages all four of these modes in response to
situational demands; they form a learning cycle from experience to observation to conceptualization to
experimentation and back to experience. In order for learning to be effective, Kolb postulated, all four of
these approaches must be incorporated. As individuals attempt to use all four approaches, they may tend
to develop strengths in one experience-grasping approach and one experience-transforming approach,
leading them to prefer one of the following four learning styles:
Accommodating (doing and feeling)
The Accommodating learning style is “hands-on” and relies on intuition rather than logic. These
people use other people’s analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted
to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on “gut” instinct rather than logical analysis. Learners with an accommodating
learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning
style is prevalent within the general population.
Diverging (feeling and watching)
These learners are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer
to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are
best at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style ‘diverging’ because these people perform better in situations that require
ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural
interests and like to gather information.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the
arts. Learners with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to
receive personal feedback. learners focus on concrete experience and reflective observation. They prefer
to watch and reflect on what they’ve observed before jumping in.
Assimilating (watching and thinking )
The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are
more important than people.
These learners require good clear explanation rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at
understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.
Learners with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in
ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than
approaches based on practical value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal
learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and
having time to think things through. This learning style incorporates learners who favour abstract
conceptualisation and reflective observation. They like using analytical models to explore and prefer
concepts and abstract ideas.
Converging (doing and thinking)
Learners with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to
find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and
interpersonal aspects.
Learners with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories.
They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.
Learners with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than
social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities.
Learners with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work
with practical applications. They using this learning style focus on abstract conceptualisation and active
experimentation. They like to solve problems and enjoy applying learning to practical issues.
Figure 1: Kolb’s learning cycle and experiential learning styles.
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a
concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3)
the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used
to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.
The essence of the experiential learning model is a spiral of four learning stages including: 1/
Reflective observation; 2/ Abstract conceptualisation; 3/ Active experimentation 4/Concrete experience;
Learning will come from a contradiction between Concrete Experience and Abstract Concept, which
is simply the contradiction of the known and the unknown. When resolving this contradiction, each
learner may prefer to use abstract concepts or concrete experiences. Learners who like the overview and
awareness of the problem will prefer “Thinking”, while those who like the clarity and understanding of
the problem will prefer “Feeling” when expressing and performing. a learning experience. Two ways of
transforming the meaning of experience are Experimentation and Reflection, learners may prefer to use
Experiment or Reflect. Learners who like the extension, the outside of the problem will like “Doing”,
while those who like the content, the content of the problem will prefer “Watching” when trying to apply
the meaning of the problem. experience.
Kolb’s model gave rise to the Learning Style Inventory, an assessment method used to determine
an individual’s learning style. According to this model, individuals may exhibit a preference for one of
the four styles: Accommodating, Converging, Diverging and Assimilating, depending on their approach
to learning in Kolb’s experiential learning model.
2.4. Teaching design in high school according to Kolb’s learning styles
2.4.1. Characteristics of learning activities and psychophysiological characteristics of high school students
High school students are aged between 15 sssssand 18 years old, also known as early youth. This
is a very complicated age in terms of mind and physiology, the ability to think logically, abstractly, and
creatively has made a new step, the thinking tendency, positive awareness in learning has created a good
premise for learning and teaching activities. This age group has some outstanding psychological and
learning characteristics as follows:
• About physical development
The age of high school students is the period of reaching physical maturity. Physical development
has entered the period of normal, harmonious and balanced development. High school students have
much better health and stamina than teenagers. Physical development at this age has a certain influence
on psychology and personality, as well as choices in life of students.
• About learning activities and intellectual development
- Characteristics of learning activities
Learning is still the basic activity of high school students, with higher requirements for positivity
and intellectual independence. To understand the subject deeply, it requires students to have a high level
of thinking, independence and creativity in learning activities.
Attitudes towards learning of high school students have also changed. They are self-conscious
about learning for the future; begin to evaluate their learning from their future point of view. Since
then, high school students have a choice for each subject and study hard only those subjects that are
considered important and have a direct impact on their future.
Also at this age, interest and inclination towards learning have become more defined and expressed.
Students often have a steady interest in a certain science or field. This has stimulated students’ desire to
broaden and deepen their knowledge in their respective fields.
- Characteristics of intellectual development
The age of high school students is an important period in intellectual development. The
manifestations of intellectual development in this period of students are: Sensation and perception have
reached the adult level, creating conditions for the development of perceptive capacity in students;
Memory development has helped students know how to use many methods of remembering, not just
memorizing mechanically like before; Developed attention enables students to focus their attention on
material that they are not interested in but understand its significance; Thinking activities, especially
abstract thinking, thrive, helping to form in students abilities such as analysis, comparison, synthesis,
generalization, abstraction, concretization...
• About personality development

- The development of self-consciousness
Self-awareness is a prominent feature in the personality development of high school students,
greatly influencing the psychological development of this age group. The self-consciousness of high
school students is manifested in the need to learn and self-assess their psychological characteristics
according to social ethical standards, from the point of view of life purpose.
The formation of worldview is a key feature in the psychology of youth in general, and high school
students in particular, because they have a need to explore and learn about the world. The formation
of a worldview is based on the knowledge that students learn at school; Through their daily practical
experiences, through their attitudes towards the truth, goodness, and beauty, high school students also
have a sense of building their own ideal of life.
- Career trends
Students’ attitudes towards subjects become more selective. The learning attitude of young students
is motivated by a structured learning motivation different from the previous age. High school students
have clearly appeared the need to choose a social position for themselves in the future associated with
career trends. By the end of high school, they have identified for themselves a stable interest in a certain
subject, in a certain field of knowledge. This interest is often associated with the student’s choice of a
certain profession.
In summary, at the high school age, students are those who are growing but not yet adults, those who
receive information but are not yet erudite, those who are passionate but not passionate; the student’s
relationships are less conflicting than those of the previous age; students have had certain independence
in thinking, in behavior, relatively more democratic relations, respect and listening; social relationships
and contact with other people have expanded, the group of friends is more diverse, there are more
pronounced value orientations; They expect teachers and parents to be friends and mentors.
2.4.2. Features and requirements of the new high school education program
Vietnam is actively participating in the globalization and regionalization, especially in the era of
industrial revolution 4.0. The general education program in 2018 will be implemented with important
changes, especially for high schools. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the current situation of
education for high school students today to propose appropriate directions in education for students.
The general education program “ensures the development of learners’ quality and capacity through
educational content with basic, practical and modern knowledge; harmonize virtue, wisdom, body, and
beauty; focus on practice, applying knowledge to solve problems in study and life; highly integrated in
the lower classes, gradually differentiated in the upper classes; through methods and forms of educational
organization that promote the initiative and potential of each student, methods of testing and assessment
in accordance with educational goals and educational methods to achieve those goals” (Ministry of
Education and Training, 2017).
The requirements to be met in terms of key qualities and core competencies are the basis for
building curriculum and educational activities, compiling textbooks and teaching manuals, and
evaluating educational outcomes. students and the quality of general education. Education is also not
as equal as it is today, but towards individualization according to the ability of each student. Teaching
content is integrated at lower levels and gradually differentiated at higher levels.
The general educational program focuses on practice, applying knowledge to solve problems in
learning and life. Through methods and forms of educational organization, promote the initiative and
potential of each student.
The methods of testing and assessment will also change in accordance with the goals and educational
methods to support education to achieve the goals.
The general education program helps students develop the qualities and competencies of workers,
awareness and civic personality, the ability to self-study and lifelong learning, the ability to choose
suitable careers, the ability to adapt to changing living situations in the context of integration.
2.4.3. The structure of a lesson according to Kolb’s learning styles
One of the problems of traditional teaching is the lack of diversity in the classroom. The curriculum
and teaching methods still apply to the majority. This raises a question: How to maximize the individual
ability of each learner? And one of the pedagogical solutions offered is a differential teaching
organization. Characteristics of differential teaching are to detect and compensate for learning gaps, to
motivate learning, to transform the passion in life into motivation in learning.
Differentiated teaching is a current trend that emphasizes the ideology of democratizing schools,
contributing to the diversion of students. Differentiated teaching develops capacity, creates learners’
interests, and turns passions into learning motivation. Thereby, career orientation for students was formed.
Teachers can start from the learners’ experience (which is common to all learners) as the basis
for designing and choosing appropriate teaching methods to lead learners through all four stages. of
experiential learning fits four types of learning styles. From there, we propose the structure of a lesson
according to the learners’ learning style, including the following steps:
Step 1: Introduce the topic
Learners have a “Diverging” learning style, tend to learn using Specific Experience - Reflective
Observation, the typical question of learners in this learning style is Why? When learning, “why”
learners want to know how that learning content relates to their experiences, interests, and career future.
To be effective for “why” learners, the teacher should act as a facilitator.
Teachers should introduce the topic of study, analyze the goals of knowledge and skills to be
achieved in order to form motivation, interest in learning, and help learners see the value of the lesson.
Teachers can start with a story, or a career situation, or a game, ... to attract attention, recall the experience
that students had in previous lessons. From there, introduce the objectives and structure of the lesson.
Step 2: Give a new lesson
In step 2, teachers need to perform three stages of teaching corresponding to the remaining three
stages in the experiential learning model.
Stage 1: Theory
Learners have an “Assimilating” learning style, with a tendency to learn using Reflective Observation
– Abstract concepts, typical questions of learners in the learning style. What is this episode? - Can you
tell me what I need to learn? When learning, “what” learners want to know the theory, the information
is presented logically, and have time to think about ideas. To be effective for “what” learners, teachers
should act as experts.
Teaching activities: Teachers should provide information through documents, diagrams, movies,
discussions, conversations, etc. to help learners form abstract concepts, analyze data about topics
learning problems, thereby proposing ideas for solving learning problems. Teachers should give priority
to learners to have the opportunity to evaluate and judge knowledge, compare with their own experiences
to draw new knowledge, propose new projects and ideas.
Stage 2: Apply, plan to solve the problem (Application)
Learners have a “Converging” learning style, tending to use the concept of the school - Experiment,
questions characteristic of learners in this learning style. How? May I try it? When learning, “How”
learners want well-defined tasks and learn by trial and error in an environment that allows them to fail
safely. To be effective for “how” learners, teachers should act as evaluators, providing implementation
guidance and feedback.
Teaching activities: Teachers guide learners by giving previous experiences, advice, and feedback
when learners define goals, options, and plan to solve problems. Teachers can demonstrate samples,
or let learners discover problems, experiment to recognize by trial and error, etc. The teacher acts as a
mentor and assessor. Learners can study in groups or individually. Some learning activities are oriented
for learners in this stage such as: analyzing lecture examples, simulation research, project research, role-
playing, etc.
Stage 3: Implement problem solving and feeling (Practice - Felling)
Learners have an “Accommodative” learning style, with a tendency to use Experimental - Specific
experiences, typical questions of learners in this learning style. What if? – May I present my own
experience? When learning, “What if” learners want to apply new knowledge in situations to solve real-
world problems. To be effective for “how” learners, teachers should act as Coaches, allowing learners to
make the most of their own experiences and derive value from the lessons.
Teaching activities: Teachers let learners apply the plan to solve the problem in practice, discover
the problem and solve it by themselves. Teachers evaluate learning and encourage learners to guide
each other in the form of group work. Teacher feedback helps learners perceive learning outcomes and
is constructive. Some learning activities are oriented for students in this stage such as: analyzing lecture
examples, role-playing, simulation, practical experience, etc.
Step 3: Consolidate knowledge, end the lesson
Learners tend to have an overview of the lesson structure and make contact with reality to see the
value of the lesson.
Teaching activities: Teachers can emphasize the focus of the lesson, assess the objectives introduced
in the introduction by asking questions to test the understanding of learners, and provide The feedback
answers questions, orients the role and value of the lesson for the following lessons, with careers in
practice. If possible, teachers can quickly apply the steps in the experiential learning model in this
section using quick questions, assessments, feedback, etc.
3. CONCLUSION
The history of special education has included a focus on individualizing instruction since its earliest
days. From the theory and practice, students have their own personalities so teaching should focus on
specific development, personal competence, and need to create an environment for gifted students to
have an opportunity to develop their talent, forte. And the teaching management in that approach can
neither be stereotyped, mechanical, rigid, imposing on the subject, nor be freely subjected and arbitrarily
taught. Teaching management is created according to the vivid practice of the object.
Differential teaching is an indispensable trend in today’s society. Differential teaching is based on

the actual demand of class. There is always the difference in the levels of awareness of each member,
ensuring good teaching purposes and encouraging maximum development of the individual’s ability.
Kolb’s learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning
provision typically available to learners, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
REFERENCES
1. Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-
16 learning. A systematic and critical review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.
2. Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Price, G. E. (1984). Learning style inventory. Lawrence, KS, USA: Price Systems.
3. Felder, R.M., & Silverman, L.K. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education
[Electronic Version].Engr. Education, 78(7), 674-681. Retrieved on July 24, 2009. from:http://
www4.ncsu.edu./unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/LS- 1988.pdf
4. Fleming, N.D., Mills, C. (1992). Not Another Inventory, Rather a Catalyst for reflection to
improve the academy. Professional and Organisational Development Network in Higher
Education. pp. 137–55. Retrieved on July 14, 2014 from: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/
viewcontent.cgi?article=1245&context=podimproveacad
5. Kolb D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall
6. Kolb, D.A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual. Boston, MA: McBer.
7. Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering (Ed.) The
Modern American College (pp. 232–255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.
8. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
9. Kolb, D.A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper
(Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33–57). New York: Wiley.
10. Kolb, D.A., Rubin, I.M., & McIntyre, J.M. (1984). Organizational psychology: readings on
human behavior in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
11. Tomlinson, C.A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners
(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision & Curriculum Development.
12. Ministry of Education and Training. (2017). The general education program in 2018.
IMPROVED METHODS FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
IN CHILDREN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE
OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Nguyen Thu Huong

Le Thi Huong
(Gau Truc Nursery School, Nha Be District, Ho Chi Minh City)
Abstract: As smart education is the target of the world in digital age of 4.0, it is essential to reform education
on a level basis. And in our opinion, early childhood education should be the first level to be paid attention
to, where comprehensive development, particularly cognition, should be encouraged in children. Cognition is
the foundation for thinking and understanding intellectually; it is also the basis to obtain human knowledge.
Educational reforms aim to help children develop cognitive skills in early childhood education through “taking
photos”. And by doing research, this article is to demonstrate general understanding in terms of early childhood
education and its tendency. With an approach to early childhood education, this article presents the process for
experimenting “photo-taking” with children in nursery schools. This model can be viewed as one of the innovative
methods in early childhood education to encourage and activate the brain of children, appropriate and effective
with cognitive development of children in this period of age.
Keywords: early childhood education (ECE), cognitive development, educational method, “photo-taking”.
1. INTRODUCTION
Currently, there are several issues relating to education in general and nursery education in particular
in the digital age. Social expectations in a child gradually change over time. Now, people want children
to have not only good health, but also cognitive development; children are expected to be flexible
with problem solving skills, a quick mind and good memory. On the other hand, various educational
approaches for young children have been advertised on media, most of which are called early childhood
education (ECE) methods by experts and educators. By doing research, we have identified a number
of educational approaches being in practice in many countries with certain achievements. Our thesis is
that, if ECE methods are carefully studied and applied, they will help children develop their cognition
during the nursery. Considering this as a new and necessary approach in the current situation, we have
conducted this research regarding educational reform for cognitive development in nursery children
with ECE methods. We have identified three tasks for this article with popular methods in research: (1)
Reading documents, analysing data for general conclusion regarding the tendency of ECE methods; (2)
identifying important information related to cognition of young children in nursery; (3)and developing
the procedure for organising cognitive activities for children through “photo taking”.
1.1. General information about ECE methods

1.1.1. Definition
Definition of Early Childhood Education (ECE)
According to Ivan Pavlov (1890), if you start educating your child 3 days after birth, you’re 3
days late already, as the sooner you start, the better it is; just a day late and things will be much more
challenging. It was at this moment that the world recognized the development of early childhood
education theory as a breakthrough of modern education regarding researching and educating children
in the golden age from birth to six years old, aka the fastest period for brain development. In the light of
this approach, educational experts have drawn on research results regarding brain functions, especially
the right hemisphere, human potential, and the ability to obtain an infinite amount of knowledge of the
right hemisphere to develop educational methods releasing potential in each human being, activating the
right hemisphere, and balancing the two hemispheres in the most effective way.
In terms of the formation of ECE methods, it is regarded that the first person to lay the foundation
for them is Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952). Montessori method appeared nearly a century ago, at a time
when research on brain functions were not yet available, but it’s still considered as the basis for ECE
later. After Maria Montessori’s, several other studies have been conducted regarding human potential,
functions of the brain, especially the right hemisphere, leading to the birth of ECE methods. Nowadays,
well-known ECE methods include the ones of Glenn Doman (American), Makoto Shichida (Japanese),
Feng De Quan (Chinese), just to name a few. These methods all focus on early education for children
from birth to six years of age, suggesting an approach to activate the brain; facilitate its potential; boost
curiosity, imagination, and a desire for learning; encourage comprehensive development in children
(sight, hearing, and language).
Thenceforth, the term “Early childhood education” or “ECE methods” became popular; however,
its definition varies and rather vague in modern documents. Below is our approach to the definition:
Education is a popular term in pedagogy. Simply put, it means the process of giving knowledge,
skills, and experiences from one person to another; in other words, it’s the process in which instructors
(adults) exert their effects on learners (young children) to establish and cultivate values in them.
Early means before an expected time. When it comes to the life cycle of human beings, from a fetus
to death, the term “early childhood” here refers to the period from birth to six years of age.
Hoang Phe (2018) defined methods as structured means or ways used to solve a problem.
Consequently, early childhood education or ECE methods can be understood as ways or processes
of affecting children in the period from birth to six years old to activate the cerebral cortex, especially
the right hemisphere, to encourage and release their potential.
In other words, ECE is an educational study of the brain. It’s not the process when adults give
information to children, but the process that children absorb everything surrounding them by themselves.
Therefore, ECE should start during the pregnancy once the fetus has fully developed its senses to receive
stimulations from the outside environment.
Targets of ECE: to realize limitless potential of human beings, nurture the foundation for personality
during the period when brain development is blossoming (the developing brain). The nature of ECE is
to provide children with an interesting life, where they are stimulated and instructed appropriately to
facilitate their abilities, instead of helping them accumulate knowledge only as in traditional education.
Children learn in a different way compared to adults’, they learn by absorbing and memorizing
things around.
As stated above, we can view “early childhood education” as below:
1) Early childhood education is the educational process fostering functions of the developing brain
during its optimum period for development;
2) Early childhood education is the educational process to fulfill potential of children during their
optimum period for intellectual development;
3) Early childhood education is also the process to nurture the foundation for personality of each
child from the very beginning.
Definition of “photo taking”

This term is put in quotation marks to represent two meanings:
Literally: it’s the job of a photographer, which is to capture things with a special device.
Figuratively: this is the meaning used in this article, which is the act of using eyes, ears, and the
mouth to focus on any images in a quick manner to unconsciously memorise them into the cerebral cortex.
Definition of Cognition
Cognition is a term used in psychology, philosophy, and pedagogy and analysed in different
perspectives.
Lenin (1963) believed that cognition was the process of dialectically reflecting reality into human
brain, in a positive, dynamic, and creative way.
Inwood, M. (2016) viewed cognition as the process of recreating reality in our mind, characterised
by social laws and closely associated with reality; it must be the purpose of reality, and subjects to facts.
Bui Hien (2004) states that “cognition is the process or result of reflecting and recreating reality
into the thinking mind”. Cognition here is understood as a process and a reflection. Cognition is the
process in which people recognise the world around them, or the result of that cognitive process (with
recognition as the low level, understanding comes next, when people truly know the nature of things).
Hoang Phe (2019) stated that cognition was the act or the process of receiving knowledge and
understanding through thoughts, experiences and senses, including processes such as intellect,
attention, memory, appreciation, estimation, reasoning, calculation, problem solving, decision making,
apprehension, and language using.
Upon the approach of this article, we view cognition in children as the reflection of the world
around in their young mind. They receive everything in the environment through senses, and creatively
reflect the information in their mind.
1.1.2. Tendency of ECE methods
Based on research on functions of the brain, especially the right hemisphere, in the period from
birth to six years of life, various educational methods for cognitive development have been introduced,
such as the ones of Maria Montessori (Italian), Glenn Doman (Italian), Shichida (Japanese), Feng De
Quan (Chinese), Charles H. Cranford (American). Generally, these methods all aim to affect the cerebral
cortex, especially the right hemisphere, to discover potential and balance the two hemispheres during the
early stage. That’s the key and the critical foundation for comprehensive development in children. This
is drawn on the following evidence:
Jiang Jun (2006) emphasized the importance of an educational method realizing potential, or to
put it more precisely, fostering cognitive development in children. He also mentioned the diminishing
principle: children are all born with potential, but it will diminish over time without appropriate support.
Montessori, M. (2014; 2015; 2016) introduced a method with the philosophy that said, “learning is
a simultaneous need in children, which depends on the environment they are in. The environment must
be equipped with a system of materials to give children ample opportunities of hands-on experiences, in
which the teacher plays the role of supporting and observing to understand them.”
Doman, G. (2005; 2006) developed a method based on the importance of the period from birth
to six years old to the development and balance of our two brain hemispheres, with an emphasis on
the right one, to help childhood develop comprehensively, including their mind and intelligence. This
method received a huge favour from experts; and when put into practice by parents all around the world,
it has enjoyed considerable success.
Shichida, M. (2015; 2016; 2017) worked on an educational method directing to the development of
the brain, especially the right hemisphere in the early stage, enhancing cognitive development in nursery
and young children.
Feng De Quan (2012) studied positive educational methods in the same direction and developed a
structured system of theoretical basis, which has been well received and adopted in most of nursery schools
with the same target of fostering comprehensive development in children, especially their intellect.
In Vietnam, there have been quite a few research and documents introducing new educational
methods for early childhood education in conferences such as:
Hanh, L. (2017) analysed aspects of Multiple Intelligences Theory along with its success in
application worldwide, to point out how this theory can be put into used in Vietnamese education;
Minh, N. (2014) introduced the approach of Montessori: children possess from birth an “unknown
power” which is dynamic and continuous. They contain an ultimate power within themselves. The goal of
education should be to activate that power for their natural development in their own pace. Children must
not be treated as objects but as who they are: human beings.
Several researchers from Hanoi Metropolitan University (March 2017) have introduced positive
educational methods based on educational theories and brain studies, such as Vu Ngoc Thuy, Vu Thuy
Hoan – Dang Ut Phuong, Nguyen Thi Bich Nguyet, Ta Chi Thanh, Nguyen Thi Bich Thuy. Suggested
methods are all modern and positive approaches in the world, with an emphasis on the values of both
theoretical and practical aspects.
Hanoi College of Education (2015) also had a share in introducing positive educational methods
for young children by Nguyen Vo Ky Anh and Tu Duc Van (2015), Nguyen Vo Ky Anh (2015) or Ngo
Khai Khê (2012), Song Lam (2014); most of which follow modern educational trends in the world.
On the other hand, there are various of seminars and talks discussing about Montessori philosophy,
Glenn Doman method, Shichida method organised in many places at different time of the year. Besides,
some institutions in Vietnam such as “Institute of Education for Human Potential Development IPD”
(Hanoi); “Shichida Educational Institute” (HCMC); “The Institutes for the Achievement of Human
Potential (IAHP) in Vietnam” have spent time investigating new educational tendency, with Little
Einstein as a representative to adopt Glenn Doman method, along with a wide range of Montessori
teacher training centres.
1.2. Features of cognition in nursery children
According to psychological and pedagogic documents relating to ECE, cognition can be looked at
through the following aspects: features, and factors affecting cognitive development of nursery children.
Features
Tuyet, N. & Mai, N. (2008) defined features of cognition as: a psychological process; of a wide
spectrum; with diverse assets of reflection (properties of things, relationship of objects existing in the
physical world); consisting of many psychological processes (feelings, perception, thinking, imagination,
memory); and a product of perception.
Consequently, we can see that cognition in nursery children possess all features as in adults, but
in a developing state, or low level of the mentioned psychological process: first, the range of reflection
is narrower due to their lack of experiences; secondly, reflection assets are fewer, for example, they can
only perceive some certain properties of things, or simple relationship between things only; thirdly, all
psychological process are still in progress, such as feelings (senses of tactile, gustatory, auditory, visual,
and olfactory only work in basic level without fully functioning as in adults), perception (to perceive
things separately instead of as a whole), thinking (just on the edge of going deep down to the nature of
things, children can visualise symbols in their mind but associated with actions, their thinking is pretty
much based on feelings and personal desires), memory (mainly unconscious memory, memorise in a
rigid manner, only memorise things associated with feelings or repetition); attention (mainly unconscious
focus, children show little or no interest in boring and plain activities), imagination (mainly unconscious
imagination, only things giving them a strong emotion can become a subject of imagination).
Features of cognition in children can be viewed as followed:
As for children of 3-4 years of age (visual thinking-movement stage): Enjoy physical movement and
sensorial discovery; can acquire information through communication and simple books; make questions
regularly but might not understand all answers; start understanding cause and effect relationship through
simple questions: Why? What for? How?; can associate two events while discussing but may have
difficulty in pronouncing, and verbal expression. Children need adults to listen and paraphrase what they
say; they learn best in specific situations meaningful to themselves and with trust and encouragement
of adults.
As for children of 4-5 years of age (visual and representational thinking stage): Children often
use role play games (pretend play) to process new information and understand complex concepts; start
understanding what experiments are and become purposeful as well as more creative in exploring. They
normally enjoy their own experiments instead of the ones instructed by adults; start planning for a course
of action, for example, think about sowing seeds before actually do it; start making prediction based
on their experiences. Children in this age enjoy making explanations about what they observe, adding
fantasy into facts; love taking with other children while playing and experimenting; start using drawings
to represent and express their ideas; like speaking for adults to write down and try writing themselves.
As for children of 5-6 years old (logical thinking stage): Obtain much information about some
objects and events but haven’t been able to fully understand them; can make experiments themselves to
see what will happen and think of explanations for what they observe, though they haven’t been able to
use logical and abstract thinking; can do some experiments as instructed by the teacher and can explain
in many different ways; usually spend much time on or engage with activities they enjoy. Like to play
in groups of 5 – 6 children and love discussing in small groups; can get a grasp of abstract concepts but
still need actual situations to explain; enjoy drawing and writing to record events.
1.3. Procedure for organising a cognitive activity for nursery children through “photo taking”
1.3.1. Purpose
To help activate the brain of children in the most effective way through senses, especially visual,
images are reflected onto the cerebral cortex by regularly “photo taking”, with a speed from slow to fast.
Cognition of children henceforth will be improved, perception gradually develops from unconsciously
memorising and focusing to consciously, the number of connections and folds on the cerebral cortex
positively increases, and children refine their senses, especially visual and auditory.
1.3.2. Content
- Provide knowledge, information of things to children through images.
- Practice thinking skills: attention, memory. Practice observing, recognising, and copying images
onto the cerebral cortex.
- Develop senses
- Develop language through vocabulary and pronunciation.
1.3.3. Method – Format – Tools
Method
Combine several educational methods, with visual method as the key one.
- Visual method: Children get to see images of words, get to hear the pronunciation from the
teacher that they can repeat.
- Method for encouragement and compliment: Children receive loving words, hugs and appreciation
from the teacher.
- Practice method: Children are given chances to observe, watch and hear repeatedly on a regular basis.
Format
For personal and small group lessons
- In small groups: the number of children in each group is proportional to children’s age. Maximum
5 children/group
- These two formats should be used alternatively
Tools
The main material is flash cards, which can be bought, or hand made as below:
- Size: adequate to A5 (15x12cm);
- Labelled in Vietnamese or other languages (if the teacher is capable of those languages) in a
simple font (Times New Roman or Arial) (or handwritten). The text must be clear, bold and should be in
red (to faster and stronger stimulate the cerebral cortex). The other side of each card should be labelled
too, but in small text just enough for the teacher to read.
- Dotted cards of 30x30 in size, with dots in red, white background. Each card corresponds to one
counting unit, starting from the blank card (zero), with no limit to the number of cards. Dots must be the
same in size in all cards, with diameter of 1cm.
- Image, colour and other types of text cards.
- No limit on the number of card types.
1.3.4. Schedule for using types of cards when organizing “photo taking”
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Week I - Using: 5 random types of cards (animals, numbers, colours, etc.)

- 3 cards for each type, with a total of 15 cards/each activity
- No adding or removing cards, 3 cards of each type should be shuffled for each time
Week II - Using: 5 types of cards, make sure to add a new type and remove an old type each day
- 3 cards for each type, with a total of 15 cards/each activity
- The order of 3 cards in each type should be changed each time
Week III Like week II
Week IV: Display cards Alternate 2 Alternate 3 Alternate 4 Alternate 5 types each
ask children to find type by type types each types each types each time
requested cards time time time
Repeat the process for the next month with new cards, make sure to add one new and remove one old type of cards.
(Source: authors)
1.3.5. Evaluation
Based on the correct finding rate, finding speed, naming manner of children in 5 continuous days of
week 4, the development of cognition and brain activation in children should be evaluated.
Correct
Finding speed Manner Evaluation
finding rate
Loud and clear

Level 1 80 -100% Fast (1 minute) Cognition and brain well activated
articulation
Loud but unclear

Level 2 50 -70% Average (2 minutes) Cognition and brain averagely activated
articulation but
Slow (more than 2 Soft and unclear

Level 3 below 50 % Cognition and brain slowly activated
minutes) articulation
(Source: authors)
1.3.6. Procedure
Step 1: Preparation
Materials: 5 types of cards: text, numbers, dots, images, colours (or of various themes such as
national flags, sizes, shapes, etc.).
Step 2: Implementation
The teacher sits opposite to children.
Warm up: cheer up children a little bit (not too much excitement) with eye contact, words, and
loving acts.
Card showing: each type of cards should be shown 3 times, 2 minutes between each. After each
time, clap hands to compliment and encourage children to read out loud as instructed. Ensure the
showing duration: First time: 2 seconds/card; second time: 1 second/card; third time: 1/2 second/card.
Pay attention to children’s focus while showing cards.
Step 3: Finish
Upon the completion, always hug children to show encouragement and appreciation.
1.3.7. Rules
- Don’t forget to change cards: add one new and remove one old card each day
- Apply 2 weeks in a row, then off one week. Continue in this manner.
- Make sure both children and the teacher are comfortable.
- The room must be airy, clean, and calm.
- Time: when children are comfortable both physically and mentally
- Most effective when carried out on a regular basis, at least 2 activities per day.
2. CONCLUSION
Cognitive development is one target of ECE. Studies on brain development, especially the right
hemisphere, in the early stage from birth to six years of age, have extended perspectives and approaches
to human intelligence and intelligence in young children. This article shares a new perspective on
cognitive development in young children through the activity of “photo taking”. This activity is the
act to record and save images, external information into the brain (cerebral cortex) unconsciously.
This process helps children well establish pathways, or connection pathways, to create a network of
information and data on cerebral cortex. The more pathways on the cerebral cortex, the more activated
the brain becomes, and the better the intellect develops. If this experiment is put into practice, there will
be more evidence for proving the value and meaning of activating the cerebral cortex of children during
their six first years of life.
REFERENCES
1. Hoang Phe, 2019, Vietnamese Dictionary, Hong Duc Publishing House

2. V.I. Lenin. (1963). Philosopher’s Note-book, Truth Publishing House
3. Inwood, M. (2016), Hegelian dictionary of philosophy, Knowledge Publishing House
4. Bui Hien, Nguyen Van Giao, Nguyen Huu Quynh, Vu Van Tao, Education Dictionary, (2004),
Hanoi Encyclopedia Publishing House.
5. Giang Quan, (2006). Effective educational methods in the world – Kail Wite’s omnipotent method
of education, Judicial Publishing House.
6. Motessori, M. (2014). Montessori method – the ultimate art of raising children, Labor Publishing House.
7. Montessori, M. (2015). Montessori method of education - a new discovery about children, Ho

Chi Minh City University of Education Publishing House
8. Motessori, M. (2016). Education for the New World, Knowledge Publishing House
9. Doman, G. (2005). How to teach your baby math? Publishing company Square One
10. Doman, G. (2006). How smart is your baby ? Publishing company Square One
11. Shichida, M. (2015). Three golden keys to raising children according to the Shichida method,
World Publishing House
12. Shichida, M. (2016). Future right brain education for your child, World Publishing House
13. Shichida, M. (2017). Develop the intelligence and talents of children under 7 years old according
to the Shichida method, World Publishing House.
14. Phung Duc Toan, (2012), “The 0-year-old option- How has my child developed his talent”,
Labor-Social Publishing House.
15. Le Thi Tuyet Hanh. (2017). Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Implicit for Education. Vietnam
Science Education Journal. No. 137, February 2017.
16. Nguyen Minh. (2014). Montessori method - the ultimate art of raising children, Labor Publishing House.
17. Nguyen Vo Ky Anh & Tu Duc Van. (2015). Early education for children from 0-6 years old
contributes to the improvement of the race and fosters talents for the country. Proceedings of
the international scientific conference “Psychology, Education”, Publishing House of Hanoi
National University of Education
18. Nguyen Vo Ky Anh (2015). Theory of Multifaceted Intelligence - explores a new way of teaching
children, Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House.
19. Ngo Khai Khe. (2012). Early education plan, Dan Tri Publishing House.
20. Song Lam, (2014), World Perspectives: Education, Youth Publishing House.
21. Nguyen Anh Tuyet, Nguyen Nhu Mai (2008), Psychological development of preschool children,
Education Publishing House.
CHANGES IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF PEDAGOGY
AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
Le Ngoc Hung, Trinh Van Minh, Mai Quang Huy

(Faculty of Educational Management, VNU University of Education)
Abstract: Pedagogical science is defined as the science that studies education within the school. At the
same time, pedagogical science, often called pedagogy, is considered an indispensable part of educational
science that studies human education. Pedagogical science with different variations and names has developed
and become one of the educational sciences that study children and adult education within the school and society.
However, pedagogy, pedagogical science and educational sciences all face the problem of excess of reasoning and
lack of scientific theory; excess of practical experience and lack of scientific practice. According to the general
system theory approach, pedagogical science transforms and becomes an educational science in the system of
educational sciences that study the laws of formation, movement, change, and development of systems of the
“society – education – people” relationships. The article uses the method of literature review to clarify the issues
raised in the relationship of pedagogical science with educational sciences. Since then, the report suggests policy
implications and solutions to contribute to the development of pedagogical science in close relationship with
educational sciences.
Keywords: pedagogy, education study, educational science, educational sciences.
1. INTRODUCTION
Education is always a topic that attracts wide attention of the whole society, including leaders,
managers, researchers and educators. This creates a great opportunity for ideas and opinions, which
are very rich and diverse, and poses a challenge to clarifying scientific problems arising in education
in general and in research educational sciences in particular. The question of terminology alone can
cause controversy, for example Pedagogy or Pedagogical Science? Educational Science or Educational
Sciences? Another issue is what is the relationship between pedagogical science and educational
science? This article is not intended to raise and answer all of these questions. The purpose of the
article is to clarify the problem of lack of scientific theories of pedagogical science and educational
science. Applying the general systems theory approach, the article emphasizes that the position and role
of pedagogical science continues to change and becomes one of the educational sciences whose basic
research object is the relationship of “society - education - people”.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
The article uses a review research method including document review, scoping review and document
content analysis. The research sample is mainly monographs, textbooks for undergraduate and graduate
training in pedagogy, pedagogical science, educational science and other content related to the research
topic. At the same time, the survey samples are articles published in specialized journals of educational
science and a number of policy documents related to research and training in educational sciences.
3. OVERVIEW ON PEDAGOGY, PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE, AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE(S)
Pedagogy: the origin of pedagogical science, educational science(s)
The term “pedagogical science” is not as common as the terms “pedagogy” and “educational
science” in Vietnam. This is evident in a series of books called “pedagogy” and “educational science”,
however it is very rare to find a book called “pedagogical science”1 in monographs and textbooks.
Therefore, it is necessary to understand the content of the concept of pedagogical science through the
content of concepts and definitions of pedagogy and educational sciences.
When giving a definition of pedagogy, one author said that the origin of this term comes from the
Greek paedagogus, meaning to lead male children, is based on the activity of the adults affects boys,
later extends to girls, and now affects adults. Since then, pedagogy is considered as a science that studies
the purposes, tasks, objects, contents and methods of education (both for children and adults)2.
Other definitions of pedagogy may not quote the origin of the foreign word for “pedagogical
science”, but all consider pedagogy as a science of human education, that is “pedagogical science”.
Some examples of definitions are as follows.
Pedagogy is a scientific discipline whose research object is the educational process with a broad
connotation, covering all educational and teaching impacts, oriented towards a definite purpose,
organized in a reasonable and scientific in order to form and develop learners’ personality3.
Pedagogy is a science that studies the process of educating people with the object of study is the
educational process, a special process in the activities of human society4.
Pedagogy mainly studies the process of human educating and mainly studies the formal education
process, which has a specialized nature of society (conscious and organized educational impact)5.
Pedagogy is an educational science that studies the nature, laws, trends and future development of the
educational process, with factors and means of human development as a personality in the whole of life6.
Following the same concept, but some authors specify that the object of pedagogy is “teaching - educating”7.
Without mentioning pedagogy, some authors define: ‘Educational sciences are a specialized
field of science that studies educational things, phenomena, problems, and processes in order to
understand the educational characteristics and relationships, and promoting the laws of educational
processes and activities”8.
1 Applied Pedagogical Science Research. Publisher of Pedagogical University. Hanoi. 2010.

2 Nguyen Tien Dat. 2004. Comparative Education. VNU Publishing House, Hanoi.
3 Nguyen Sinh Huy – Nguyen Van Le. 1999. General Pedagogy. Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
4 Pham Viet Vuong. 2014. Pedagogy. VNU Publishing House, Hanoi.
5 Tran Anh Tuan, Ngo Thi Thu Dung, Mai Quang Huy. 2009. General Pedagogy. VNU Publishing House, Hanoi.
6 Tran Thi Tuyet Oanh (Chief author), Pham Viet Vuong - Bui Minh Hien - Nguyen Ngoc Bao - Bui Van Quan - Pham Hong
Vinh – Tu Duc Van. 2016. Textbook of Pedagogy. University of Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
7 Thai Duy Tuyen. 2001. Modern Pedagogy. VNU Publishing House, Hanoi.
8 Tran Khanh Duc. 2011. Textbook of Educational Sciences Research Methodology. VNU Publishing House, Hanoi.
The content of educational sciences

The term “educational sciences” has been used, but is mainly used to refer to the disciplines of
“educational sciences” in the sense of pedagogy. Some examples can be given as follows.
System content. Some authors refer to the system by listing its components. “The system of
educational sciences includes: history of education and pedagogy. The later can be divided into different
levels such as pedagogy of preschool education, pedagogy of general education, pedagogy of vocational
education, pedagogy of higher education, pedagogy of adult education; pedagogy of special education;
theory of subject teaching”1.
General - major content: The scientific knowledge system of pedagogy is usually composed of
scientific specialties:
Pedagogy (general): including general issues, theory of teaching, theory of education, theory of
organization and management of schools.
Specialized pedagogy: According to the level of study, there are pedagogy of preschool education,
pedagogy of general education, pedagogy of vocational education, pedagogy of higher education, etc.
By field, there are majors: pedagogy of special education, pedagogy of adult education; history
of education; comparative education; subject (as math, physics...) education; educational management;
educational economics; sociology of education2.
Scientific interdisciplinary content. Do not use the word “educational sciences”, but some authors
argue that educational sciences develop according to the trend of differentiation and integration.
Therefore, educational sciences are constantly changing, developing many new majors such as
philosophy of education, history of education, comparative education, economics of education,
sociology of education, educational management3.
Some authors specify pedagogy as a pedagogical science and as a discipline of educational
sciences that specializes in the study of the educational process4. According to this concept, educational
sciences are a broad field of science, with pedagogy and interdisciplinary subjects between education
and philosophy, history, economics, sociology, national studies, the study of all aspects of education and
training in schools and in society in order to guide the development of education5.
4. RESULTS AND ISSUES
Result 1. The problem of pedagogy
A 2014 study on the weaknesses of more than 600 master’s theses on pedagogy and educational
management in Vietnam found the problem of over-describing the situation and under-researching
educational science theory6. That is: the majority (over 64%) of these theses focus on describing the
situation and proposing solutions without scientific theory. Only over 35% of these have “apply” theory to
research topics.
1 Nguyen Sinh Huy – Nguyen Van Le.op.cit.

2 Tran Anh Tuan et al., op.cit.
3 Tran Thi Tuyet Oanh et al, op.cit.
4 Mai Quang Huy. 2018. “Compare Bachelor of Education Science Programs” VNU Journal: Education Studies 34(1):47-57.
5 Ibid.
6 Tran Thanh Ai. 2014. “ Weakness of scientific research in education in Vietnam: Causes and solutions.” Can Tho University
Journal of Science, Part C: Social Sciences, Humanities and Education. 33(2014): pp128-37.
A survey of pedagogical books found that pedagogy has educational theory and teaching theory,
has a dialectical and historical materialist philosophical methodology, and has methods of pedagogical
research. However, the problem of pedagogy is that there is very little mention of “theory of educational
sciences”. If a study contains a certain theory, it is also not clear and specific to understand that it is a
“scientific theory” applied in education. For example, a chapter on teaching theory of book on pedagogy
simply states “According to the theory of operations we see…” and then lists some of the contents.
That chapter of reasoning does not present anything better than to make it possible to understand the
theory of activity as a psychological scientific theory of human activity. This theory was developed by a
number of Russian psychologists and educators1 (former Soviet Union) and extensively researched and
deployed in education and training practice in a number of countries including Vietnam2.
Results 2. The problem of educational sciences
To contribute to the construction of “educational sciences” in Vietnam, the Journal of Educational
Research No. 2 in 1976 opened a page titled “Educational Science Terminology”. This page is responsible
for introducing the basic concepts of general pedagogy, pedagogy of subject education, general psychology,
age and pedagogical psychology, age physiology, school hygiene, history of education3. Educational
sciences have been defined as a system of scientific disciplines whose research object is the educational
process in certain historical - social conditions4, the educational phenomenon in society5. As early as 1980,
educational sciences were identified as having a structure of six disciplines: (i) theory and methodology
of educational science, (ii) educational theory, (iii) teaching theory, (iv) theory of organization and
management of education and schools, (v) comparative education, (vi) history of education6.
However, after nearly half a century, the problem of lack of scientific theory as a basis for building
educational sciences is still an urgent issue that needs to be raised. A review study (scoping) combined
with document content analysis for articles in the Journal of Education in 2019 shows that the current
status of research and theoretical implementation of educational sciences is as follows7. Firstly, the
number of articles in the category “Theory of education - teaching” accounted for over 46% of the total
of over 700 articles of the Education Journal in 2019. Second, only nearly a third (31%) in a total of 325
articles “Theory of education - teaching” using words from the theoretical category in the title of the
article and the abstract of the article. Third, there are only a very small number of 17 articles, accounting
for more than 5% of the total articles in the section “Theory of education - teaching”, introducing and
applying nine theories of educational sciences in teaching specific subjects and lessons or apply them
in general in education and training. Fourth, the articles cited are not many if not very few foreign
documents on the theory of educational sciences in the world.
Regarding foreign works on educational sciences translated into Vietnamese, there is a remarkable
paradox as follows. On the one hand, in recent years, many books by some foreign authors such as Jean
Piaget, Montessori and Howard Gardner etc. have been translated and published in Vietnamese and
1 Leonchep, A.N. 1989. Activity, Consciousness, Personality. Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
2 Pham Minh Hac. 1989. Behaviour and activity. Hanoi: Education Publishing House.
3 Ha The Ngu. 2001. Education: Some theoretical and practical issues. VNU-Publishing House, Hanoi. p.26.
4 Ha The Ngu, Ibid.
5 Trinh Van Minh (Chief author) - Dang Ba Lam. 2020. Education study research methodology. VNU-Publishing House,
Hanoi: p. 77.
6 Ha The Ngu, op.cit.
7 Le Ngoc Hung, 2020. “Theories of education studies for “society - education - human”. VNU Journal of Science: Education
Research, 36(3): 61-67.
have been referenced, researched and introduced. Practical books on a theoretical subject such as
mind maps have been translated and published many times in Vietnam. However, there are still many
books on theories of educational sciences that have not been translated into Vietnamese. On the other
hand, a theory that has been researched and applied the most in 2019 in the Journal of Education is
Kolb’s theory of experiential learning. But almost none of David Kolb’s books1 have been translated
and published in Vietnamese.
Preliminary findings from a 2019 scoping study of articles in a peer-reviewed educational journal
may help confirm the hypothesis. It is hypothesized that: studies on pedagogy, pedagogical science, and
educational sciences in Vietnam are still facing the problem of lack of scientific theory. Therefore, it is
necessary to strengthen research, introduce and creatively apply theories of educational sciences in the
world in fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training in Vietnam.
Result 3. Problems in the research contents of educational sciences
The basic research contents of educational sciences can be found in the Science and Technology
Classification of the Ministry of Science and Technology, in 2009. Accordingly, educational sciences
include three contents with corresponding codes are educational science in general, special education
(science) and other educational science issues (box 1). Pedagogy is one of the discipline of educational
sciences in general.
Box 1. Code and content structure of educational science
503. Educational science

50301. Educational science in general, including training, pedagogy, educational theory,
... Including main content such as: General educational theory; Pedagogy; Teacher training;
Education system; Pre-school education; General education; Higher education; Post-graduate
education; Ongoing training; Lifelong learning; Professional training; Vocational training; Other
general education and training issues.
50302. Special education (by subjects, for people with disabilities,) Includes main contents
such as: Education in special cases; Education in specialized schools; Education for people with
disabilities; underdeveloped; Other special education.
50399. Other educational issues.
Source: Ministry of Science and Technology. Classification of fields of scientific and technological research. (De-
cision No. 12/2008/QD-BKHCN dated September 4, 2008 of the Ministry of Science and Technology and Decision
No. 37/QD-BKHCN dated January 14, 2009 amending Decision 12/2008/QD - BKHCN). Hanoi, June 2011.
Result 4. Problems in the training content of pedagogy and educational sciences

The Education and Training Directory of the Vietnamese national education system (2017)
defined: “Educational sciences are a group of disciplines and professions focusing on teaching and
learning principles and theories, including curriculum development, program inspection and evaluation,
educational research, other educational sciences”, and stipulated training programs of the group of
1 Even one of the most cited books is Kolb’s book, David. 1984. Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning
and development. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall.
educational sciences at the levels of higher education (table 1). Pedagogy appears in undergraduate and
graduate training programs, including training at master’s and doctoral levels. Theories of educational
science and Methods of educational science (research) are not found in training programs at master’s
and doctoral levels. At the undergraduate level, there are bachelor’s degree programs in pedagogy and
educational management.
Table 1. Programs of educational science training
Level Bachelor Master Doctor

Training Pedagogy Pedagogy Pedagogy
program Educational
Educational management Educational management
management
Teaching theories and methods Teaching theories and methods
Subject teaching theories and Subject teaching theories and methods
methods
Measurement and evaluation in
Measurement and evaluation in education
education
Designing educational and teaching
Designing educational and means
teaching means
Comparative and international
Comparative and international education
education
Special Education
Special Education
Theories and history of education
Source: Education and training directory of the Vietnamese national education system at undergraduate, master
and doctoral levels. According to Document No. 15/VBHN - BGDĐT dated May 8, 2014; and Circular 25/2017/
TT-BGDDT dated October 10, 2017 of the Minister of Education and Training.
Results of a quick review of the catalog of knowledge of the Bachelor Program of Pedagogy of
the National Academy of Education Management and the Bachelor Program of Educational Science
of the VNU University of Education discovered two important things. The program of Bachelor of
Educational Science has been trained at the VNU University of Education since 2019 for the first
time in Vietnam. The program of Pedagogy may lack “educational sciences” when there is no module
with a name directly associated with this word, even though there is a module “General Pedagogy”.
Meanwhile, the Program of Educational Science has modules such as “Introduction to Educational
Science”, “Educational Scientific Research Methodology”, “Theory of Human Development and
Learning”, “Theories of Modern Educational Science”.
The results of an overview of the table of contents of 2 textbooks on pedagogy are summarized
in Table 2. Both of these textbooks have been reprinted many times and are used in universities of
teacher education. In terms of content, both books have 4 parts with nearly equal number of chapters
(18-19 chapters). Both books can be heavy on educational theory, teaching theory and practice of school
education because there are three corresponding sections on this content. However, both books are
probably still lacking theory of educational sciences as not a part, a chapter and a section contains the
word “theory of educational sciences”. A thorough review of the content of the single chapter entitled
“Pedagogy as a Science” found no modern educational science theory mentioned in any section of this
chapter. Of these two chapters, only once B.P. Skinner (1968) is credited with being the first to use
the term “teaching technology”1. Both of these books define pedagogy as science and both have the
educational process as the object of study, perhaps similar to other definitions of pedagogy.
Table 2. Summary of results of a review of two books on pedagogy
Name of the
Pedagogy Text book for Pedagogy
book
Textbook for universities and colleges (Textbook) For universities of teacher

Book type
of teacher education. education.
Print time Fourth Eighth

Publishing Hanoi National University of Education Hanoi National University of Education
House
Year 2014 2016
Number of 411 501
pages
Number 4 parts / 18 chapters 4 parts / 19 chapters
of parts /
chapters
Chapter 2. Pedagogy is a science 1. Pedagogy is a science
Number of 12 14
pages
Definition of Science has the task of studying the Science that studies the nature, laws, trends
pedagogy nature and laws of education, forming and future development of the educational
theories of education and teaching, process, with factors and means of human
in order to deploy and apply research development as a personality throughout the
results into real life (p. 24). whole life (p. 19).
Research the educational process of character whole educational process, realistic with
object formation for the young generation and purpose, organized in a given society (p. 19)
the process of training human resources
for the society (p. 23)
Discussion: From pedagogical science, pedagogy to educational sciences

The problem of lack of scientific theory as discovered above can be related to the history of
scientific development in general and educational sciences in particular. Similar to many other
sciences, the emergence of a term such as Pedagogy perhaps only marks the birth of an activity, a field
of study in education. Whether that field becomes a science similar to natural science or not requires
certain conditions.
Pedagogy can be distinguished with two meanings. Firstly, pedagogy is a pedagogical science in
the sense that it is a science that studies the educational process mainly of children as in the original
Greek and mainly education within schools. Secondly, pedagogy as pedagogical science has emerged
and evolved in the historical development of society. In both these senses, pedagogy must go through
a long history of research in partnership with and inherit the fruits of other sciences including physics,
biology, psychology, social science and many other sciences. Perhaps that pedagogy has become an
“educational science” studying the laws and regularities of the formation, movement and change of the
1 Tran Thi Tuyet Oanh et al,. op.cit.

educational system and process since the second half of the nineteenth century1. This reflects the law of
the development of disciplines in the field of social sciences and humanities. For example, psychology
appeared very early, but it was probably not until Wundt founded the psychology laboratory at the
University of Leipzig in 1879 that psychology became a science and can be called at length “the science
of mind” and briefly called “psychological science”2. Another example is sociology that has appeared
in the form of ideas, a priori studies, and long experience in social history. But it was not until 1838
that the term “sociologie” appeared in France, and the science of real sociology began to develop in the
United States in 1892. The appearance of a word, a term including the use of a certain spectrum of words
such as “educational science”, “pedagogical science”, and “educational science” is not enough to develop
educational sciences. Other conditions required include scientific institutions such as a scientific research
organizations and corresponding specialized training in universities, specialized scientific journals, and
respective professional associations.
Similar to other sciences, educational sciences are a system of educational science theories, a system
of educational scientific research methods and methodologies. Perhaps due to the lack of attention to
the qualitative difference between pedagogy and educational sciences, many monographs, textbooks,
and textbooks on pedagogy rarely give due attention to the presentation of the material and educational
theories. The lack of a clear theoretical approach to educational sciences can lead pedagogy to become a
field of educational practice, pedagogical practice “excess theory, lack of scientific theory”3.
5. PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE IN EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
The general systems theory approach of the educational sciences
It is easy to say that pedagogical science is a discipline within the educational sciences. However,
what does this mean if it does not answer the question what are educational sciences?
The educational sciences are not the sum total of the individual scientific disciplines. Many authors
simply list the sciences related to education to collectively call them “educational sciences”. It should
be seen that educational sciences are formed and developed according to the general systems theory4
approach. The general system theory approach emphasizes five characteristics of systems that always
interact with their environment. The five characteristics and also five principles of the system are
openness, goal-direction, superiority, multidimensionality, and counter intuitiveness. Thanks to that,
the system always changes, differentiates, adapts and develops continuously in a complex relationship
with the change of the surrounding environment. This theoretical approach helps to answer theoretical
and practical questions about the formation, transformation and development of educational sciences.
For example, when the advancement and extensive application of modern media, including digital
communication and digital technology, appear in the environment, the educational sciences must also
pay attention to the study of changes in the environment of the digital age.
Theoretically, the general systems theory approach states that education is an open social system
that always interacts with surrounding systems and environments. Vietnamese society is innovating in the
1 Le Ngoc Hung, 2015b. Sociology of Education. VNU-Publishing House, Hanoi.

2 The behaviorist John Watson set forth his strict standard that only when psychology adopts a behavioral approach does
psychology become an objective science.
3 Le Ngoc Hung, 2020. “Theories of education studies for “society - education - human”. VNU Journal of Science: Education
Research, 36(3): 61-67.
4 Gharajedaghi, Jamshid. 2005. Systems Thinking. Managing chaos and complexity. A platform for designing business architechture.
Social Sciences Publishing House, Hanoi.
direction of industrialization and modernization in the environment of globalization, world integration

and the Fourth Industrial Revolution with prominent elements of digital technology. Education is a
system made up of sub-systems in which the educational sciences must necessarily shift and innovate
to adapt to the changes of the whole society. In practice, scientific theory has the position and role of
“guideline, torch to light the way” for human behavior and activities. In science, theory is the basis,
frame of reference for empirical research.
The general systems theory approach in the educational sciences helps to answer the question of
“why”, without which the best scientists can only describe the reality of what kind of vision they see.
It is difficult to identify causes and influencing factors. Lacking a general systems theory approach,
educators including educational administrators, teachers and learners find it difficult to grasp the
nature of things and phenomena in open systems with surroundings. Without this approach, educators,
including teachers and learners, can only answer “what” and “how” questions and can act stereotyped,
mechanically according to what is indicated, taught and learned. With a general systems theory approach,
educators not only have the quality and capacity to understand what the real problem is, but also the
quality and ability to explain why this is so able to innovate, create and develop sustainably in an ever-
changing environment. In short, according to the general systems theory approach, it is necessary to
consider the educational sciences as a system of educational sciences characterized by its “system of
scientific research objects”.
Research objects of educational sciences
Based on the modern general system theory approach1, it is possible to identify the research object
of the educational sciences as the relationship system “society - education - people”. This is a “dual”
relationship system with one side being the relationship between education and society and on the other
hand the relationship between education and people2.
The basic research question of the educational sciences is: how does the relational system of
“society-education-people” form, change and develop? From this basic question, many specific research
questions can be raised, for example: what is the position and role of education in a digitized society?
What is the position and role of education for people in the digital age? Regarding the topic of this
study, it is possible to ask questions: pedagogy, pedagogical science and educational sciences are changing
their position and role3 for both society and people in the transition process to market economy and world
integration of the digital age?
Education not only imparts scientific and technological knowledge but also conducts research to
produce scientific and technological knowledge. The new pedagogical science in educational sciences
has the task of contributing to research and clarify the change of the “society - education - human”
relationship system in the digital era. Pedagogical science, pedagogy, and educational science, although it
is not enough to expand the scope of school education research to family education, social education, and
interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary. Because the problem is not simply expanding or interdisciplinary
in a mechanical, mechanical way of addition, or extension. The problem is evolution, development
1 Le Ngoc Hung. 2015a. Social system, structure & differentiation. VNU-Publishing House, Hanoi.
2 Le Ngoc Hung. 2015b. op.cit.
3 This hypothesis is posited in the way that Lyotard hypothesized that knowledge changes status as soon as societies enter
the so-called post-industrial age and cultures enter the so-called postmodern age. Lyotard, Jean-François. 1979/2007.
Postmodern situation. Hanoi: Knowledge Publishing House. P.59.
according to the system principle, the general system theory. Pedagogical science also changes in
the direction of applying the general system theory approach to study the object system which is the
relationship system “society - education - people”. According to the general systems theory approach,
the educational sciences is a system of sciences that studies the laws of the formation, transformation
and systematic development of the relationships “society - education - people”. Thus, the research object
of the educational sciences (system) is the system of “society - education - people” relationships.
In fact, some authors, although not invoking the general systems theory approach, still give the view
in the direction of considering the educational sciences as a system with research objects of different
levels of the system from micro to macro. According to this concept, the educational sciences study the
macro - phenomenon of education such as demographic, economic, social, institutional or cultural issues
that have a direct impact on education, but are outside of each individual1. Educational sciences research
and teach theoretical issues and educational methods in schools and outside schools, which are methods
of knowledge transmission and capacity development for each individual2.
6. CONCLUSION
The pedagogical science (pedagogy) is innovating from an educational science with many practices
in school education to a science with a central position and role in modern educational sciences to meet
the requirements of world integration and the digital age. In the trend of development according to the
general system principle, which is reflected in the trend of specializing, inter-, trans-, multi-disciplinary,
the current sciences have formed a system of “Educational sciences” which is not the addition of
disciplines of educational science. It is a system of educational sciences that includes different sciences
and even competes in the unity of research with the same research object system, which is the system
of relationships of “social - educational - people”. The educational sciences attempt to address the
fundamental research question: how do people and societies decide to do education? How does education
affect human development and social development? The answer from the system of educational sciences
here is that people and society are increasingly actively and actively doing education in a scientific way
to ensure the development of human beings with a life in harmony with the surrounding environment.
Education based on educational sciences will play an increasingly important role in human and social
development. As an inevitable part of the system of educational sciences, pedagogical science also
changes, develops according to the general systems theory approach and plays a central and core role in
the study of the system of relationships of “society - education - people”.
Within the framework of an article to present at a scientific conference, the article limits the scope
of an overview of some documents and focuses on applying the general systems theory approach to
clarify a basis content of the educational science is its object of study. The article is limited to stating
the numerical factor as a factor of environmental change that education must take into account and the
corresponding system of educational sciences must pay attention to research. Another study may need to
focus on clarifying the system of theories and methods of educational sciences that the new pedagogical
science needs to apply and deploy to ensure that it meets specific requirements of the digital age.
1 Trinh Van Minh, Dang Ba Lam, op.cit.

2 Ibid.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of Science and Technology. Field of Science and Technology Classification. Decision
No. 12/2008/QD-BKHCN dated 04 September 2008 of the Ministry of Science and Technology
and Decision No. 37/QD-BKHCN dated 14 January 2009 on amendment of Decision 12/2008/
QD - BKHCN. Hanoi, June 2011.
2. Ministry of Education and Training. Education and training classification of the Vietnamese
national education system at undergraduate, master, and doctoral degree levels. Document
No. 15/VBHN - BGDDT dated 08 May 2014; and Circular No. 25/2017/TT-BGDĐT dated 10
October 2017.
3. Gharajedaghi, Jamshid. 2005. Systems Thinking. Managing chaos and complexity. A platform
for designing business architechture. Social Sciences Publishing House, Hanoi.
4. Ha The Ngu. 2001. Education: Some theoretical and practical issues. VNU-Publishing House, Hanoi.
5. Le Ngoc Hung. 2015a. Social system, structure & differentiation. VNU - Publishing House, Hanoi.
6. —. 2015b. Sociology of Education. VNU - Publishing House, Hanoi.
7. —. 2020. “Theories of education studies for “society - education - human”.” VNU Journal of
Science: Education Research, 36(3): 61-67.
8. Leonchep, A.N. 1989. Activity, Consciousness, Personality. Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
9. Lyotard, Jean-François. 1979/2007. La condition postmoderne. Tri Thuc Publishing House, Hanoi.
10. Mai Quang Huy. 2018. “Compare Bachelor of Education Science Program”. VNU Journal:
Education Studies 34(1):47-57.
11. Nguyen Sinh Huy – Nguyen Van Le. 1999. General Pedagogy. Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
12. Nguyen Tien Dat. 2004. Comparative Education. VNU - Publishing House, Hanoi.
13. Pham Minh Hac. 1989. Behaviour and Activity. Education Publishing House, Hanoi.
14. —. 2005. Psychology Anthology. National Political Publishing House, Hanoi.
15. Pham Viet Vuong. 2014. Pedagogy. VNU - Publishing House, Hanoi.
16. Thai Duy Tuyen. 2001. Modern Education. VNU - Publishing House, Hanoi.
17. Tran Anh Tuan, Ngo Thi Thu Dung, Mai Quang Huy. 2009. General Pedagogy. VNU - Publishing
House, Hanoi.
18. Tran Khanh Duc. 2011. Textbook of Education Sciences Research Methodology. VNU -
Publishing House, Hanoi.
19. Tran Thanh Ai. 2014. “Weakness of scientific research in education in Vietnam: Causes and
solutions.” Can Tho University Journal of Science, Part C: Social Sciences, Humanities and
Education. 33 (2014):128-37.
20. Tran Thi Tuyet Oanh (Chief author), Pham Viet Vuong - Bui Minh Hien - Nguyen Ngoc Bao - Bui
Van Quan - Pham Hong Vinh - Tu Duc Van. 2016. Textbook of Pedagogy. VNU - Publishing
House, Hanoi.
21. Trinh Van Minh (Chief author) - Dang Ba Lam. 2020. Education Sciences Research Methodology.
VNU-Publishing House, Hanoi.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DIGITAL AGE:
OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS
Pham Kim Chung
(Faculty of Education Technology, VNU University of Education)
Abstract: The development of educational technology (ET) has been dragging onto the growth of digital
education and teaching. All activities of teaching and education are happening in digital environments with a large
number of participants. Without the limitations of time or space, participants all connect and integrate resources,
which redefines and directs the teaching process into a more personalized/individualized solution for learners. The
article researches opportunities, challenges, and solutions to develop digital education.
Keywords: Educational technology, digital education, Information technology, smart education.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of century XXI, new technologies have been developing so quickly that
they enforced education to create open-learning opportunities by “any way, any place at any time.”
This approach has opened a wide range of new forms of education and teaching. Either formal or
informal, based on the extensive knowledge-sharing and society, may it be called digital education.
Via the approach, technology has made substantial and profound qualitative contributions to education
and teaching, compared to the contemporaneous teaching methods, processes, or technology. IT has
brought considerable changes in education and new teaching in the direction of openness, flexibility,
and constant updates; thus, learners gradually form a new learning style to meet the needs of each
individual with a unique environment. Learning opportunities are rich and diverse, but there are still
many challenges yet necessary to have orientations to find solutions for the development of educational
technology in the digital education age.
2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE DIGITAL AGE

The invention of computers, the Internet, and information technology (IT), combined with the
development of learning theories, have been the basis for building educational and teaching models with
the support of IT. The early period of studying computer-aided teaching models was influenced heavily
by behavioral theory. Pat Suppes and others develop computer-aided instruction models (CAI). This
model is based on encouragement and repetition to promote active learning activities.
In parallel with the development of behavioral theory, some educational theorists such as Lev
Vygotsky, John Dewey, and Jean Piaget developed constructivism. Based on constructivism, many
researchers have developed constructive methods, which integrate computers and technology into
problem-solving measures to be applied in many aspects of instructional design.
At the end of the XX century, learning theories involved a depth of participation in a hands-on
community learning activity, including research related to online courses. George Siemens (2004)
proposed the above concept - the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC). The learning model has caused
fundamental changes in how information and knowledge to be perceived with vast data communication
networks. Internet technology has moved to learn from internal, individualistic activities to groups and
communities. [1]
The development of IT with data collection and storage techniques has formed diverse, high-speed
big-data storage, which goes up to multiples of petabytes and exabytes. Data science provides structure
and principles for education researchers to deal with complex educational data. Analysis of learner
data and intelligent teaching systems (ITS) and Artificial Intelligence in Education Society (AIED) has
become a crucial phenomenon in education since the 2010s. (Figure 1). [2]
The concept of Educational Technology was first used in 1970 by a UNESCO report and identified
as a driving force for modernizing the educational process in the new era. In recent times, computers
have been strongly involved in teaching, Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as EduTech,
or EdTech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to
acilitate learning.
Accordingly, the task of educational technology is to establish reasonable principles of education
and teaching and the most favorable conditions for conducting training to create methods and means
of education. most effective to achieve the set training goals, and at the same time save the effort of
teachers and learners.[3]
Computer-Based Artificial Big Data and

Instruction (CBI) Intelligence Learning
In Education Analytics
(AIED)
1960 1992 1994 2008 2010
Intelligent Tutoring Education Data

System (ITS) Mining (EDM)
Figure 1. Development of the field of educational technology.
In essence, with the help of new technology, it creates an entirely different method from mass and
uniform education towards differentiation, individualization, and high personalization. The connected
system of people-information-objects and machines form a chain of links in training, research, and
technology transfer. These altogether enforce educational institutions to transform into an innovative
and creative ecosystem, set up under a holistic, mutually impactful system, promoting the quality and
effectiveness of the educational process. With elements included: S (self-directed): M (motivated); A
(adaptive); R (resources); T (technology). [4], [5]
Based on technology, the SMART model can have a powerful impact on the educational process
in the following ways:
- Changes in learner expectations and the ability of schools to respond (adaptability, employability,
and self-employment; ability to maintain and develop professional expertise; lifelong learning
association,...);
- The diversification of educational products, the process of ensuring and improving the quality of
education to big data, artificial intelligence, blockchains in education;
- Changes in the relationship, role, and position of teachers and learners in the teaching process, in
the educational ecosystem;
- The change of the learning environment, the campus with multi-functional learning materials;
- The change of management and administration models in education and teaching on a new
digital platform.
Digital technology is transforming drastically. There are inevitable shifts in the transition from
traditional education to a more technology-based, intelligent, connected, and constructivist one that
creates profound changes while posing new challenges for today’s education. With optimistic forecasts
about the strong development trend of educational technology, educators reorient and implement
perspectives in the right way. In that context, schools need to prepare to make use and adapt to the
benefits brought by technology.
3. CHALLENGES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
Globalization has not only created economic competition but also spurred education reform. The
development of ET promotes a comprehensive improvement of the educational community. Digital
learning infrastructures in the current context of wide IT applications have brought many opportunities
and great possibilities to help reproduce, create knowledge, share information, equalize barriers to access
to information. In particular, this has changed the long-existing teaching model from a Top-Down or
Bottom-Up model to a horizontal and social sharing system in the classroom, where the learners become
the center of a social learning network. This model facilitates the process of teaching differentiation,
individualization, and personalization.
According to Daniel and Butson (2013), the analysis of a large set of educational data can inform
the development of predictive models to identify opportunities and address challenges for educational
institutions. McKenney and Mor (2015) argue that: The insights gained from predictive models can help
understand student learning processes to facilitate the design of adaptive learning environments and
personalized. [5]
In order to grasp the opportunities and limit the challenges that digital education could offer,
countries need to correspond to transformations and form a new form called SMART. The development
of SMART schools, whereby education is present everywhere and connects people, information, objects,
and machines. It emphasizes the transition from the traditional teaching method to a new approach to
technology, a non-traditional teaching model. Education needs to create a personalized learning process.
The system connecting people-information-objects and machines forms an ecosystem in training,
research, and technology transfer, promoting an innovative ecological system.
The challenges with education in the context of digital education are as follows:
- Reorienting core values in training: co-creators of new knowledge; Adaptive capacity development,
transformation, and entrepreneurship of students in the labor market;
- Construction and development of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary training programs;
- Connect the infrastructure in all sectors and all stages in the process of training on technology platforms;
- Improve digital literacy and digital literacy for teachers and learners - “digital citizens.”
- Changes in the nature, methods, models, and outputs of the training program: comprehensive
connectivity, multi-dimensional interaction, approach to the blockchain value
- Expanding digital-based learning environment of more flexibility;
The diversity of concepts about the components of education technology raises technical problems
in working with IT systems. The lack of system interoperability, like in data sharing and governance, can
form a “bottleneck” in data transfer between organizations. Protection for individual and organizational
privacy through authentication and security is another major issue of the ET system...
4. SOLUTIONS OF APPLICATION IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology provides education researchers with the opportunity to use automated tools
and techniques to explore complex educational phenomena on a large scale.
The solutions for development of educational technology is as follows:
+ Learning analysis to personalize the teaching process:
ET changed from traditional media to a new concept called social media. Educational organizations
learn and discuss emotions, social habits, living habits to increase the effectiveness of academic counseling
plays a crucial role for any learner. Various big-data resources in education include data generated and
stored in virtual learning environments, assessment data, individual student profiles, learner models,
video data, and physiological data (i.e., heart rate, blood pressure). Learning analytics allows teachers to
identify factors of risks related to student engagement in learning and optimize the design of the learning
environment (Lodge & Corrin, 2017; Mor et al., 2015). Teachers can use learning analytics to build student
learning pathways, identify areas where learners struggle the most and design better teaching strategies.
Similarly, providing students with personalized data access promotes a greater sense of self-discipline and
encourages self-directed learning (Tan, Koh, Jonathan, & Yang, 2017). [6]
+ Optimizing educational research
Scientific research plays a fundamental role in affirming the credibility of any educational
institution. Big data tools and data-driven applications support research and management both individually
and collaboratively. Social learning networks provide a theoretical foundation for research work. Cloud-
based big-data analytics collaboration offers insights that allow researchers globally to find people who can
contribute to projects. The success or failure of a research undertaking can be determined using predictive
analytics for much lower cost Big Data solutions for research as a storage and analytics platform.
Although Big Data offers many educational opportunities, the analytical capabilities of big data
in education require an understanding of the fundamental difference between research in education
and Big Data in education (Table 1). Therefore, working with Big Data in education requires adequate
knowledge of Data Science and the ability to work with automated techniques and high-performance
database systems.
Table 1. The features of the study of education and the big data for education
Traditional education research Big data research in education
Researcher knows the context of the data Researcher may not know the context of the data
Researchers can participate in data collection Researcher can use collected data
Focus on epistemology and ontology New epistemology and ontology
Clear ethical and accountability issues Responsibility, ethics may not be known
Professional requirements for education and Need more knowledge about Data Science
research methods
Clean and generally small sample/data that is Large and complex data structures (Terabytes, Petabytes,
easy to manage (Megabytes, Gigabytes) Exabytes)
No real-time analytics required Can use real-time analytics

Data is stored within the limits/capabilities of Highly Distributed File System (HDFS) or No Query
available storage mechanisms
Analysis is manual or standalone use of software Using Hadoop system, MapReduce, application web mining,
systems such as SPSS, Nvivo... sensor network, monitoring
It is now easier for researchers to collect, store, analyze, share educational data between individuals
and organizations, and address potential challenges.
Transformational research from educational research to research with Big Data in education:
+ Apply IT to improve teaching efficiency
In the current teaching process, the role of teachers has changed drastically with the emergence
of technology in education. Teachers need to master modern technology and stay up to speed with new
tools and technologies. Instant feedback helps identify student learning, uncovers requirements, predicts
the future, and enables teachers to change teaching methods for the better.
The current directions of developing new school models based on technology according to the
trends of applying technology solutions:
- Artificial intelligence: one of the high-impact ways that artificial intelligence poses on education
is to create new, diverse, and more effective access to information opportunities for individual learning;
development of robotics applications in teaching.
- Virtual reality (VR)/augmented reality (AR)/mixed reality (MR): will create interactive
opportunities in physical/virtual, multi-dimensional space, increasing accessibility, processing
information management; expanding learning space and environment; develop capacity for creative
thinking and problem solving;
- M-Learning (Mobile)/U-Learning (Ubiquitous): This new model of learning creates opportunities
to use smartphones, tablets, laptops, and handheld and wearable devices (wearable) in the classroom
(for example, the teaching approach that allows the use of handheld devices in the classroom BYOD
is a popular trend in education around the world); speeding up access to and processing of information
in teaching missed educational applications running on mobile device platforms (Apps); increase
interaction, sharing and user engagement;
- Tablets, laptops, smart connected devices (i.e., tablets and smart teaching devices...): They allow
learners to use cloud computing platforms, web infrastructure, and connect to the Internet through large
databases, which makes easy-to-share and interactive learning; convenient in centralizing, storing, and
distributing digital learning resources in multiple formats (simulation, 3D...); replacing traditional teaching
tools and equipment (boards, books, printed materials, visual teaching aids...);
- Using social media at educational institutions: as a platform and tool to connect, share information,
interact and communicate instantly between stakeholders in the field of education;
- Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs), Small Private Online Courses (SPOCs): are a platform
of free online courses that meet the maximum learning needs corresponding to individual abilities,
interests, and circumstances, increase access to and participation of learners in open and online education.
Along with the current boom of the digital content industry, the education sector, in general, and
the development of digital learning materials, in particular, are facing favorable opportunities for further
development. Information data sources, input educational contents are digitized (designed, produced,
published, stored) and transferred via digital tools to meet the increasing demand for “polygons
visualization” and strong interaction for learners.
5. Conclusions and recommendations
Educational technology based on digital tools on the principle of rich content, multi-format, hyper-
interactive, reusable, easy-to-access, lookup, share and contribute... digital learning materials gradually
become a goal as well as effective means and objectives in educational processes. Not only the old
‘digitizing documents’ or ‘open learning materials’ but ‘gamification’ also have made digital learning
more than just purely a supply for providing information and learning content. It offers learners to
interact with those contents by increasing opportunities for immersing learners in virtual environments
to solve problems; realistic 3D simulation (3D simulation), animation (Animation), image creation
(Hologram), video creation, artificial intelligence lectures, interactive E-books…
This process needs to be carried out synchronously and systematically in the following aspects:
- Invest in upgrading IT infrastructure for educational institutions to meet the needs of personalized
learning, connecting all subjects and objects in the educational process, learning anywhere, anytime;
meet the “smart” of the learning environment, classroom and school;
- Enhance capacity, IT responsiveness and modern technological equipment for lecturers and educators;
universalize digital education through regular training and retraining programs; especially for teachers to
meet professional standards in IT application and use of technology equipment in teaching and education;
- Formulate and develop human resource training programs on educational technology,
management of new educational technologies; integration of information technology and education in
interdisciplinary/transdisciplinary programs;
- Develop appropriate legal frameworks to support the promotion and assessment of IT application
processes in the current digital education age.
REFERENCES
1. Bates, A.W. (2019). Teaching in a Digital Age – Second Edition. Vancouver, B.C.
2. Ben Kei Daniel (2019), Big Data and data science: A critical review of issues for educational
research, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 50 No 1, doi:10.1111/bjet.12595.
3. Ronghuai Huang J. Michael Spector Junfeng Yang (2019), Educational Technology: A Primer for
the 21st Century, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
4. Linda Daniela (2019), Didactics of Smart Pedagogy: Smart Pedagogy for Technology Enhanced
Learning, Springer Nature Switzerland.
5. Elizabeth A. Ashburn Robert E. Floden (2006), Meaningful Learning Using Technology: What
educators need to know and do, Columbia University New York and London.
6. Abdulmohsen Algarni (2016), Data Mining in Education, International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Applications, Vol. 7, No. 6.
PERCEPTIONS OF VIETNAMESE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHERS
ON THE INTEGRATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY IN GENERAL EDUCATION
Nguyen Phung Tam, Nguyen Ngoc Anh, Nguyen Van Ngo
(Faculty of pedagogy, VNU University of Education)
Abstract: Based on survey data and in-depth interviews with a group of History and Geography teachers at
the secondary level, the essay summarizes and analyzes the social science teachers’ objective perspective on the
advantages, disadvantages, needs, and adaptability as well as ambitions for professionals in the context of the
general education program reform for History and Geography integration in 2018.
Keywords: integration, social science teacher, history, geography, education, education program, integration.
1. INTRODUCTION
In less than the first 15 years of the 21st century, Vietnam high school educators were continuously
undergoing renovations to curricula and books: before 2006; period 2006-2018 and the recent period,
since the end of 2018 when the Ministry of Education and Training officially issued the general education
program, and the educational curriculum of each subject and grade level. The focus of the current
general curriculum reform is to transform towards the orientation of advancing students’ quality and
competence. One of the “breakthroughs” is expected to be the appearance of educational programs
with “integrated trends” at the secondary level, such as the curriculum of Natural Sciences, History, and
Geography. Within the context of education, however, which was strongly affected by the approach to
content according to the single-subject educational model of the former USSR, especially in the context
of a team of educational professionals, lecturers from schools, the pedagogical faculty remained very
audacious. The group of social science teachers at the secondary level has a number of urgent issues, such
as: what are the problems and challenges that teachers are currently facing regarding professionalism and
innovation-oriented methodologies of the 2018 curriculum? What is their state of mind when teaching in
the direction of integrating History and Geography into grade 6 has been implemented from the academic
year 2021-2022? What is this group of social science teachers’ immediate and long-term eagerness for
professional training and support? We conducted a sociological study, including a statistics survey, in-
depth interviews, qualitative analysis as the main research methodologies. On that basis, we presented
a number of immediate and long-term solutions in the History and Geography teacher fostering and
training model according to the integration trend of current innovations in general education programs.
1.1. Overview of research issue, objects and research methodologies
1.1.1. Overview of research issue
Along with all the rapid advancement of statistics and data science, researching on teachers’
attitudes and needs are being incorporated into the “demand prediction” trend to help ensure feasibility
and effectiveness in implementing an education’s innovation strategy, which has emerged as one of the
most significant research directions in applied educational science. Perceptions of Vietnamese social
science teachers on the integration of History and Geography in general education is a type of survey
research in the field of statistical science in education. However, the objective group and context that
the research is targeting are secondary school social science teachers (History teachers, Geography
teachers) in the 2018 education reform with the orientation of integrating History and Geography. As
the result, the overview of the research problem refers to two typical groups: the research group related
studies on statistical science and the science of human resource demand forecasting and the research
group related studies on integrated History and Geography education in high school models.
The related studies on statistical science in education and the science of the “demand prediction”
of human resources have a diverse variety and provide a theoretical framework for research to sample
surveys and design survey questions, and statistical analysis methods in terms of current situation
and needs of the social science teachers’ group in the context of the integrated renewal of the History
and Geography program. Nevertheless, associated studies on the integrated History and Geography
educational model in secondary schools remain modest.
The integrated teaching is one new feature of the 2018 curriculum. Conceptually, the program clearly
states: “Integrated teaching is an instructional orientation, that enables students to develop knowledge,
skills and the ability to solve problems in numerous different areas. In the process of acquiring knowledge
and practical skills, problems in learning and in life are accomplished effectively.”.1 Integrated education
programs must first be supplied in order to make progress to integrated teaching. Integrated curriculum
is a type of curriculum approach which differs from a trend in independent subjects, emphasizing the
multidimensional, and interdisciplinary approach to learning problems. And thereby, integrated and
interdisciplinary educational programs, including a history and geography curriculum, were replaced
for previous independent subjects. However, early initiatives in advanced education systems worldwide,
such as the USA and Japan, have been taken in relation to the integrated approach to the history and
geography curriculum.
In general education curricula in most countries, history and geography have so far been separated
subjects. In reforming general education, particularly advanced countries, as the Us (since the end of the
19th century), Japan (since the Second World War) have taken the pioneers to evaluate and transform
its curriculum into the integration of history, geography, social sciences and reality at the elementary
and secondary levels. Since the 1990s, China - a country in which general education places a high value
on historical education as a separate subject, has also experimented with History and Society curricula
in secondary education according to the orientation of integration in some provinces, especially in the
entire Zhejiang Province.
In relation to the process, it is a fact that, in most countries from USA to Japanese, China, there are
always considerable barriers to teachers’ readiness to change and to innovate in the very first stage of
general education reform from a single subject model to an integrated model. In the USA, an integrated
model for social research was proposed at the end of the 19th century, with the ambition to abolish
the traditional thinking of learning History in a rigid way. However, the debate in American education
about the role of the history subject in an integrated model toward social research started in the 1930s
1 The Ministry of Education and Training (2018), General Education Program in History and Geography (secondary level),
promulgated with Circular No. 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT dated December 26, 2018, p35.
and extended into the 1960s and 70s of the 20th century. On that basis, the foundation of history and
geography education in social research has been laid by the birth of the History and Social Sciences
curriculum from the 1980s to the present day1. Lessons have been learned about problem-solving: high
school teachers need a detailed education program, an experts support system, and a specific training
plan, with a clear roadmap for changing towards an integrated teaching model.
Aftermath of World War II, and early stages in 1947, Japanese education began to undergo
revolutionary transformation with the promulgation of new education laws and new educational programs
in accordance with the spirit of the 1946 Constitution’s “peace, democracy, and respect for people”.
Accordingly, social studies is a completely new topic that has been established in this country for the
first time in general education history, based on learning from the American education background. On
5 May 1947, the Japanese Ministry of Education issued nationwide the Social Studies Guideline books
(1st to 10th grade). From that time on, the Social subject has been maintained, heritaged and renovated,
but the essence of the 1947’s version remains intact. “Social subject is a topic not centered on academic
systems that is based on real problems of adolescents, and thereby expands and enhancing the social
experience of younger generations.” This is the overarching and outstanding feature of Social subject:
the formation of and advancement of student integrated thinking through experiential activities from
real-social life.2 One of the primary goals and approaches of the Social subject is to educate the learning
competence, particularly the discovery learning capacity, of individuals and groups of students through
discussion on social problems; create the habit of acquiring knowledge from contact with people by
investigating, documenting, using, and creating data, maps, and statistics about social life... Advanced
educational principles are comprehended in the entire guide books, such as the focus on student’s
interests and the principal evaluation criteria for learning activities: “There is no valuable learning
experience if the students have no interest” 3; or taking the “learn-by-doing” principle as suggestions
and requirements for organizing and addressing approaches in general, learning and teaching methods in
particular with specific expressions associated with diverse students’ types of learning activities such as:
“(1) eye activities”, (2) Ear activities”, “(3) Speech activities”, “(4) Drawing activities”, “(5) Writing
activities”, “(6) Shape creation activities”, “(7) General activities”..4
Instead, it is an integrated mindset and act, connecting learning to social life’s reality; the purpose
and approach of the Social subject as above has breached the “traditional” and “academical” nature of
the teaching of History and Geography. This is one of the breakthrough points of the general education
system in Japan since 1945 and is the spotlight of its Social curriculum.
Since the 1990s, the program integrating history and society has also been implemented in the
secondary school in the Zhejiang province as a whole and in some towns for over 30 years. However,
the willingness of teachers to adapt and the training and promotion of experts during the implementation
of the program is one of the biggest problems Zhejiang and other areas have already had.5
1 The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning, edited by Scott Alan Metzger, Penn State University,
Pennsylvania, US; Lauren McArthur Harris, Arizona State University, Arizona, US, 2018, Page 13th- 36th.
2 Nguyen Q.V (2016), Social Studies Guideline, Volume I, Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House,13-14.
3 Nguyen Q.V (2017), Social Studies Guideline, Volume II, Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House, 12.
4 Nguyen Q.V (2017), Social Studies Guideline, Volume II, Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House, 20.
5 Nguyen P.T, Zhang Lujia (2016), The problem of History synthesizing in Middle School in China, History Research Journal,
No. 8 (484), 70-82.
Currently, in Vietnam, attidudes and adaptation of teachers in middle schools are completely
empty of the 2018 integrated curriculum of History and Geography. If so, the surveys usually only
serve the practical needs of the introduction of social science courses for training, including History and
Geography at pedagogical universities and colleges. Instead, in recent years, the staff of the curriculum-
textbooks of History and Geography in particular, as well as the academic staff of pedagogical schools
and faculties of the social field in general, have been primarily interested in The task is to compile a
textbook to encounter the 2018 educational curriculum, and even a set of training materials based on
modules with intertwined designs: The History teachers will study the modules on Geography in-depth,
while the Geography teachers will do the opposite. Many teachers boldly stated that it was a “quick”
type of training, even with a module that took “only 3 days to complete” in a “dreamy” mood1.
From the above overview, we realized that:

- Relevant studies of statistical research in education and science of “demand forecasting” human
resources have provided a theoretical framework for research on survey sampling, survey question design,
and statistical analytical methodology, so on.
- World experience of building and conducting an inclusive educational program in social science
will provide valuable suggestions to determine the scientific foundation and the trend of improvement
for Vietnam’s integrated educational model in History and Geography in secondary schools.
- The research investigated the adaptive attitude and needs, as well as the aspirations of the
secondary educators as the basis for proposing immediate and long-term solutions, before the transfer
from the single-subject model of teaching (History or Geography) to the integrated teaching model
(History and Geography). This is one of the research directions with the high application. The results
of the research will make a significant contribution to ensure the viability and efficiency in Vietnam’s
education reform today.
1.1.2. Research Object
Among the 222 surveyed objects are teachers, currently in charge of teaching History and
Geography at the primary and middle school levels, of which there are 31 teachers teaching at the inter
– level schools, 99 teachers teaching in secondary school, 63 teachers teaching at primary school, 28
teachers working in other units or information hiding units. Regarding professional qualifications, there
are 113 teachers with college level credentials, accounting for 50.9% of the total number of respondents
(most of these objects are studying to ameliorate their certifications); 85 teachers with bachelor’s
degrees, accounting for 38.22% of the total number of people surveyed; and 10 teachers with master’s
degrees (accounting for 4.5%t of the total number of people surveyed); the rest are 16 teachers who hide
information about qualifications (accounting for 7.2%).
Concerning the number of high school teachers taking part in the survey, years of seniority: There is
a workforce of 59 persons for 20 years, representing 26.6% of the number of people surveyed; a total of
80 persons with 10 to 20 years experience equal 36%; a total of 26 persons with between 5 and 10 years
experience representing 11.7%, and 57 persons with a workforce of under 5 years representing 25.7%.
1.1.3. Research Methodologies

We used the following main methodologies to accomplish this study:
1 According to in-depth interviews from some secondary school teachers of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
- Methods of analyzing and summarizing experiences from relevant sources, in which emphasizing
the analysis and summarization of experiences of the group of descriptive statistical methods.
- Survey method: designing survey forms, creating questions, selecting survey samples, and so on.
and are planning an online survey via Google Forms.
- Method of the in-depth interview via direct phone, social network...
- The quantitative statistical analysis method was used in conjunction with the qualitative method
to draw the most objective conclusions about the difficulties, challenges, attitudes, and needs of a group
of social science teachers in the context of program and textbook innovation of History and Geography
towards integration.
Among the methods mentioned above, surveys and in-depth interviews are the two that we
concentrate on the most.
It is pivotal to conduct surveys, investigate, and build questionnaires for the proper purposes of the
survey. The questionnaire for this study includes the following information and the purpose:
Table 1: Questions and purposes survey statistic
Survey questions Survey purposes
Question 1: To what extent do you agree with integrating In order to accumulate teachers’ perspectives on
History and Geography at the secondary level (2018 GEP)? the implementation of integrated teaching.
Question 2: To what extent do you believe a History or Polling the confidence in teaching the entire subject
Geography teacher is able to teach History and Geography? of History and Geography.
Question 3: What are the advantages of adopting integrated Observing the perks of teachers when
History and Geography teaching at the secondary level in the teaching History and Geography; foundation for
coming years? undergoing in-depth interviews.
Question 3: What are the disadvantages of adopting Accumulate teachers’ struggles in implementing
integrated History and Geography teaching at the secondary integrated History and Geography teaching as a
level in the coming years? foundation for undertaking in-depth interviews and
proposing support solutions.
Question 5: What solutions do you have for best The survey intends to approach teachers in order to
implementing integrated History and Geography teaching in find feasible solutions in teaching and learning, and
elementary level in the year 2021-2022 (2018 GEP)? to serve as a foundation for conducting in-depth
interviews and proposing support solutions.
Question 6: In the context that you will be in charge of As a foundation for conducting in-depth interviews
teaching the entire subject of History and Geography at the and proposing support solutions.
elementary level, please propose some immediate and long-
term solutions.
We carried out in-depth interviews with groups of History teachers or Geography teachers at the
secondary level, along with extensive surveys. In the table below, some information about the group of
teachers taking part in profound interviews is described:
Table 2. In – depth interview participant statistic
Seniority Interview
Professional qualifications Type of
Quantity teaching time
Location after graduation school
(Year) (Minutes)
Non – public
Cau Giay 01 Education University of Geography 03 15
school
Non – public
Dong Da 01 Education University of History 02 15
Ha Noi school
Thanh Xuan 01 Education University of Geography Public school 4.5 25
Public school
01 Education University of History 08 45
Hoa Hoa Binh (autonomy)
Binh city Public school
01 Education University of Geography 05 18
(autonomy)
Thanh
Yen Đinh 01 Education College of History - Geography Public school 15 35
Hoa
Binh
Bu Gia Map 01 Education University of History Public school 15 40
Phuoc
District 5 01 Education College of Geography Public school 12 45
Thu Duc 01 Education University of History Public school 08 60
Cu Chi 01 Education University of History - Geography Public school 06 45
Ho Chi
Minh District 1 01 Education University of Geography Public school 05 40
city
Non – public
Binh Tan 01 Education University of Geography 07 35
school
Total 12 418
Table 2 demonstrates that there were elementary history or geography teachers from five provinces
and cities across country who participated in profound interviews. These teachers teach the 6th grade
education curriculum for the 2021-2022 with the corresponding local textbooks. In which, rather than
two independent subjects previously, almost 50% of the teachers were wholly accountable for History
and Geography in grade 6.
On the other hand, in the scope of nation, until September 2021, Ho Chi Minh City is the pioneer
in the training program on History and Geography at the elementary levels and in the implementation of
one teacher is responsible this whole subject in the 6th grade curriculum . The main direction of the city
is to prioritize the cross-training in expertise and methods of teaching. Geography teachers’ group will
take part in Geography training modules at high school, including basic knowledge and History teaching
methods. On the contrary, History teachers’ group will take part in History training modules at high
school, including basic knowledge and Geography teaching methods. Based on this, Ho Chi Minh City
encourages even certain schools to be “compulsory” for teachers to be involved in the recent training,
taking over the whole subject of History and G eography in Grade 6 from the school year 2021-2022.
Of the 12 teachers taking part in profound interviews, Ho Chi-Minh City teachers accounted for nearly
50$of telephone interviews up to 225 minutes/418 minutes. The data of the teaching group participating
in profound interviews in Ho Chi Minh City are thus also the most diversified and multi-dimensional.
When undergoing an in-depth interview, the most common method is to call Zalo directly, record
the call, or simply call, and type the exchange information into a word document.
The content of the profound interview was developed based on the questions and answers
provided by teachers during the mass survey (Table 1). On that basis, the research team gathered more
multidimensional data related to teachers’ sentiments when officially teaching History and Geography
6 at the secondary level, as a crucial foundation for proposing immediate and long-term support
solutions at the study’s conclusion.
1.2. Survey findings analysis
According to the survey, 222 elementary and secondary teachers across the country were asked
“History and Geography are the subjects in the 2018 general education program at the primary and
secondary level. The teacher needs to integrate historical as well as geographical knowledge in these
subjects. To what extent do you agree with this request as a teacher? The findings are intuitive in the
chart in Figure 1. The data show that the percentage of teachers who agreed to do so was 76%, partly
agreed with 21%. There were only 3% of teachers who disagreed. This proves that most primary and
secondary teachers support the integrated teaching policy and implement it.
In practice, most primary schools have only one teacher, but many high schools must allocate
two teachers to teach this subject (one teacher teaches History, one teacher is in charge of Geography).
In teaching and evaluating students, has created many drawbacks. The implementing strategies also
compound both historical and geographical disciplines mechanically. In response, the research team
asked teachers the question: “Do you think a teacher in primary schools can be in charge of teaching
History and Geography?” The results show that 1 teacher has the capability to teach History and
Geography, which the rate is 89% of 222 teachers instead of having to arrange two teachers such as many
schools recently. In which 68% of teachers believe that formal training is necessary before the course.
This prescribes an urgent requirement for management agencies and educational institutions, which
is immediately deploy training courses on teaching contents and methods for History and geography
integration for the teachers who have been responsible for teaching this subject.
The research team has received many actual answers reflecting the educational life in primary and
secondary schools nowadays via studying in detail the advantages and disadvantages of teachers in the
fields of History and Geography.
- The views of teachers are shown in Figure 3 with regard to the advantages.
The main advantage for the learners is shown in this chart. Students get access to general knowledge
when implementing integrated teaching. The second advantage is that teachers are more productive and
more knowledgeable. This reflects an enthusiastic spirit, the willingness to learn to enhance teachers’
qualifications and teaching skills. In addition, the implementation of integrated education also reduces
the burden on students and reduces the number of subjects in the current education program.
- Figure 4 reflects the challenge of integrated teaching.
The diagram shows that the biggest struggle for teachers is that they are not sufficiently educated,
have not been professionally prepared, and have not had sufficient documents and instructions. This
problem is a major issue for educational institutions that need to promptly train History and Geography
teachers in a methodical way and fully equipped with materials for teachers before class.
- The research team investigated the teacher’s solutions for overcoming these challenges.
The chart reaffirms the urgency of the plan to train teachers to teach integrated History and
Geography in primary and secondary schools.
Figure 5 above shows the answer.

In-depth interview findings
In a total of 418 minutes of extensive interviews with 15 telephone calls or Zalo, we accumulated a
number of multi-dimensional personal views related to the focus of this research. In which, the following
infomation is out stading:
- The perception that teachers have about the problem of “integration,” from content to specific
forms of expression, is still misleading. In which teachers all stated that combining two independent
subjects: History and Geography into History and Geography subject is “integrated”. The core of this
work, however, is “synthetic,” combining two in one. The curriculum on the History and Geography of
grades 7, 8, 9 is essentially a synthesis, combining two previously independent subjects into one subject,
including two subjects but having the difference that there are some integrated topics. Hence, History
and Geography is essentially incorrectly assumed to be an integrated subject. This subject open the way
for the ‘integrated trend,’ which is obvious in grades 7, 8 and 9 programs with a number of integrated
topics. Nevertheless, teachers should benefit from internal integration and support between history and
geography and the other way round to reach the “integrated trend,” when responsible for this subject.
- The education and promotion of education programs in history and geography was carried
out hurriedly in a wide range of locations, pushing educators to a “race against time”, appearing the
phenomenon of participation “in sufficient quantity” and obtain the modules within the time limit. As
far as this phenomenon is concerned, all teachers in Ho Chi Minh City have shown that each module
has only three days of training. During 2 days online, the other day students are mainly invited to study,
practice or exchange ideas. Another module is coming next. Teacher completed the general modules and
the necessary modules on history or geography with this approach in only three months. In this context,
there is a phenomenon in which teachers “cannot pull off”; nearly new school years, teachers have not
been trained new textbooks; even up to now, teachers also have not had printed textbooks.
- The alottment of teachers to be in charge of the whole subject of 6 grade History and Geography was
too hastily carried out, with administrative burden, regardless of teacher attitude and emotion. Even a
History teacher in 20 years, she/he have to teach Geography now because of being sent for training
modules on Geography last summer. Ho Chi Minh City Department of Education and Training’s idea
is up to the school, but the spirit is to promote a teacher to teach History and Geography at the same
time. Howerver, the interpretation is that “teachers are trained, no reason to not teach.” There is a
phoenomenon that after a short period of time in class, when a teacher teaches a new subject in the
History and Geography subject, not the teacher’s forte, the teacher goes to class just to read, copy
textbooks, even use the teaching plans, electronic lectures are “begging” from colleagues, or “buying”
on the Internet. When students ask more about knowledge which is not their forte, the teacher often has
to answer “I’ll find out and answer you later.” However, if the teacher continues to repeat this response,
it will lead to student credible, emotional, class motive loss, pressure, etc. These are more difficult if
they reach levels 7, 8 and 9 grade with higher specialized knowledge requirements.
- The teachers’ desires for support include typical solutions, such as:
Teachers who teach history and geography 6 throughout the province, city and the entire country
need to be provided with an online support channel. The focus is on the promotion of learning resources in
general, especially digital learning material, adhere to the new curriculums and textbooks as specifically
as possible with the themes.
The summer time should be used to organize training sessions on professional development, curriculum
and new textbooks, and avoid them during the school year. At the same time, it is not recommended to
hurry, pursue achievements and forget the interactions and needs of teachers.
Progress for a teacher responsible for history and geography subject is inevitable. A step by step
implementation roadmap is necessary, in order not to be passive, one-way administrative orders, teacher
must be well prepared for spirit, knowledge, capabilities etc.
In the long term, pedagogical universities and colleges need to provide training in association with
innovation to History and Geography teachers at primary and secondary levels
Results from the above-mentioned survey and extensive interviews show that there are still a
number of problems with the new integrated approach to History and Geography at the beginning.
Especially through the research, the in-depth interviews of the group of teachers in Ho Chi Minh City
showed that teachers invovled in the renovation of the curriculum of History and Geography in a passive
and urgent position. In the context described above, we propose both short-term and long-term solutions
for implementing the History and Geography curriculum in an integrated, interdisciplinary manner, with
the predominant goal of assisting teachers so that they can be more attentive when implementing and
continuing to innovate curriculum in the practice of lower secondary education.
1.3. Some solutions to train intergrated History and Geography teachers to meet the 2018 general
educational program
We emphasized the main groups of suggested training solutions based on the integrated orientation
of the general education curriculum of History and Geography in 2018, as well as the actual needs of
high school teachers: constructing training programs and providing immediate support for History and
Geography teachers in current secondary schools (3.1) and a group of solutions on the development
orientation of a new model of human resource training in universities (3.2).
1.3.1. Building a training program to respond to the needs of History and Geography teachers in
secondary schools
Based on survey data from online forms and discussion forums, as well as in-depth interviews, we
realized that, at the moment, teacher trainning in the direction of integration and competence development
associated with the 2018 educational curriculum is a legitimate and urgent requirement of History and
Geography teachers in current secondary schools. Nevertheless, the sources of training materials and
traning programs are still limited, heavy on academic theory, and are not connected from «philosophical
orientation» of the scientific foundation of the curriculum to the specifics such as new program and
textbook implementation and. On this basis, we propose a series of training topics and training maps for
secondary school history and geography teachers in order to promptly adapt to a comprehensive 2018
History and Geography curriculum.
In terms of topics, it is essential to have more practical topics, such as:
- Learning about other countries’ social science integration programs to see that the integration
trend is a common trend that these countries are applying.
- New points, innovation, and development trends in accessing content from the integrated History
and Geography curriculum in 2018.
- A new and innovative approach to integrated teaching and learning methods that are typical of
the 2018 curriculum: social research teaching; exploratory teaching; project based teaching – STEM;
experimental teaching;...
- Developing students’ competence by innovating tests and evaluating the 2018 History and
Geography curriculum.
- The 2018 History and Geography curriculum, as well as the design of the school’s educational
program, with an orientation of integrating local economic, cultural, and social issues.
Via surveys and polls, especially in-depth interviews with teachers’ groups and connections
with representatives of the management boards of some secondary schools, we consider community
connection activities, particularly online support solutions through teacher forums on social networks
(Facebook, YouTube...), to be one of the immediate and long-term solutions that should be prioritized.
Representatives of the research team not only engage in the arrangement and administration of these
forums, but also focus on guiding and organizing support activities such as assessment of learning
materials, analysis of learning materials, sharing directly through talkshows with specific and practical
topics, associated with the innovation of teaching History and Geography in the direction of students’
integrated competence. The History and Geography teachers at secondary levels’ participation, views,
comments, and direct feedback are objective validation of the usefulness and practicability of this
community support model!1
The above topics must be associated with each content topic of the new program and textbook,
beginning with the sixth grade program and textbook, with three sets of textbooks that have been appraised
and prepared for promulgation, avoid the phenomenon of academic and general theories fostering.
Regarding the training route: training topics should be adjusted for every school year of textbooks
replacement route, from the school year 2021 - 2022 associated with grade 6 curriculum – textbooks to
the school year 2024 - 2025 linked to the curriculum – textbooks grade 9. In order to build historical
and geographical curricula, based on the reality of promoting prior to each school year, a long - term
strategy for social research is developed.
1.3.2. Implementing an efficient and creative training model for History and Geography teachers that
responds to the demands of innovation within the History and Geography 2018 Integrated Education
Program - The University of Education case
1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1Xhjb3viP8&t=2177s
The long-term solutions groups are part of the promulgation and implementation of formal bachelor’s
models for pedagogical learning that integrate History and Geography, together with the “short-term” and
“adaptive” training systems described above. In 2019, the University of Education designed and built a new
training course - History and Geography Pedagogy for training teams with the benefit of the A+B training
model and Vietnam National University’s training autonomy system. These teachers have been adapted to
the renovation of the 2018 integrated History and Geography curriculum.
Decision No 66/QD-DHHQGHN on History - Geography integrated training program and the
assignment of integrated teacher training: Social sciences, Natural sciences, History - Geography for the
Education of University was issued by Vietnam National University on January 9, 20201. This fostering
and training programme has been initiatally implemented in the country by the University of Education,
Vietnam National University. This university began registration between 2020-2021, up to 2025 and
2035 for the vision.
Regarding the correlation of history and geography with other related sciences through
subjects related to The Faculty of History and Geography at the University of Sciences and the
University of Social Sciences and Humanities. The training program includes a number of components
from the Universities of Sciences and Social Sciences and Humanities’ Bachelor’s program of History
and Geography. In all four years, courses are alternated. The graduates could still study at the Master and
PhD levels, considering them the proper major (Master in History, Geography) and the nearest major
(PhD in History, Geography) as a vertical linkage.
Besides this, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in History and Geography pedagogy can be
trained and enhance their qualifications in related sectors in the dual degree training program of Vietnam
National University. Postgraduate students with a single or double degree in History and Geography
could be trained to teach in the middle schools afterwards.
Students enrolled in Bachelor’s degree in History and Geography pedagogy still study together
with students from the Bachelor’s degree in History pedagogy and the Bachelor’s degree in Geography
pedagogy. Thus, no entirely new subjects are available. The lecturers at the University of Education teach
directly integrated educational methodologies and educational sciences. The way Bachelor’s degree
in History and Geography pedagogy is organized and implemented is completely incorporated in the
current way in which the Bachelor’s degree of History or Geography pedagogy training is established.
The current training organization of the University of Education, the University of Science and the
University of Social Sciences and Humanities will not be affected.
2. CONCLUSION
In many directions and angles, the renovation of general education will be approached and
conducted. In Vietnam, the refurbishment of general education has focused mainly on reforming the
curricula and textbooks from the beginning of the 21st century until this time. This study initially tends
to help to answer the questions asked in correlation with the renovation of programs - textbooks aiming
at competence development and integration:
- Research has approached social science teachers’ awareness and attitude in terms of curricula-
textbook innovations towards integration through vital methods of survey, in-depth interviews,
quantitative and qualitative analysis based on the initial sample of over 200 samples.
1 Vietnam National University, Decision No. 66/QD-ĐHQGHN, January 9, 2020 on promulgating the program and assigning
the task of training the bachelor's degree in History and Geography pedagogy, the pilot training major.
- Initially, the research analyzed and demonstrated the entirely objective perspective and attitudes of
teachers in the fields of social sciences, which was on the basis of statistical in such aspects as advantages,
challenges on expertise and innovation-oriented methods of the 2018 educational program, the attitude
of the teachers when from the year 2021-2022, teaching was made practical to integrate History and
Geography at grade 6; immediate and long-term desires for professional training and support by the
social science teachers group...
- On the basis of analytical data and survey findings, a research has proposed the group of
essential solutions to foster and train teachers in social sciences, including the group of immediate and long-
term solutions, for implementing an integrated education program in History and Geography for 2018.
However, we recognize, in the future, the progression of this research should be more extensive
in terms of survey samples, design systems of questionnaires, detailed interviews, more “correct and
successful” problems, a focus on quantitative analysis in survey results analysis, and so on to form an
important practical basis for developing models of training, promoting more feasible, effective and
creative teachers in the field of social science towards integrated teaching.
REFERENCES
1. The Ministry of Education and Training (2018), General Education Program in History and
Geography (secondary level), promulgated with Circular No. 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT dated
December 26, 2018, by the Minister of Education and Training.
2. The Ministry of Education and Training (2019), Report on the results of the topic KHGD/16-20.
ĐT.010: “Research on forecasting of teacher training needs to 2025, vision to 2035”, Chairman:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Vu Bich Hien.
3. Japanese Ministry of Education, Nguyen Quoc Vuong (2016, 2017), Study Guide for Social
Studies (Volume I and II), Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House.
4. Association of Vietnam Historical Sciences (2012), Yearbook of the conference on History
education in high schools, Da Nang, August 2012.
5. Nghiem Dinh Vy (Editor General - 2018), Dinh Ngoc Bao - Trinh Dinh Tung (Editor), Nguyen
Xuan Truong, Nguyen Thi Huyen Sam, Phan Ngoc Huyen, Teaching and Developing Competence
in History, secondary school, Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House.
6. Nguyen P.T, Zhang L.J, 2016, The problem of synthesizing History in Middle School in China,
History Research Journal, No. 8 (484), 2016, 70-82.
7. Nguyen Vu Bich Hien, Research on forecasting teacher training needs to 2025, vision to 2035,
National-level scientific research project, code KHGD/16-20.Tel.010.
8. The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning, edited by Scott Alan
Metzger, Penn State University, Pennsylvania, US; Lauren McArthur Harris, Arizona State
University, Arizona, US, 2018, 13- 36.
9. Sai Cong Hong, Le Duc Ngoc (2017), A practical guide to statistics in Education, Vietnam National
University Publishing House.
10. 中国教育部（2011年），历史与社会课程标准，北京师范大学出版社。
11. https://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/hss/2018-12.pdf
12. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1Xhjb3viP8&t=2177s
VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION:
THE CASE OF XU DOAI CULTURE TOPIC
Bui Thi Thanh Huong, Nguyen Thuy Linh
Nguyen Thi My Hanh
(Hanoi National University of Education)
Dinh Thi Kim Thuong,
Abstract: By an interdisciplinary approach, a group of lecturers teaching Vietnamese culture combined

to educational technological lecturers to have collaborated to organize a research on the application of virtual
reality technology in cultural teaching (case study teaching in higher education for Xu Doai culture – Vietnam).
On the basis of the approach in terms of time and space, we will understand the specific expression aspects of
the cultural identity of Xu Doai - the most typical cultural space of the Northern Delta (Vietnam). This research
used some methods such as: collecting and studying documents, participant observation and in-depth interviews,
collecting image data for virtual technology, backend processing. Results of the research presented through (1)
process using virtual reality model in cultural education, (2) Xu Doai model in virtual reality for teaching Xu Doai
culture in higher education.
Keywords: Xu Doai culture, higher education, virtual reality, cultural education.
1. INTRODUCTION
The approach of smart education and smart teaching has been mentioned since the 2000s, and is
increasingly being studied and developed today. In this approach, emphasis is placed on the transition
from the traditional way of teaching to the new technology-based method, with non-traditional teaching
models, multi-modal teaching, and the support of modern technologies.
The trend of applying image technology in the world has attracted attention from both fields:
technology and education. The report on the current landscape and growth prospects of global imaging
technologies in education for the period 2017-2021 has stated: 3D printing products, image data analysis,
AR and VR will be the 4 main product segments in the coming years (Technavio, 2020)[1]
Within the framework of the Hanoi City-level Scientific Research Project, the Research Group of
the Faculty of Education Technology - University of Education - VNU cooperates with the research group
of Hanoi Capital University, Hanoi National University of Education to develop the research project on
building a traditional cultural space model of Hanoi people using multi-dimensional interactive image
technology for training at Hanoi Capital University” in 2 years 2021-2022. Xu Doai Cultural Education
is one of the research tasks of the project.
2. METHODOLOGY
Virtual reality is a simulated experience that can be similar to or completely different from the real
world. Applications of virtual reality can include entertainment and educational purposes. Other distinct
VR-style technologies include augmented reality and mixed reality (Wikipedia)
360-degree video appeared in 2016, gradually improving in 2017; in 2018 it really became a video
development trend, even to entrepreneurs and large businesses. The definition of 360-degree video can
be summarized as a video that records images in all directions around the camera at the same time,
produced by a camera system. Viewers can drag the mouse to move slowly or rotate the direction based
on gestures to see all 360 degrees from the video.
The article uses VR technology in building 360-degree videos to recreate Duong Lam cultural space
VR technology allows to run on both Web and mobile App platforms (applications on mobile and
handheld devices) to support flexible access to content at anytime, anywhere for learners in real-time,
either synchronous or asynchronous.
Figure 1: Steps designing VR Duong Lam model
On the basis of the approach in terms of time and space, we will understand the specific expression
aspects of the cultural identity of Xu Doai - the most typical cultural space of the Northern Delta
(Vietnam). From a methodological perspective, we use an interdisciplinary approach to clearly define
our research object. Specifically:
From the cultural sociological approach, we stand on the view that cultural phenomena are forms
of social activities;
From the cultural psychology approach, we consider religious activities and festivals to be
essentially a complex form of releasing repressed emotions of community members;
From the ethnographic-anthropological approach, we have a deeper look at the “insider’s point
of view”, the views of members of the State and the community towards cultural activities, thereby
deepening understanding of the community’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and mutual support.
At the specific methodological level, we have used two main methods: Firstly, collecting and
studying documents including books, magazines, research works…that has been printed, published and
is being archived in libraries. These documents help us have an overview of Xu Doai culture in many
different aspects; From there, we conducted fieldwork, set up a system of interview questions, and
selected subjects for interview. It can be said that this source of material plays an equally important role,
helping to study the inheritance and apply the results of previous generations’ works, thereby finding
new points or new approach to develop it in our research. Secondly, participant observation and in-
depth interviews. These are important methods of ethnography/anthropology. Using this method helps
researchers penetrate deeply into cultural activities and understand more deeply the nature of the cultural
space of Xu Doai.
2.3. Research procedure

Researching the application of virtual reality technology in cultural education requires going
through many steps and is shown as Figure 1.
Figure 2: Research process using virtual reality model in cultural education
First, we must define educational goals. The next step is to survey the field, identifying the existing
spiritual and material cultural heritage and the lost cultural heritage in need of restoration. On that basis,
we design the content to be simulated. Determining the content to choose simulation technology for
the product, using computer-generated simulation technology or virtual reality (3D simulation). Next,
entering the phase of building virtual reality models, we proceed to refine the selected parts based on the
purpose of each part, then select a list of content using VR and proceed to build VR scenarios meet the
requirements of each content. In each content of the product, the designer must determine the necessary
level of reality (from fantasy to reality); define the type and level of immersion (from no immersion to
full immersion in the 3D environment); Define the type of interaction in the sensor inputs and outputs,
and the required virtual world or environment input and output. After all design is completed, the virtual
environment will be built according to the scenario, by the instructor or virtual world builder, by the
learner, or by the environment derived from modifying the existing environment. Next, the designer
must design and select appropriate software and hardware. Finally, the product is passed on to a group of
pilot learners for testing. The testing process on this group is repeated many times to evaluate and refine
until the requirements are satisfied. Next virtual environments need to be tested with a large number of
users and also get feedback, then they are tweaked until they satisfy the requirements and are accepted.
Finally, the finished product is used in education.
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
3.1. Cultural identity of Xu Doai
The Vietnamese culture in the Northern Delta is a culture that has been formed for a long time
and is the most representative of the traditional culture of the Vietnamese people, expressed through
spiritual, religious and belief life; community cultural activities, most notably festivals; cultural and
artistic activities such as system of legends, forms of folk performances... Although unified on the culture
of the Northern Delta, each cultural sub-region here has very private local nuances. Taking Thang Long
as the center, the Vietnamese called the four surrounding regions: the East, Xu Doai, the North, and the
South. In particular, Xu Doai is a land with the longest history.
Along with that heroic historical tradition, Xu Doai is also a place full of natural elements to form
and nurture a unique cultural identity. Xu Doai is a large land that surrounds the center of the Red River
Delta in the West, Northwest and North. This place is located by the Da River at the top and Nhi Ha
River at the bottom, the left bank has Tam Dao mountain and the right bank has the majestic Tan Vien
mountain. The land of Doai also has Bach Hac confluence, which is the confluence of three rivers,
namely Da River, Thao River and Lo River. In the time of the Hung Kings, this land was the main part of
the Van Lang country, the center of the 15 ministries of the Hung Kings. In the late Le and early Nguyen
dynasties, this land belonged to Son Tay town, one of the four inner capitals. Author Ngô Đức Thịnh said
that “this is a semi-mountainous land, alternating between mountains and plains, between alluvial plains
along rivers and high mounds, with low-lying areas, lakes, and large abysses”. Here, the soil and climate
create favorable conditions for the domestication of cultivated rice varieties, and the forest covered
mountains since ancient times is an environment to maintain hunting and gathering lifestyles. Therefore,
it can be affirmed that Xu Doai is a typical geographical space of the Red River Delta. In history, before
being a land of “hundreds of famous professions near the city”, Xu Doai was once a place where “eating
less rice less, eating more potatoes “ [2]
Figure 3: Map of the geographical location of Xu Doai in the cultural space of Northern Vietnam
Besides the fertile southeastern plain, favorable for traditional farming practices, most of the
land area of Xu Doai has limited environmental characteristics, as observed “From this agricultural
production space, it can be seen that Xu Doai is a land that is both unfavorable and favorable for
traditional agricultural production”. The areas that are not favorable for agricultural production are the
western mountainous areas and the central plains. It is not favorable for agricultural production because
delta farmers have had a long time “far from the forest and sea” to get used to the “straight field”.
Therefore, this place has formed handicraft activities, turning unpopular food products into popular ones,
turning the unspoiled natural environment into desirable places to rest and experience like nowadays.
The previously haunted land of poverty has become a dynamic new land in all aspects in the Red River
Delta. Therefore, when talking about the land of Xu Doai, one must mention the homeland of many
famous craft villages such as Van Phuc brocade and silk; La Khe silk; Nhi Khe wood turning; Chang
village carpenters; stone workers in Hoang Xa… The favorable area is the land in the East, because it is
continuously accreted by the Red and Day rivers. The Red River is the Ca river of Vietnam, the origin
of wet rice agriculture in the beginning. With the agricultural economy of the ancient Xu Doai people,
the Red River plays a great role because of its influence on the material and spiritual cultural life of the
residents. That is why the legend of Saint Tan dyed the Red River all year round and became the space
where the Saint roamed during the time he ruled Tan mountain.
In Vietnamese communities, if the life cycle is marked by festivals, the cycle of nature is marked by
Tet (Tiet), the crop cycle is marked by a different type - the festival. From the perspective of sociology
and economics, the festival is a form of leisure activity in the free time at the seasonal level (Xu Doai
does agriculture 2 crops per year, and September of the lunar calendar is the time to do fishery - fishing).
Thus, after harvesting the crop, Xu Doai farmer has a leisure time. In that space, at that time, the people
of Xu Doai together held festivals as well as created various art forms with many unique features that
still exist almost intact to this day – something that is rarely seen in other cultural spaces in the Northern
Delta. The most typical for annual festival activities here is the Hung Temple festival.
In the collected legends related to the Va temple festival and Mong Phu communal house (Duong
Lam), Son Tinh appears as the hero of cultural enlightenment. The area along the Tich River still
preserves and circulates legends about how Son Tinh taught people to farm. The villages of Van Gia,
Nghia Phu, Phu Nhi (Son Tay) connect to transmit stories about how Son Tinh taught people to worship,
cultivate culture, and wish everyone to live together warmly and harmoniously.
Besides the festival, folk songs, folk rituals such as singing Do (Quoc Oai); singing Cheo Tau (Dan
Phuong); Senh Tien dance (Phu Xuyen), military drums (Thuong Tin); Te Tieu puppet ward (Thach
Xa, Chang Son); Cheo Tau singing festival in four villages of Tan Hoi commune (Dan Phuong district)
associated with the worship of Hai Bà Trưng, Triệu Quang Phục, Lý Phật Tử... have created a space
imbued with cultural and artistic activities in Xu Doai. The most typical forms of cultural and artistic
performances in the land of Xu Doai are Xoan singing, Vi singing, Cheating singing, Military drum
singing.... Xoan singing (spring singing) is a type of ritual, custom, and festival singing that its origin is
associated with the time when Hùng Vương founded the country. Cheating singing is singing in response,
making love between boys and girls in spring and autumn, associated with the custom of worshiping
Xuân Nương, the princess who is the general of Hai Bà Trưng. Vi singing is a love song between a boy
and a girl, especially in the spring, the content reflects the love, innocent and sincere emotions of the
workers. Singing military drums is also a kind of love song, with drum beat accompaniment.
The land of Xu Doai with one of the core areas is Duong Lam ancient village, which still preserves
a system of tangible and intangible cultural heritages, lifestyles and cultural behaviors with many unique
features. It is a famous relic system whose name has been associated with the name of the land and
people of Duong Lam such as: “land of two kings” associated with Phùng Hưng and Ngô Quyền temples,
Mong Phu communal house associated with the festival to commemorate the village tutelary god Đức
Thánh Tản, ancient house built of laterite... Duong Lam is located in a favorable position because it has
large plains, fertile alluvial plains with ponds and lakes, where there are famous agricultural specialties.
Duong Lam people have brought those specialties associated with the place as a pride. Therefore, Duong
Lam ancient village is not only known for its religious works, beliefs, relics and ancient houses, but
also is home of long-standing traditional folk knowledge in the culinary field. There are few places in
the Northern Delta that possess many traditional specialties like Duong Lam: Mong Phu sauce, Mia
chicken, roasted pork, Lam tea, Doi candy... All these products are made from the ingredients available
in a traditional village with an agricultural lifestyle, inherited by generations, passing on experience
from generation to generation.
3.2. Shaping Xu Doai traditional space at Duong Lam village by VR technology
By VR technology, the research built VR model for teaching Xu Doai culture. The results were
shown through 3600 image as follow:
Figure 3: Home page of panoramic view of Duong Lam village

https://duonglamancientvillage.vsmap.vn/
Duong Lam gate Information about Mong Phu Gate
The yard of Mr Hung’s Old House

Mr Hung ‘ s Old House
Nguồn: Do nhóm nghiên cứu chụp

Mong Phu Communal House The yard of Mong Phu Communal House
Mia Pagoda Inner Mia Pagoda
Phung Hung Temple Inner Phung Hung Temple
Figure 4: 3600 images of scences in Duong Lam village
Nguồn: Do nhóm nghiên cứu chụp
3.3. Application of virtual reality model in cultural education of Doai (Vietnam)

3.3.1. Pedagogical scenario for applying virtual reality technology
Table 1: Teaching process by VR 3600 model to tour Duong Lam village
Step Activities of teacher Activities of students Technology
1 Preparation - Select content Read materials Connection device: VR

- Test flatform Train skill using the model glasses, interative screen,
Smartphone; Wifi, internet
- Prepare digital materials
LAN.
2 Implement - Introduction - Immerse oneself VR model

+ Cultural coordinates - Note, analysis, interaction VR glasses, interative
+ Cultural map Tagger/Trigger in the model screen, Wifi, Internet
LAN.
+ Duties for each team - Team work, finding
information, do excercises web search engine tool
Computer
- Introduction of discussion
group, practicing Smartphone and Mobile App
Supporting technology (if yes)

3 Assessment and - Control discussion and - Discussion and VR model

conclusion presentation presentation VR glasses, interative
- Closing screen, Smartphone; Wifi,
- Proposing the next task internet LAN.
4 Feed back and Note feed back (improve

adjustment pedagogical scenarios)
Currently, VR - a new media penetrates the field of educational technology. The application of VR
in teaching provides a new and more effective learning platform for learners than traditional teaching
methods. Learners can practice with interactive exercises to gain the ability to experience, observe, and
innovate with the support of VR technology. From there, learners gain knowledge and skills, especially
learning supported by an integrated environment of 5G network and cloud technology.
For traditional cultural education, now presentations on the basis of 2D image technology are
the main teaching methods. Teachers and learners “stand outside” the cultural space to “research”,
knowledge is formed by memorization in the learning process. In contrast, if VR is used in cultural
education, both teachers and students are “immersed”, “immersive” and “interactive” in the simulation
model of cultural space, knowledge is formed by the process of experience, accumulate and associate.
Specifically, in this article, we refer to the simulation model of Duong Lam ancient village, which
is used for the purpose of educating the culture of Doai - the sediment of a cultural and spiritual region of
Lac Viet. By modern simulation technologies, the cultural space of Duong Lam ancient village (located
in the cultural space of Doai, Vietnam) is reproduced visually and vividly so that learners can imagine
the formation culture in a large space over the centuries. By experience, the objectives of the lesson are
conveyed impressively, the detail is given below:
- Identifying cultural areas and distinctive features: The model uses technologies such as satellite
positioning, Drone, UAV, 3D imaging algorithm and three-dimensional modeling to simulate geospatial
land of Doai. It is a large area of land surrounding the center of the Red River Delta in the west, northwest
and north. This place is located by the Da River at the top and Nhi Ha River at the bottom, the left bank
has Tam Dao mountain and the right bank has the majestic Tan Vien mountain. The land of Doai has
Bach Hac confluence which is the confluence of three rivers, namely Da river, Thao river and Lo river.
- Identify cultural identity: The model simulates the cultural space of Duong Lam ancient village
by virtual reality technology. This is a space made up of layers of typical cultural space of Vietnamese
villages, including: protection space, production space, living space, spiritual space, community space.
With this model, learners can identify the cultural identity of Doai. On the other hand, learners can also
directly learn about the material and spiritual cultural heritage of local residents in the simulation model
of Mia Pagoda, Mong Phu communal house, Phung Hung Temple, Ngo Quyen Temple - Tomb, house
system neck…
- The model is built on the basis of “central and periphery” cultural research theory to help learners
understand the interference between Thang Long culture and Xu Doai culture in the process of
forming delta culture The North.
To conduct the lecture, at the beginning of the lesson, teachers and students “immerse” in virtual
reality and visit Doai from many different angles: far - near, general - specific, past - present, material -
spiritual, virtual - real model, etc. The lecturer gives a system of questions that suggest the knowledge
that students need to gain in the lesson. Through the process of interaction and experience, learners
self-absorb knowledge and do practical exercises. Experimental results show that the use of virtual
reality models in cultural teaching creates more excitement for both teachers and learners. The impact
of images and multi-dimensional interactive effects in the model makes the learner’s retention level
increase by 25% compared to the traditional method. On the other hand, the holisticity of the model also
makes the learner’s connection and imagination increase. These are just initial tests, but they also hold
great promise when virtual reality models are applied in cultural education.
4. CONCLUSION
The model which was built on the theoretical basis of the central and peripheral cultural research
helps learners understand the cultural crossing of Thang Long and Xu Doai. Ancient Thang Long, Hanoi
before and after the expansion were all situated in the Red River Delta. Experiencing the culture of Xu
Doai through a simulation model using virtual reality technology led the learners to think about the
relationship between culture and tourism and the issue of preserving and exploiting cultural heritage in
tourism today.
Using an interdisciplinary approach, a group of lecturers teaching Vietnamese culture and educational
technological lecturers have collaborated to organize a research on the application of virtual reality technology
in cultural teaching (Xu Doai culture was selected to teach at higher education as the case study)
In this research, we studied the specific expression aspects of the cultural identity of Xu Doai –
the most typical cultural space of the Red River Delta. The methods adopted in this research involved:
collecting and studying documents, participant observation and in-depth interviews, image data collection,
backend processing. The results of the research are shown by: (1) the process of using virtual reality
models in cultural education, (2) Virtual reality of Xu Doai culture for teaching at higher education.
In the context of strong and far-reaching digital transformation, the use of virtual reality models
in traditional cultural education contributes to modernizing methods of performing and describing
traditional cultural spaces to draw the youth’s attention in the process of preserving and promoting local
culture.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Hanoi People’s Committee, Vietnam to fund for us to finish this article
through the project: “Research and build a model of traditional cultural space of Hanoi people by using
multi-dimensional interactive image technology for training at Hanoi Metropolitan University” Code:
01X – 12/04- 2020/3
REFERENCE
[1]. Technavio, 2020: https://bwnews.pr/36jyuaa
[2]. Ngo Duc Thinh (2003), Regional culture and division of cultural regions in Vietnam, Youth
Publishing House, p.161
[3]. Many authors (1997), Son Tinh and Ba Vi ancient cultural region, Ha Tay Department of Culture
and Information published.
[4]. Nguyen Phuong Anh (2017), “Living space and production practices of Xu Doai people”,
Culture and Art Magazine, No. 399, September 23, p. 23. Google drive: https://drive.google.
com/folderview?id=1pxAHZjaB3tf3jnTiGZ2fCPe47-n5touZ
TEACHER MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
AND GENERAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:
THE CURRENT SITUATION AND SOLUTIONS
Trinh Thi Anh Hoa
Abstract: Teachers play a vital role in improving the quality of education. The current situation of human
resource management in early childhood education and general education institutions is still inadequate in terms
of recruitment, employment, training, professional development, screening and evaluating, benefits and support for
teachers. The reason is the lack of synchronization in the implementation of decentralization of management, the
lack of a master plan on the contingent of early childhood education and general education teachers, leading to not
only redundancy but also insufficiency, and structural asynchronicity; the lack of mechanisms and policies to create
incentives to attract and retain teachers. From analyzing the inadequacies, limitations and their causes, the article
proposes solutions to innovate the management mechanism of preschool and general education school teachers.
Keywords: Management, teacher management; public early childhood education and general education teachers.
1. THE SITUATION OF TEACHERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND GENERAL

EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Through many years of development, Vietnam has trained 1,141,292 early childhood education (ECE)
and general education (GE) teachers, of which 68,493 are nursery teachers, 268,290 kindergarten teachers,
377,876 primary teachers, 284,139 lower secondary teachers and 142,494 upper secondary teachers (the
academic year 2019-2020). Teachers are actively working to carry out the mission of education, which
is to improve the general populace’s knowledge base, equip human resources with necessary skills and
competencies, and foster talents to serve the country’s industrialization and modernization, making an
important contribution to Vietnam’s renovation and international economic integration.
Figure 1. Number of ECE and GE teachers over the years

Source: Ministry of Education and Training, Education Statistics
Comparing the number of teachers over the years shows that the number of ECE teachers tends
to increase because Vietnam has implemented many solutions to encourage children to go to school,
in order to achieve the goal of early childhood education universalization for 5-year-old preschoolers.
There is a decreasing trend of GE teachers because Vietnam has reached the standards of universalization
of primary education (in 2000) and lower secondary education (in 2010). The teaching staff has been
trained to gradually improve the quality and qualifications, especially regarding pedagogical, information
technology, and foreign language capacity to meet the requirements of performing their duties. The
management of the teaching staff has been gradually reformed but has not kept pace with the country’s
renovation and international integration process [6].
2. THE CURRENT STATUS OF TEACHER MANAGEMENT IN ECE AND GE INSTITUTIONS
The current situation of management of ECE and GE teachers is considered in terms of recruitment,
employment, training, professional, evaluation, screening, benefits and support for teachers
2.1. The recruitment and employment of teachers and other staff
a) The recruitment of teachers at all levels
According to the provisions of the Law on Public Employees and Decree No. 115/2020/ND-
CP (abbreviated to Decree 115), regulations on recruitment, employment and management of public
employees clearly specify the competence to recruit public employees:
- For public non-business units that cover recurrent and investment expenditures and public non-business
units that cover recurrent expenditures, the head of public non-business units shall recruit public employees.
- For public non-business units that cover part of their recurrent expenditures and public non-
business units whose recurrent expenditures are guaranteed by the State, the agency competent to manage
public non-business units shall recruit employees. employing public employees or decentralizing them
to the heads of public non-business units to perform.
Decree 115 decentralizes the recruitment of teachers and empowers the heads of public non-
business units to ensure recurrent expenditures (autonomous units), the current practice of recruiting
preschool and upper secondary school teachers in localities are classified differently:
Recruitment organized by the Provincial Department of Education and Training, or the
Department of Home Affairs and the People’s Committee of the district/town:
For upper secondary education, teachers are recruited by the Board of Education and Training
or the Provincial Department of Home Affairs. For preschool, primary and secondary education, the
recruitment council under the People’s Committee of the district/rural district/town shall organize
recruitment of teachers.
Empower the Principal/Head to actively recruit teachers:
- For units under the Provincial Department of Education and Training: The principal shall base
on the actual situation of the school’s size and the prescribed teacher/class standards to plan the annual
staffing standard. Prepare a report to submit to the Provincial Department of Education and Training,
apply to recruit teachers in subjects that the school is in need of. After the Provincial Department
approved and agreed to assign the school to recruit. During the recruitment process, the school principal
is autonomous and responsible for the recruitment of his unit. Department of Home Affairs, Provincial
Department of Education and Training, inspect, examine and supervise the recruitment of teachers.
- For the units under the People’s Committee of the district/rural district/township: the recruitment
of preschool, primary and secondary school teachers is approved by the People’s Committee of the
district/rural district/town on staffing standards and assigns autonomy to the principals. and under the
supervision and inspection of the Department of Home Affairs and the District Department of Education
and Training.
Thus, the recruitment of teachers in most localities is mainly done in the way of management
agencies (Provincial Department of Education and Training or Department of Home Affairs for Upper
secondary schools, People’s Committee of district/rural district/town level for Preschool, Primary and
Secondary School; some places assign this task to the Department of Home Affairs for all levels) to
recruit and allocate teachers to educational institutions, the head of the educational institution signs a
working contract with the recruited teacher [5].
Surveys in localities show that the current national number of fully autonomous ECE and GE
institutions in terms of personnel management is extremely low, these schools are concentrated in big
cities, and most of them are upper secondary schools according to the management decentralization and
are directly under the Provincial Department of Education and Training. There are a number of localities
(mainly Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City) that have granted full or partial autonomy in personnel management
to educational institutions. But the assignment of autonomy comes with conditions (most are high-quality
schools, located in large urban areas, with high educational and socio-economic conditions) [8].
In fact, in most localities, the specialized agency responsible for the quality of education is the
Provincial Department of Education and Training, while the District Department of Education and
Training is not the main unit in charge of teachers recruitment, leading to the reactiveness in regulating
the number and structure of the teaching staff by subject and grade level, therefore creating a paradoxical
situation of teachers’ excess and shortage in educational institutions. The recruitment of highly qualified
teachers also faces many difficulties, mainly because schools have not been given autonomy in terms of
human resources and finance management, so they cannot decide on their own the recruitment and salary
arrangement for teachers. The results of consultations and discussions with teachers and administrators
of the 05 surveyed provinces showed that the majority of teachers and school-level administrators
proposed to assign the recruitment of teachers to the school because only the school would know what
kind of candidates they needed to recruit, and how to properly assess their capacity. Some teachers and
administrators at the District departmental level think that the recruitment of secondary and primary
school teachers should be assigned to the District department, and recruiting upper secondary school
teachers should be assigned to the Provincial Department of Education and Training, while the school
develops plans and staffing needs, then sends it to the Provincial/District Department of Education and
Training, because the Provincial and District Departments of Education and Training are educational
management agencies that thoroughly grasp the needs of each school and have a reasonable assignment
of teachers to schools, avoiding the situation of teacher shortage [8].
b) The allocation of teachers
The allocation of teachers to schools plays a decisive role in the quality of education. According to
regulations1, 2and standards for teachers [1,2]:
1 Ministry of Education and Training, Ministry of Home Affairs (2015) Circular No: 06/2015/TTLT-BGDĐT-BNV dated March
16, 2015, stipulating the list of job position frameworks and standards of the number of employees jobs in public ECE institutions.
2 Ministry of Education and Training, Ministry of Home Affairs (2017) Circular No.: 16/2017/TT-BGDĐT dated 12 July 2017,
providing for the list of job position frameworks and standards for the number of employees in public educational institutions.
• For the kindergarten class with 02 sessions/day, a maximum of 2.2 teachers/class shall be arranged;
and 1 class/day is 1,2 teachers/class
• For primary schools with 1 session a day, a maximum of 1.20 teachers can be arranged per class;
for primary schools that teach 2 sessions a day, 1.50 teachers per class;
• For lower secondary schools, a maximum of 1.90 teachers may be arranged per class; District
boarding school for ethnic minorities, Semi-boarding general schools for ethnic minorities at lower
secondary level and schools for the disabled at the lower secondary level may arrange a maximum
of 2.20 teachers per class;
• For upper secondary schools, a maximum of 2.25 teachers/class can be arranged; the province’s boarding
upper secondary schools for ethnic minorities can arrange a maximum of 2.40 teachers/class.
Table 1. Ratios of teachers/class and standards of teacher / class
Academic year Academic year Academic year Academic year Academic year
standard
2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 2019-2020
Preschool 1.58 1, 67 1.71 1.74 1.77 1,2-2,2

Primary 1.4 1.43 1.42 1.4 1.35 1,2-1,5
Lower secondary 2.04 2.05 1, 99 1.94 1.85 1.90-2.2
Upper secondary 2.35 2.32 2.28 2.14 2.13 2.25-2.40
The analysis of teacher/class standards by grade level indicates the excess/lack of teachers. The
results of Table 1 show that the shortage of teachers occurs at all levels, for kindergarten teachers,
the ratio of new teachers/classes is 1.77 compared to the prescribed standard of 2.2 for classes with
2-sessions/day; similarly primary school ratios is only 1.35 compared to the standard of 1.5; ratios of
lower secondary and upper secondary classes are 1.85 and 2.13, respectively, both of which are lower
than the standards.
The education sector analysis of 2011-2020 has shown that there are very few schools with enough
teachers according to regulations: 8% of upper secondary schools and about 16% of primary schools
have one-session school day. Primary schools with two sessions tend to have a shortage of teachers
because the number of primary school students attending two sessions per day is about 72% [7].
Figure 2. Percentage of schools with excess/shortage/sufficient teachers, by school year 2019 - 2020
Source: Draft Education Sector Analysis Report 2011-2020

According to data from the Ministry of Education and Training, as of August 2021, compared with
the prescribed standard of teachers per class, the country faces a shortage of 94,714 teachers, but also has
an excess of 10,178 teachers at all levels [4].
Figure 3. The shortage of ECE and GE school teachers in 2021

Source: Report of the conference to summarize the school year 2020-2021, directions and tasks for the
school year 2021-2022 Ministry of Education and Training
In the alignment to the educational management decentralization, the Education sector is not
assigned the task of presiding over and advising the Provincial/District People’s Committee to recruit
teachers, so it cannot be proactive in regulating the number and structure of the teaching staff by
subjects, levels of education, which leads to a situation of excess/shortage of teachers between all levels
of education in the same locality. Results of interviews with managers and specialists of the Provincial
and District Departments of Education and Training show that: currently, the recruitment of teachers
faces many difficulties, especially for preschool teachers, teachers of music, art, physical education,
technology, janitor staff, medical staff. The main reason for these difficulties is that the current benefits
and support for teachers are too low; there is a lack of newly recruited teachers because candidates’
professional qualifications have not met the recruitment requirements, especially the changes in
qualification regulations in recruitment after the application of the Education Law 2019 (stipulating
that ECE teachers are required to have a college degree or higher, while primary and secondary school
teachers have a university degree or higher).
The analysis of the pertinency in the allocation of teachers to schools is calculated with the
correlation coefficient. This coefficient in primary school is from 92%-94%, lower secondary school
94%, upper secondary school 91%. This shows that the degree of concordance in the distribution of
teachers at all levels is quite good. However, this level is different among regions in the country [7].
Figure 4. Pertinency in teacher allocation to standard schools, primary schools, the school year 2019 - 2020
Source: Draft Education Sector Analysis Report 2011-2020. Each dot represents 1 school
Table 2. Pertinency in teacher allocation to schools by standard, by grade level and by region, the school year 2019 - 2020
Primary Primary Lower Upper Disparities

1-session/day 2-session/day Secondary secondary by region
Red River Delta 92% 90% 90% 85% 7%
Northern Midlands and Mountains 93% 94% 91% 95% 4%
North Central Coast Central Coast 91% 92% 94% 90 % 4%
Central Highlands 89% 91% 94% 95% 6%
Southeast 97% 94% 95% 86% 11%

Mekong Delta 91% 92% 94% 93% 3%
Total 94% 92% 94% 91% 3%
Regional disparity
8% 5% 5% 10%
(Max- Min)
Source: Draft Education Sector Analysis Report 2011-2020
c) Teacher training
To improve their expertise, teachers participate in the training program, including regular training,
training by professional title, and training to improve qualificationst.
Regular training: According to the regulations of the Ministry of Education and Training1, all ECE
and GE teachers are required to participate in a regular refresher program during each school year. The
training program consists of 3 modules, each module is about 1 week (about 40 lessons), a total of 120
lessons/school year with 45 minutes/period. Module 1 meets the requirements of performing the tasks
of the school year issued by the Ministry of Education and Training. Module 2 meets the requirements
of performing educational development tasks as prescribed by the Provincial Department of Education
and Training, for each school year. Module 3 aims to develop the professional competence of teachers
with a body of knowledge chosen by the teacher, including modules in different fields.
Training for Professional titles. This refresher course assists teachers for career advancement purposes,
which is part of a teacher’s professional development. Training for the professional title is not required. Once
the requirements for the title are met, teachers do not need to retake this training.
Training to meet the requirements of the new general education program in 2018, all teachers and
school administrators attended training courses on the implementation of the 2018 general education program
according to the regular and continuous training before and during the implementation of the program.
Training to improve qualifications: The Education Law 2019 stipulates that the standard
qualifications of preschool teachers are college degrees of pedagogy, and primary and secondary
schools have university degrees, so a large number of teachers have to be trained to raise standards to
achieve this regulation. The total number of teachers expected to raise their qualifications is 257,506,
including 89,607 preschool teachers, 116,846 primary school teachers, and 51,053 lower secondary
school teachers. The roadmap for raising standards includes two main phases: phase 1 from July 2020
to December 2025: training 60% of teachers; phase 2 from January 2026 to December 2030: training
1 Thông tư 17/2019/TT-BGDĐT về chương trình bồi dưỡng thường xuyên giáo viên cơ sở giáo dục phổ thông.
the remaining 40%. As a result of the implementation of the standard-raising roadmap, in the 2020-2021
school year, localities have sent 37,389 teachers to participate in training to raise standards, including
9,859 preschool teachers (accounting for 10.96% of teachers who have not met the standard); 17,822
primary school teachers (accounting for 6.36% of unqualified teachers); 9,708 lower secondary school
teachers (accounting for 3.86% of unqualified teachers). As of 08/2021, the percentage of teachers who
meet the standards of preschool training is 77.8%, primary school is 69.4%, lower secondary school is
83.3%, upper secondary school is 99.9%.
d) The evaluation and screening of teachers
According to the provisions of the Law on Public Employees, teachers are also public officials,
and there are two main aspects of the evaluation of teachers: (1) Annual evaluation of public employees
according to the Law on Public Employees; (2) Teachers’ evaluation according to teachers’ professional
standards. In addition, some teachers who are members of the Party and Union also conduct evaluations
according to the regulations of these organizations.
The current evaluation and screening of public employees comply with the provisions of the
Law on Public Employees, Decree 90/2020/ND-CP dated August 13, 2020, Decree 108/2014/ND-CP;
Decree 113/2018/ND-CP Decree 143/2020/ND-CP. Accordingly, (1) civil servants, cadres, and public
employees with 02 consecutive years at the time of consideration for downsizing, cadres and civil
servants having 01 year are rated at the level of completing their tasks and 01 year of not completing
their tasks but unable to arrange for another suitable work; (2) the public employee with 02 consecutive
years at the time of downsizing consideration, the public employee with 01 year rated at the level of
completing their tasks and 01 year does not complete the task but cannot be reassigned for other suitable
work or not completing tasks in the preceding year at the time of downsizing consideration. The Decree
also assigns responsibilities to heads of agencies, organizations and units based on specific conditions
of agencies, organizations and units to develop detailed criteria for evaluating and classifying cadres
and civil servants. Thus, the legal framework to create a mechanism for the evaluation and screening of
the staff is sufficient in theory, but in reality, the screening and downsizing of staff for those who are not
capable in educational institutions has not been really effective in recent years.
The current status of the implementation of teacher evaluation according to the Law on Public
Employees, professional standards of teachers, the evaluation of teachers: the performance evaluation is
still superficial, sometimes promotes harmful equity, and has not created motivation for teachers to learn
and improve their qualifications. Evaluation of teachers according to current professional standards
does not accurately reflect the teaching staff’s quality because the percentages of excellent and good
professional standards accounts are possibly inflated for the majority. In fact, professional standards
are the minimum requirements for a person to be allowed to practice. Therefore, professional standards
should be used to evaluate teachers but also serve as a basis for recruiting, employing, and fostering
teachers. Therefore, it is necessary to change the teacher evaluation cycle according to Professional
Standards: Initial evaluation to recruit, retain, and transfer; Regular evaluation every 3 - 5 years to serve
the purpose of continuing employment, or re-train and foster teachers to continue to meet professional
standards for teachers who have fallen behind. and to rate and raise teachers’ ranks according to
regulations on teachers’ professional titles.
To evaluate the effectiveness of teachers, it is necessary to develop a detailed set of standards and
criteria based on the current provisions of the Law on Public Employees on the evaluation of public
employees on the basis of functions, tasks, organizational structure, and description of each job position
in public non-business units associated with specific characteristics of teachers. This set of standards
should consolidate existing regulations on staff evaluation and can be used for many purposes at different
times. Evaluation results are used to rate teachers annually as the main basis for planning and scheming
human resource development; to arrange and employ teachers according to their forte capacity; to serve
the work of training, professional development and settlement of job severance; to appoint, promote according
to the planning and implement the benefits and support of salary, treatment and reward for teachers.
e) Salary incentives for teachers
The Education Law 2019 stipulates that the budget for education should be at least 20%. However, the
state budget for education in the period 2011-2017 has not reached 20% of the total state budget expenditure.
Figure 5. State budget expenditure on education and training
With the proportion of budget spending on education as illustrated above, Vietnam belongs to the
group of countries with a higher spending rate on education than the average of other countries in the
region. Vietnam meets “international” standards: 4-6% of GDP or 15-20% of government spending on
education (Incheon Declaration). However, due to the small size of Vietnam’s budget, the total education
budget is also limited in comparison.
In addition to increasing the state budget for education, there have been many support policies
other than salary for teachers to increase their incomes; for instance, teachers are entitled to preferential
allowances, seniority allowances, and support policies for teachers in mountainous, remote areas, areas
with extremely difficult socio-economic conditions; teachers teaching children with special needs,
teaching mixed classes, special teachers [1]. However, in fact, teachers deem that support policies, salary
and benefits are still inadequate; teachers’ salaries are low, especially ECE teachers, and teachers’ living
standards have not been improved. Therefore, it is necessary to reform a renovation on the benefits and
support policies for teachers, so that teachers can afford to live comfortably and have motivations to
improve their qualifications and teaching quality [9].
The management of the teaching staff still has the above limitations due to the following main
reasons: 1). Many localities and managing agencies have not seriously implemented the provisions
of the Law on Public Employees and the guiding documents of the Government and ministries and
branches on recruitment, employment, and management of public employees. 2). The implementation
of decentralization of human resource management in the Education sector is currently being performed
unevenly among localities. Accordingly, the decentralization of recruitment, appointment, and dismissal
is regulated differently in different localities. 3) The lack of a master plan on training teachers from
preschool and upper secondary school leads to a paradoxical situation in which the teaching staff is
redundant, lacking, and structurally inconsistent; 4) Lack of mechanisms and policies to create incentives
to attract and retain teachers.
3. SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF ECE AND GE
SCHOOL TEACHERS
1) Renovating the state management of teaching staff. There should be a mechanism to empower
the education sector to take the initiative in recruiting teachers. The recruitment and employment of
teachers should be conducted in a flexible manner so that ECE and GE institutions can arrange enough
teachers according to regulations to ensure a sufficient number of teachers and synchronous syllabuses
of subjects, avoiding teacher shortage. The localities should actively review the existing teaching staff to
determine the number of additional teachers needed for each level of education; to develop a roadmap,
solutions to overcome the situation of excess and shortage of teachers associated with improving the
efficiency of downsizing;
2) Effectively implementing the Plan to implement the roadmap to raise the standard level of training
of preschool, primary and secondary school teachers according to the provisions of Decree No. 71/2020/
ND-CP dated June 30, 2020 of the Government; implementing regular training, fostering to improve
management and teaching capacity for teachers at all levels and implementing the 2018 General Education
Program; Encouraging the promotion of teachers’ self-enrichment capacity is the best condition to improve
the quality, capacity, professional qualifications commensurate with the job position, and to meet the
requirements of educational innovation.
3) Implementing and performing the evaluation and rating of teachers, with emphasis on motivating
the teaching staff, so that they will strive for excellence, in order to develop their own professional
capacity; Researching and consolidating current regulations on teacher evaluation into a detailed set of
criteria for evaluating teachers on the basis of functions, tasks, organizational structure, job descriptions
of teachers. Each job position is associated with the teacher’s specific characteristics and can be used for
different evaluation purposes, at different times in the same evaluation year.
4) Improving policies for teachers and administrators to attract highly qualified teachers and make
teachers feel secure in their dedication and efforts to the sector.
5) Carrying out training in association with needs of professional development to ensure the
adequate structure, quantity, and quality of ECE and GE school teachers to meet the requirements of
educational innovation; Renovating teacher training models and approaches, from enrollment to content,
methods, and forms of teacher training towards the professional competency-based approach, linking
pre-service training at university and college with in-service activities at school; conducting teacher
training according to the supply-demand mechanism, linking teacher training with local needs to ensure
sufficient quantity and structure synchronization.
REFERENCES
1. Nguyen Thi Binh (2010), State-level Research Theme, Solutions to reform the training and
fostering of upper secondary school teachers
2. Ministry of Education and Training, Ministry of Home Affairs (2015) Circular No. 06/2015/
TTLT-BGDĐT-BNV dated March 16, 2015, stipulating the list of job position frameworks and
standards of the number of people working in public preschool education institutions.
3. Ministry of Education and Training, Ministry of Home Affairs (2017) Circular No.: 16/2017/TT-
BGDĐT dated 12 July 2017, providing for the list of job position frameworks and the standards
of the number of people working in the field. public educational institutions.
4. Ministry of Education and Training (2021), Report of the conference to summarize the 2020-2021
school year, deploy the tasks of the 2021 - 2022 school year.
5. Government (2020), Decree No. 115/2020/ND-CP dated September 25, 2020 regulating
recruitment, employment and management of public employees.
6. Trinh Thi Anh Hoa (2019), Renovating the management mechanism of public schools, Vietnam
Journal of Educational Sciences, No. 22, October 2019 ISSN 2615-8957 Vietnam
7. Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences (2020), Final Report on Evaluation of the
implementation of the 2011 - 2020 comprehensive educational and training renovation goals,
and goals, tasks for the period 2021 - 2030, 5-year plan 2021 - 2025.
8. Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences (2021), Education Sector Analysis 2011-2020
9. Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences (2021), Report on the implementation of the
Education Development Strategy 2011 - 2022
NHÀ XUẤT BẢN Tổng Biên tập: (024) 39715011
Quản lý xuất bản: (024) 39728806
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI Biên tập: (024) 39714896
16 Hàng Chuối - Hai Bà Trưng - Hà Nội
Fax: (024) 39729436
Chịu trách nhiệm xuất bản: Giám đốc: TS. PHẠM THỊ TRÂM
Chịu trách nhiệm nội dung: Tổng biên tập: TS. NGUYỄN THỊ HỒNG NGA
Biên tập chuyên môn: NGÔ BÍCH VÂN - NGÔ THỊ PHƯƠNG THẢO
- ĐOÀN MAI ANH - BÙI HƯƠNG GIANG
Biên tập xuất bản: PHAN HẢI NHƯ
Chế bản: PHẠM THỊ OANH
Trình bày bìa: PHẠM NGỌC ANH
Đối tác liên kết: TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC GIÁO DỤC
SÁCH LIÊN KẾT
“PROCEEDINGS OF 1ST HANOI FORUM ON PEDAGOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES ”
Mã số: 2L-233ĐH2021
In 77 bản, khổ 19x27 cm tại Công ty TNHH In Thanh Bình.
Địa chỉ: Số 432 Đường K2, Cầu Diễn, Q. Nam Từ Liêm, Hà Nội.
Số xác nhận ĐKXB: 3884-2021/CXBIPH/06-310/ĐHQGHN, ngày 01/11/2021.
Quyết định xuất bản số: 1637 LK-XH/QĐ - NXB ĐHQGHN, ngày 17/11/2021.
In xong và nộp lưu chiểu năm 2021

Proceedings Hafpes 2021

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceedings Hafpes 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

PROCEEDINGS OF 1ST HANOI FORUM

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY PRESS, HA NOI

◊ REALITY VERSUS POLICY OF TECHNOLOGY USED BY TEACHERS IN VIETNAM

◊ USING THE CULTURAL HERITAGES OF THE MEKONG DELTA REGION

◊ AUN-QA BASED CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT OF THE PRIMARY EDUCATION SECTOR

◊ CONTENT OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN VIEWPOINT OF AUTONOMY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

◊ TRAINING SOCIAL - EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE FOR PRESCHOOL

◊ VIETNAM’S CULTURAL VALUE SYSTEM IN DEVELOPING SCHOOL CULTURE

◊ CHANGES IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

FORUM ORGANIZING BOARD

TEACHER TRAINING RENOVATION TO MEET

Nguyen Quy Thanh, Tran Van Cong, Tran Xuan Quang

Keywords: technology use, teacher, policy, reality, Vietnam.

The essential activity of education is a teaching-learning process, in which learning mention to

Variables Number Total %

- Master’s degree or higher 113 0 113 9.26

- Bachelor’s degree/university education 315 747 1,062 87.04

- College degree or lower 5 40 45 3.68

Mean of IT courses trained in the last 5 years 1.55 0.37

Data analysis strategies

Figure 3. Level of IT tool usage by in-service and pre-service teacher groups

Table 3. Logistic regression models assessing influence levels of predictor variables

Predictor variables t p Coef. F Df P adj.R2

Overall model 9.65 7, 1212 .00 .05

Gender .76 .44 .12

Predictors In-service teacher group Pre-service teacher group

F-test 3.13* 14.94**

Note: * p-value <.05; ** p-value <.01

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

2. Almekhlafi, A. G., & Almeqdadi, F. A. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions of technology integration

IU02: have a basic knowledge to work effectively with computers

Appendix 2. Policy milestones

Appendix 3. Specific requirements related to policies for technology use by teachers

5807/BG- 12/21/2018 Guidance on

+ At least 80% of teachers are proficient in using IT

+ At least 15% of lessons use IT applications

+ At least 70% of teachers and school staff have basic IT

+ At least 50% of qualified teachers design e-learning lessons

+ At least 30% of lessons use IT applications

+ 100% of teachers and school staff have basic IT

20/2018/ 22/08/2018 Professional Criterion 15: Application of information technology,

b) Fair level: Applying information technology and digital

c) Good level: Guide and support colleagues to improve

698/QĐ-TTG 01/06/2009 A general plan

Tran Ngoc Tuan

Keywords: data, privacy, students, technology.

1 Article 54, Children Law 2016.

1 Cybersecurity in education and training, Retrieved June 2, 2021 from: https://moet.gov.vn/giaoducquocdan/giao-duc-quoc-

Student privacy Security

1 SB-1177 Privacy: students. Retrieved May 15, 2021, from: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.

1 Richard A. Posner. (1978). Economic Theory of Privacy. 2 Regulation 19, p.20.

For educational institutions: In a networked world, information can be revealed inadvertently

Building a privacy management mode (PMM):

1. The Constitution of The Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2013.

Key words: andragogy, self-directed learning, higher education.

Figure 1. Characteristics of adult learners by Knowles (1984)

Adult learning experience

3.3. Characteristics of andragogy

According to (Knowles, 1975), andragogy is presented in the following features:

Figure 2. Characteristics of andragogy by Knowles (1975)

3.4. Principles of andragogy

Figure 3.3 Principles of andragogy in learning by Knowles (1970)

Those principles are: