Mathematical Logic

DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
by
Dr. RAJENDRA KUMAR KONA
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
Module -1
Couse outcomes
1. Write English sentences for logical expressions and vice-
versa. Use standard notations of propositional logic.
2. Complete and use truth tables for expressions involving the
following logical connectives: negation, conjunction,
disjunction, conditional, and biconditional.
3. Define and use the terms: proposition (statement), converse,
inverse, contrapositive, tautology, and contradiction.
4. Apply standard logical equivalences. Be able to prove that
two logical expressions are or are not logically equivalent.
5. Determine if a logical argument is valid or invalid. Apply
standard rules of inference including (but not limited to)
Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, Transitivity, and Elimination.
Recognize fallacies such as the Converse Error and the
Inverse Error.
October 15, 2020 Dr. KRK 2
• What is logic
• Applications of Logic

Introduction to logic
• Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning, and
of all automated reasoning.
• Logic provides rules which are used to distinguish
between valid and invalid mathematical arguments.
• Logic is used in computer science to verify the
correctness of the program.
• It has practical applications to the design of
computing machines, to the specification of
systems, to artificial intelligence, to computer
programming, to programming languages, and to
other areas of computer science.
Propositions
• In the development of any theory, assertions
are made in the form of sentences.
• Such verbal or written assertions, called
statements or propositions.
• The statements (or propositions) are the
declarative sentences which are either true
or false, but not both

Proposition
• A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a
sentence that declares a fact) that is either true or
false, but not both.
• Ex: 1 + 1 = 2.
• 2 + 2 = 3.
• Kolkata is a country.
• Ex: not propositions
• How beautiful are you?
• What time is it?
• Read this carefully.

Logical operators
(Basic connectives)
• Negation operator (┐ or ~)
• Conjunction (and ^)
• Exclusive Or
• Disjunction (or v )
• Conditional statement →
• Bi-conditional statement →

Compound Propositions
• Negation (not) p
• Conjunction (and) pq
• Disjunction (or) p ꓦq
• Exclusive or pq
• Implication p→q
• Biconditional pq
• The order of precedence of these connectives
is ˥, ꓥ, ꓦ, →, ↔.
Truth Tables
• Negation: Let p be a proposition. The negation

of p, denoted by˥p (also denoted by p), is the
statement “It is not the case that p.”
• The proposition ˥p is read “not p.” The truth
value of the negation of p, ˥p, is the opposite of
the truth value of p.
• Truth Table for negation
p ┐p
T F
F T
Example
• What is the negation of each of these
propositions?
• a) Raj has a virtual video player.
• b) There is pollution in New Delhi.
• c) 2 + 1 = 3.
• Ans: a) Raj does not have virtual video player.
• b) It is not the case that there is pollution in
New Delhi.
• c) It is not true that 2+1=3
Observation
• If there is only one variable (say P), there are only two( 21) possibilities,
they are True(T) or False(F).
• For two variables(p&q)there are 4( 2 ) possibilities, they are T T, T F, F
T, F F.
2
• For three variables p,q,r,there are 8(23) possibilities, they are T T T,
T T F, T F T, T F F, F T T, F T F, F F T, F F F.
• Example: How many rows appear in a truth table for each of these
• compound propositions?
• a) p →￢ p
• b) (p ∨￢ r) ∧ (q ∨￢ s)
• c) q ∨ p ∨￢ s ∨￢ r ∨￢ t ∨ u
• d) (p ∧ r ∧ t) ↔(q ∧ t)
• Ans: A truth table will need 2 n rows if there are n variables.
• a) 21 = 2 b) 2 4 = 16 c) 2 6 = 64 d) 2 4 = 16

conjuction
• The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q,
is the proposition “p and q.” The conjunction
p ∧ q is true when both p and q are true and
is false otherwise.
P Q P^Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example
• Let p and q be the propositions
• p : It is below freezing. q : It is snowing.
• Write these propositions using p and q and
logical connectives (including negations).
• a) It is below freezing and snowing.
• b) It is below freezing but not snowing.
• c) It is not below freezing and it is not
snowing.
• Ans: a ) p ꓥ q. b) pꓥ ┐q. c) ┐pꓥ ┐q.
• P: Jack went up the hill Q: Jill went up the hill
disjunction
• The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q,
is the proposition “p or q.” The disjunction
p ∨ q is false when both p and q are false and is
true otherwise.
P Q PꓦQ
•
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example
• P: The earth is flat
• Q: 3+5=8
• P ∨ Q: The earth is flat or 3+5=8.
• The connective “∨” is not always the same as
the word “or” because it can be
• 1) Inclusive OR
Example: (P: buy a car, Q: buy a computer)
• 2) Exclusive OR
• Example: P: cse in engg. Q: Mech in engg.
• In logic we use Inclusive OR
exclusive OR
• The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by
(p ⊕ q), is the proposition that is true when
exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.
p q p⊕ q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Conditional Statements
• The conditional statement p → q is the
proposition “ if p, then q.” The conditional
statement p → q is false when p is true and q
is false, and true otherwise.
• In the conditional statement p → q,

p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or
premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequence).
Conditional Statements
P Q P→Q
T T T
Truth table :
T F F
F T T
F F T
• The following ways to express this conditional statement:

• “if p, then q” “p implies q”
• “if p, q” “p only if q”
• “p is sufficient for q” “a sufficient condition for q is p”
• “q if p” “q whenever p”
• “q when p” “q is necessary for p”
• “a necessary condition for p is q” “q follows from p”
• “q unless ￢p”

Examples: Write the following sentences in symbolic form
• P: There is flood
• Q: crop will be destroyed
• P → Q : If there is flood then the crop will be
destroyed.
• P: Rajesh will pass the exam
• Q: Rajesh works hard
• Q → P : If rajesh works hard then he will
pass the exam.

Example
• Let p, q, and r be the propositions
• p : You have the flu.
• q : You miss the final examination.
• r : You pass the course.
• Express each of these propositions as an
English sentence.
• a) p → q b) ￢q → r c) q →￢r d) p ∨ q ∨ r
• e) (p →￢r) ∨ (q →￢r) f ) (p ∧ q) ∨ (￢q ∧ r)

Example : Answers
• a) If you have flu then you will miss final
examination.
• b) If you don’t miss the final exam then you
will pass the course.
• c) If you miss the final exam then you have
not passed the course.
• e) If you have flu then you have not pass the
course (or) if you miss the final exam then
you have not pass the course.

CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE,
• We can form some new conditional statements
starting with a conditional statement p → q.
• The proposition q → p is called the converse of
p → q.
• The proposition ˥ p → ˥ q is called the inverse of
p → q.
• The contrapositive of p → q is the proposition
• ˥q → ˥p.
• The contrapositive always has the same truth

value as p → q.

Example
• P: It is -6 degrees
• Q: It is cold
• P → Q: If it is -6 degrees then it is cold
• Converse: Q →P: If it is cold then it is -6
degrees
• Inverse: ˥ P → ˥ Q: If it is not -6 degrees then
it is not cold.
• Contrapositive : ˥Q → ˥P: If it is not cold then
it is not -6 degrees
Practice
• The converse of the inverse of p → q is -------- of
p→q.
• The converse of the inverse of p → q is --------
of q → p .
• The inverse of the converse of p → q is the ------- of
p→q.
• The inverse of the converse of p → q is the ------- of
q→p.
• The inverse of the contrapositive of p → q is the ----
------ of p → q .

Anwswers
• Ans: Contrapositive
• The inverse of (p → q ) is (˥ p → ˥ q ) .
• Therefore the converse of (˥ p → ˥ q ) is
(˥q → ˥p), which is contrapositive of (p → q )
.
Answers: Inverse
Contrapositive
Inverse
Converse
BICONDITIONALS
• The bi-conditional statement p ↔ q is the
proposition “p if and only if q.”
• The bi-conditional statement p ↔ q is true
when p and q have the same truth values,
and is false otherwise.
• Truth table P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Biconditional
• Bi-conditional statements are also called
bi-implications.
• the bi-conditional statement p ↔ q uses the
abbreviation “iff” for “if and only if.”
• Note that p ↔ q has exactly the same truth value
as (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
• That is p ↔ q ⇔ (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
• Example: P : You can take the flight.
• Q : You buy a ticket.
• Then P ↔ Q is the statement.
• “You can take the flight iff you buy a ticket”.
Construct the truth tables
• Construct a truth table for each of these
compound propositions.
• a) (p ∧ ˥ p) b) (p ∨ ˥ p) c) (p ∨ ˥ q) → q
• d) (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ q) p ˥p p∧˥p
• e) (p → q) ↔ (˥ q → ˥ p)
T F F
• f ) (p → q) → (q → p).
F T F
• Ans: a) F F b) T T c) T F T F d) T F F T
• e) T T T T f) T T F T
Truthtables
• Construct truth tables for (P→Q), (˥Pꓦ Q)
• 1)Sol: P Q ˥P P→Q ˥Pꓦ Q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
P Q R Q→R P→(Q → R)
• 2) P→(Q → R) T T T T T
T T F F F
• Sol: T F T T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F F T
F F T T T
F F F T T
Construct a truth table for each of these compound
propositions.
• 1) p → (˥ q ∨ r)
p q r ˥q ˥q ∨ r p → (˥q ∨ r)
T T T F T T
T T F F F F
T F T T T T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F T F F F T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
2) ˥ p → (q → r)
p q r ˥p q → r ˥p → ( q →r)
T T T F T T
T T F F F T
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
practice
• Construct truth tables for:
• 1) (pꓦq) ꓦ ˥ p
• 2) ˥(˥ p ꓦ ˥ q) 3) ˥(˥ p ꓥ ˥ q)
• 4) (p ꓥ q)ꓦ(q ꓥ r)ꓦ(r ꓥ p)
• 5) (p→q) ꓥ (┐p→q) 6) p→(┐q ꓦ r)
• 7) [(pꓦ q) ꓥ (┐r)]↔ (q→ r)
• Ans: 1) TTTT 2) TFFF 3) TTTF

• 4) TTTFTFFF 5) TFTF 6) TFTTTTTT
• 7) FFFTFFFF
Construct truth tables for(contd..)
• 1) (pꓦq) ꓦ ˥ p
• Sol:
p q ˥p (pꓦq) (pꓦq) ꓦ ˥
p
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F F T F T
7. [(pꓦ q) ꓥ (┐r)]↔ (q→ r)=A
P q r ┐r (pꓦ q) [(pꓦ q) ꓥ (q→ r) A
(┐r)]
T T T F T F T F
T T F T T T F F
T F T F T F T F
T F F T T T T T
F T T F T F T F
F T F T T T F F
F F T F F F T F
F F F T F F T F
Construct the truth table for
(p ꓥ q)ꓦ(q ꓥ r)ꓦ(r ꓥ p)
P q r pꓥq qꓥ rꓥ (p ꓥ q)ꓦ(q ꓥ (p ꓥ q)ꓦ(q ꓥ r)ꓦ(r ꓥ p)
r p r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F T T
T F T F F T F T
T F F F F F F F
F T T F T F T T
F T F F F F F F
F F T F F F F F
F F F F F F F F
Tautology and contradiction
• Tautology: A statement formula which is true
regardless of the truth values of the statements
which replace the variables in it is called a
universally valid formula or a Tautology.
Example: (p ꓦ ˥ p) .
p ˥p pꓦ˥p
T F T
F T T
Tautology and contradiction(contd..)
• Contradiction: A statement formula which is false

regardless of the truth values of the statements
which replace the variables in it is called a
Contradiction.
p ˥p pꓥ˥
Example: (p ꓥ ˥ p) .
p
T F F
F T F
• Contingency : A statement formula which is neither
a tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
Practice
• Check whether the following are tautology,
contradiction or contingent.
• 1) (P→Q)↔(˥Pꓦ Q)
• 2) ((P → R)ꓥ(Q→ R))→((PꓦQ)→R)
• 3) ((p ꓦ q) → r)↔(˥ r→ ˥(p ꓦ q))
P Q ˥P P→Q ˥Pꓦ Q (P→Q)↔(˥Pꓦ Q)
• Ans: 1) Tautology
• 2) Tautology
T T F T T T
• 3) Contingent
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

Determine whether each of the following form is a
tautology or a contradiction or neither
• 1) (p ꓥ q) → (p ꓦ q)
• Sol: p q (p ꓥ q) (p ꓦ q) (p ꓥ q) → (p ꓦ q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T
• Therefore (p ꓥ q) → (p ꓦ q) is a Tautology.
• 2) (p ꓦ q) ꓥ(˥ p ∧ ˥ q)
• Sol: p q ˥p ˥q (p ꓦ q) (˥ p ∧ ˥ q) (p ꓦ q) ꓥ(˥ p ∧ ˥ q)
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T F
Determine whether each of the following form is a
tautology or a contradiction or neither :
• 3) ˥P →(P →Q)
• Sol : P Q ˥P P →Q ˥P →(P →Q)
T T F T T
T F F F T
F T T T T
F F T T T
• Therefore ˥P →(P →Q) is a tautology.

Equivalence of formulas
• Def: Two formulas A and B are said to be
equivalent to each other if and only if
A↔B(A bi-conditional B) is a tautology.
• The symbol ⇔ is sometimes used instead of ≡ to denote logical
equivalence.
• Ex: (P→Q) ⇔ (˥ P ꓦ Q).

• Sol: P Q ˥P P→Q ˥Pꓦ Q (P→Q) ↔(˥ P ꓦ Q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
p ↔ q ⇔ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
p q (p → q) (q → p) (p → q) ∧ (q → p) p↔q (p ↔ q ) ↔
p → q) ∧ (q → p)
T T T T T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F F F T
F F T T T T T

1) (P ꓥ ˥ P ) ꓦ Q ⇔ Q
P Q ˥P Pꓥ˥ (P ꓥ ˥ P ) ꓦ Q (P ꓥ ˥ P ) ꓦ Q ↔Q
• Sol: P
T T F F T T
T F F F F T
F T T F T T
F F T F F T

Demorgans Laws: 1) ˥(p ∧ q) ⇔ ˥ p ∨ ˥ q
2) ˥(p ∨ q) ⇔ ˥ p ∧ ˥ q
• 1) Sol:
P Q ˥P ˥Q P∧Q ˥(P ∧ Q) ˥ P∨￢Q ˥(P∧ Q) ↔˥ P ∨￢ Q
T T F F T F F T
T F F T F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F T T T

Equivalence of formulas(practice)
1.Prove that p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) Are
Logically Equivalent.
2. Show that p ↔ q and (p → q) ∧ (q → p) are
logically equivalent.
3. Prove ¬(p ꓦ (¬p ꓥ q)) ⇔ ¬p ꓥ ¬q.
4. Prove (p ꓥ q) → (p ꓦ q) ⇔ T.
5. Prove (p →q) ꓥ (p → r) ⇔ p → (q ꓥ r).

5.Prove (p →q) ꓥ (p → r) ⇔ p → (q ꓥ r) =A
P q r (p →q) (p → r) (p →q) ꓥ (p → r) (q ꓥ p → (q ꓥ r) A
r)
T T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F T
T F T F T F F F T
T F F F F F F F T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F T T T F T T
F F T T T T F T T
F F F T T T F T T
Logical Equivalences
Equivalence Name
p∧T⇔ p Identity laws
p∨F⇔ p
p∨T⇔T Domination laws
p∧F⇔F
p∨p⇔p Idempotent laws
p∧p⇔p
˥( ˥p) ⇔ p Double negation law
p∨q⇔q∨p Commutative laws
p ∧ q ⇔q ∧ p
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ⇔ p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws
(p ∧ q) ∧ r ⇔ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) Distributive aws
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)

Logical Equivalences (contd)
Equivalence Name
(pꓦq)ꓥ(rꓦs) ⇔(p ꓥ r) ꓦ (p ꓥ s) Extended distributive law

ꓦ (q ꓥ r) ꓦ (q ꓥ s)
˥(p ∧ q) ⇔ ˥p ∨˥q De Morgan’s laws

˥(p ∨ q) ⇔ ˥p ∧˥q
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ⇔ p Absorption laws
p ∧ (p ∨ q) ⇔ p
p∨ ˥p⇔T Negation laws

p∧˥p⇔F
Logical Equivalences
Involving Conditional Statements.
p → q ⇔ ˥p ∨ q
p → q ⇔ ˥q →˥p
p ∨ q ⇔ ˥p → q
p ∧ q ⇔˥ (p →˥q)
˥(p → q) ⇔ p ∧˥q
(p → q) ∧ (p → r) ⇔ p → (q ∧ r)
(p → r) ∧ (q → r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) → r
(p → q) ∨ (p → r) ⇔ p → (q ∨ r)
(p → r) ∨ (q → r) ⇔(p ∧ q) → r
Logical Equivalences Involving Bi-conditional
Statements.
p ↔ q ⇔ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
p ↔ q ⇔ ˥p ↔˥q
p ↔ q ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (˥p ∧˥q)
˥(p ↔ q) ⇔ p ↔˥q
Substitution Instance
• A formula A is called a substitution instance of another
formula B if A can be obtained form B by substituting
formulas for some variables of B, with the condition that the
same formula is substituted for the same variable each time
it occurs.
• Example: Let B : P → (J ∧ P ).
• Substitute R↔S for P in B, we get
• : (R ↔ S) → (J ∧ (R ↔ S))
• Then A is a substitution instance of B.
• Note that (R ↔ S) → (J ∧P) is not a substitution instance of
B because the variables
• P in J ∧ P was not replaced by R ↔ S.

• Replacement process:
Consider the formula A: P → (Q → R).
The formula (Q → R) is a part of the formula A.
If we replace (Q → R) by an equivalent formula
(˥Q ∨ R) in A,
we get another formula B: P→ (˥Q ∨ R) .
(These two formulas A and B are equivalent to
each other)
This process of obtaining B from A is known as
the replacement process.
Prove that without using truth table
P → (Q → R) ⇔ P→ (˥Q ∨ R) ⇔(P ∧Q) → R
• Proof: We know that (Q → R) ⇔ (˥Q ∨ R) .
• Therefore P → (Q → R) ⇔ P→ (˥Q ∨ R)
(By replacing by an equivalent formula) and
• P→ (˥Q ∨ R) ⇔ ˥P ∨ (˥Q ∨ R)
⇔ (˥P ∨ ˥Q ) ∨ R (Associativelaw)
⇔ ˥(P ∧Q) ∨ R (Demorgans laws)
⇔(P ∧Q) → R

Without using truth table
• Prove that (˥P ∧(˥Q) ∧R) ∨(Q ∧R) ∨(P ∧R) ⇔ R
• Sol:
• (˥P ∧(˥Q) ∧R) ∨(Q ∧R) ∨(P ∧R)
• ⇔ ((˥P ∧˥Q) ∧R) ∨ ((Q ∨P) ∧R)(Assoc. and Dist.laws)
• ⇔ (˥(P ∨ Q) ∧R) ∨ ((Q ∨P) ∧R)(Demorgan’s laws)
• ⇔ (˥(P ∨ Q) ∨ (Q ∨P)) ∧R)(Distributive law)
• ⇔ (˥(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∨Q)) ∧R)(Distributive law)
• ⇔ T∧R (Since P ∨ ˥P is always a tautology)
• ⇔ R since T R T∧R
T T T
T F F
Without using truth table
• P↔Q ⇔(˥P ∨Q ) ∧(P ∨ ˥ Q) ⇔ (P ∧Q) ∨ (˥ P ∧ ˥ Q)
• Sol:
• P↔Q ⇔ (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)
• (Since P → Q ⇔ ˥P ∨ Q)
• ⇔(˥P ∨Q ) ∧(P ∨ ˥Q) ----(1st result)
• ⇔(˥P ∧P) ∨ (˥P ∧ ˥Q) ∨(Q ∧P) ∨(Q ∧ ˥Q)
• (By Extended distributive law)
• ⇔F ∨ (˥P ∧ ˥Q) ∨(Q ∧P) ∨F
• ⇔ (˥P ∧ ˥Q) ∨(P∧Q) ----(2nd result)
• These two formulas are often used in normal forms.
Show that ˥(P↔Q ) ⇔ (P ∨Q ) ∧ ˥(P ∧Q)
• ˥(P↔Q )
• ⇔ ˥[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
• ⇔ ˥[(˥P ∨ Q) ∧ (˥Q ∨ P)]
• ⇔ ˥[(˥P∧˥Q) ∨ (˥P ∧ P) ∨(Q ∧˥Q) ∨ (Q ∧ P) ]
• ⇔ ˥[(˥P∧˥Q) ∨ F ∨ F ∨ (Q ∧ P) ]
• ⇔ ˥[˥(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ]
• ⇔ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ˥(P ∧ Q) ]

Tautological Implication
• Def: A statement A is said to tautologically
imply a statement B, iff A→B is a tautology.
We shall denote it by A ⇒B (read as A
implies B).
• Tautological implication can be checked by 3
methods:
• 1) By truth Table
• 2)By assigning truth value T to the
antecedent of the corresponding conditional
leads to the truth value T to the consequent.

Tautological Implication
• 3) Assume that the consequent B has the
value F then we show that this assumption
leads to A’s having the value F. Then A→B
must have the value T.
• Ex.
• 1) P.T. (P→Q) ⇒(˥Q→˥P)
• 2) P.T. ˥Q ꓥ(P→Q) ⇒ ˥P
• 3) Show that ˥(P→Q ) ⇒ P.

Solution
Method -1 1) Prove that (P→Q) ⇒(˥Q→ ˥P)
P Q ˥P ˥Q (P→Q) (˥Q→˥P) (P→Q) →(˥Q→˥P)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
Method -2 : Prove that ˥Q ꓥ(P→Q) ⇒ ˥P

Assume that the antecedent ˥Q ꓥ (P→Q), has the truth
value T,
then both ˥Q and (P→Q) have the truth value T,
which means that Q has the value F.
But (P→Q) has the truth value T,
hence P must have the value F. Therefore ˥P is true.
Method -3
3) Show that ˥(P→Q ) ⇒ P.
• Assume that P is false(F), when P is false

(P→Q ) has T, then ˥(P→Q ) has F
• ˥(P→Q ) → P has T. P Q (P→Q)
• Therefore ˥(P→Q ) ⇒ P. T T T
T F F
•
F T T
F F T

NAND and NOR
• So far, we have defined the connectives

˥, ꓥ, ꓦ, →, ↔.
• Now we introduce two more connectives
NAND and NOR which have useful
applications in the design of computers.
• The word NAND is a combination of NOT and
AND
• The word NOR is a combination of NOT and
OR
NAND and NOR cond..
• Def: The connective NAND is denoted by the
symbol  , and is defined as for two variables
P and Q P  Q   ( P  Q) .
• Def: The connective NOR is denoted by the
symbol  , and is defined as for two variables
P and Q P  Q   ( P  Q) .
PQ P Q
P Q (P ∧Q) (P ∨Q)
T T T T F F
T F F T T F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T
Functionally complete sets of connectives
• Def: A set of connectives is said to be functionally
• complete sets of connectives if every formula can
• be expressed in terms of an equivalent formula
• containing the only from the set {˥, ꓥ, ꓦ}.
• Note: The set { ꓥ, ꓦ} is not functionally complete, as the
formula ˥P, is not possible to obtain an equivalent formula
containing only from the set {ꓥ,ꓦ}.
• Result: Prove that { }, {  } are functionally complete.
• Proof:
P  P  ( P  P )  P  P  P
( P  Q)  ( P  Q)   ( P  Q)  (( P  Q))  ( P  Q)
( P  P )  (Q  Q)  P  Q   (P  Q))  ( P  Q)
• P ↓ P ⇔ ¬(P ∨ P ) ⇔ ¬P ∧ ¬P ⇔ ¬P .
• (P ↓ Q) ↓ (P ↓ Q) ⇔ ¬(P ↓ Q)
• ⇔ ¬(¬(P ∨ Q)) ⇔ P ∨ Q.
• (P ↓ P ) ↓ (Q ↓ Q) ⇔ ¬P ↓ ¬Q
• ⇔ ¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q) ⇔ P ∧ Q.
• Therefore {↑}, {↓} are functionally
complete.

Duality Law
• Two formulas A and A∗ are said to be duals of

each other if either one can be obtained from
the other by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧. The
connectives ∨ and ∧ are called duals of each
other. If the formula A contains the special
variable T or F , then A∗, its dual is obtained
by replacing T by F and F by T in addition to
the above mentioned interchanges.

• Example: Write the dual of the following formulas:
• (i). (P ∨ Q) ∧ R (ii). (P ∧ Q) ∨ T
• (iii). (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∨ ¬(Q ∧ ¬S))
• Solution: The duals of the formulas may be written
as (i). (P ∧ Q) ∨ R
• (ii). (P ∨ Q) ∧ F
• (iii). (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ ¬(Q ∨ ¬S))
• Result 1: The negation of the formula is equivalent
to its dual in which every variable is replaced by its
negation.
• We can prove
• ¬A(P1, P2, ..., Pn) ⇔ A∗(¬P1, ¬P2, ..., ¬Pn)
Normal Forms
• Satisfiable: Let A(p1,p2,… pn) be a statement
• formula where p1,p2,… Pn are the primitive
• variables. If A has the truth value T for at least one
• combination of truth value assigned to p1,p2,… pn
• then A is said to be satisfiable.
• Decision Problem: The problem of determining in a
• finite number of steps, whether a given statement
• formula is a tautology or a contradiction or at least
• satisfiable is known as decision problem.
• In this section we will denote the word “product” in
• place of conjunction and “sum” in place of disjunction.

Elementary product & Elementary sum
• Elementary product:
• A product of (statement) variables and their
• negations is called an Elementary product.
• Ex. P, ˥P, ˥PꓥQ, ˥Pꓥ˥Q , Pꓥ˥Q ꓥR are some
examples.
• Elementary sum:
• A sum of the variables and their negations is
• called an Elementary sum.
• Ex. P, ˥P, ˥P ꓦ Q, ˥P ꓦ ˥Q, ˥P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦR are
some examples.
Normal Forms
• Disjunctive Normal form(DNF): A formula which is equivalent to a given
• formula and which consists of a sum of elementary products is called a
• disjunctive normal form of the given formula.
• 1) Obtain a d.n.f. Pꓥ (P →Q)

• Ans: Pꓥ (P →Q) ⇔ P ꓥ (˥P ꓦ Q) ⇔ (P ꓥ ˥P) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q) which is a dnf.
• Conjunctive Normal form(CNF): A formula which is equivalent to a given

• formula and which consists of a product of elementary sums is called a
• conjunctive normal form of the given formula.
• 1) Obtain a c.n.f. Pꓥ (P →Q)

• Ans: Pꓥ (P →Q) ⇔ P ꓥ (˥P ꓦ Q) which is a cnf.
• Note: These two normal forms are not unique.

Normal Forms DNF and CNF procedures

1. Obtain a DNF of ˥(P ꓦ Q) ↔(P ꓥ Q)
• ˥(P ꓦ Q) ↔(P ꓥ Q) [Since(P↔Q ⇔(P ∧Q) ∨(˥P∧ ˥Q))]
• [refer slide 54]
• ⇔(˥(P ꓦ Q) ꓥ(P ꓥ Q) ) ꓦ (˥(˥(P ꓦ Q)) ꓥ ˥(P ꓥ Q))
• (Elimination of Bi-conditional)
• ⇔(˥(P ꓦ Q) ꓥ(P ꓥ Q) ) ꓦ ((P ꓦ Q) ꓥ ˥(P ꓥ Q))
• ⇔(˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ P ꓥ Q) ꓦ ((P ꓦ Q) ꓥ(˥P ꓦ ˥Q )
• ⇔(˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ P ꓥ Q) ꓦ ((P ꓥ˥P) ꓦ(P ꓥ˥Q ) ꓦ
(Q ꓥ ˥P) ꓦ (Q ꓥ ˥Q )) (Extd.Distributive law)
Is a DNF. (On further simplification we have)
• ⇔ (P ꓥ ˥Q ) ꓦ (Q ꓥ ˥P)
Which is the required DNF.
2. Obtain a DNF of P →((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P))
• Sol: P →((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P))

• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P)) (since(P →Q) ⇔ (˥P ꓦ Q)
)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((˥P ꓦ Q) ꓥ ˥(˥(Q ꓥP))) (Demorgan’s law)

• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((˥P ꓦ Q) ꓥ (Q ꓥP)) (Distributive law)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥP) ꓦ (Q ꓥ Q ꓥP)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (˥P ꓥP ꓥ Q ) ꓦ ( Q ꓥP)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ F ꓦ (P ꓥ Q)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (P ꓥ Q) (Sum of Elementary
products)
• Which is the required Dr. KRK 72
October 15, 2020
DNF.
3. Obtain a dnf of (Q ꓦ(P ꓥ R)) ꓥ ˥((P ꓦ R) ꓥ Q)
• Sol: (Q ꓦ(P ꓥ R)) ꓥ ˥((P ꓦ R) ꓥ Q)
• ⇔ (Q ꓦ(P ꓥ R)) ꓥ (˥(P ꓦ R) ꓦ ˥Q ) (Demorgans law)
• ⇔ (Q ꓦ(P ꓥ R)) ꓥ (˥P ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ ˥Q ) (Demorgans law)
• ⇔ (Q ꓥ (˥P ꓥ ˥R)) ꓦ(Q ꓥ ˥Q ) ꓦ [(P ꓥ R))
• ꓥ(˥P ꓥ ˥R)] ꓦ ((P ꓥ R) ꓥ ˥Q) (Extended dist.law)
• ⇔ (Q ꓥ (˥P ꓥ ˥R)) ꓦ(Q ꓥ ˥Q ) ꓦ [(P ꓥ R) ꓥ(˥Pꓥ ˥R)]
• ꓦ ((P ꓥ R) ꓥ ˥Q)
• ⇔ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦF ꓦ F ꓦ (P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R)
• ⇔ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ (P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R)
• Which is the DNF.
Practice: Obtain the DNF of
1) (Q ꓦ (P ꓥ R)) ꓥ ˥ [(P ꓦ R) ꓥQ] (By truth table method)
2) (˥P ꓦ ˥Q) →(˥P ꓥ R ) (By truth table method)
• Sol:
P Q R Pꓥ R Q ꓦ (P ꓥ R) (P ꓦ R) (P ꓦ R) ꓥQ ˥( (P ꓦ R) ꓥQ) A
T T T T T T T F F
T T F F T T T F F
T F T T T T F T T
T F F F F T F T F
F T T F T T T F F
F T F F T F F T T
F F T F F T F T F
F F F F F F F T F

• Given formula is true in 3rd and 6th rows
• The corresponding truth values of P, Q, R in
• these rows are T F T and F T F.
• Therefore the required DNF is
• (P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R) ꓦ(˥ P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥ R)
• Example: consider P ꓦ(Q ꓥ R)
• P ꓦ(Q ꓥ R) is a DNF
• ⇔ (P ꓦ Q) ꓥ(P ꓦ R) (Distributive law)
• ⇔ (P ꓥ P) ꓦ(P ꓥ R) ꓦ(Q ꓥ P) ꓦ(Q ꓥ R) is also
DNF
1. Obtain a CNF of ˥(P ꓦ Q) ↔(P ꓥ Q)
• ˥(P ꓦ Q) ↔(P ꓥ Q)
• [Since(P↔Q ⇔(˥P ∨Q ) ∧(P ∨ ˥Q)]
• ⇔(˥(˥(P ꓦ Q)) ꓦ(P ꓥ Q) ) ꓥ(˥(P ꓦ Q) ꓦ ˥(P ꓥ Q))
• ⇔((P ꓦ Q) ꓦ(P ꓥ Q)) ꓥ(˥(P ꓦ Q) ꓦ ˥(P ꓥ Q))
• (A ꓦ(B ꓥ C) ⇔(A ꓦ B) ꓥ (A ꓦ C) (Distributive and Demorgan’s laws)
• ⇔((P ꓦ Q ꓦ P) ꓥ (P ꓦ Q ꓦ Q)) ꓥ((˥P ꓥ˥Q) ꓦ (˥P ꓦ
˥Q))
• ⇔((P ꓦ Q ∨P) ꓥ (P ꓦ Q ꓦ Q)) ꓥ[(˥P ꓦ ˥Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ˥Q)
)]
• ⇔(P ꓦ Q ∨P) ꓥ (P ꓦ Q ꓦ Q) ꓥ(˥P ꓦ˥Q ꓦ˥P) ꓥ
• (˥P ꓦ˥Qꓦ˥Q)). [since(A ∨ (B ∧ C) ⇔ (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C) ]
Dr. KRK
Which is the required
October 15, 2020
CNF. 76
2. Obtain a CNF of ((P →Q) ∧ ˥Q) → ˥P
• ((P →Q) ∧ ˥Q) → ˥P ⇔ ˥((P →Q) ∧ ˥Q) ∨ ˥P
• ⇔ ˥((˥ P ∨Q) ∧ ˥Q) ∨ ˥P
• ⇔ ˥(˥ P ∨Q) ∨(˥(˥ Q)) ∨ ˥P (Demorgans law)
• ⇔ (˥(˥ P) ∧ ˥Q) ∨(˥(˥ Q) ) ∨ ˥P
• ⇔ [(P ∧ ˥Q) ∨ Q] ∨ ˥P (Distributive law)
• ⇔ [(Q ∨ P) ∧ (Q ∨ ˥Q)] ∨ ˥P (Distributive law)
• ⇔ (Q ∨ P ∨ ˥P) ∧ (Q ∨ ˥Q ∨ ˥P)
• ⇔ (P ∨ ˥P ∨ Q) ∧ (˥P ∨ Q ∨ ˥Q)
• Which is the required CNF.
Obtain a CNF of [(P ∧ Q) ∨ R] ∧(P → R) =A (truth table method)
P Q R (P ∧ Q) (P ∧ Q) ∨ R (P → R) A
T T T T T T T
T T F T T F F
T F T F T T T
T F F F F F F
F T T F T T T
F T F F F T F
F F T F T T T
F F F F F T F

• Give formula is false in 2nd,4th,6th and8throws,
• the corresponding entries of P, Q, R in these
• rows are T T F, T F F, F T F, F F F.
• Hence the CNF of the given formula is
• (˥ P ∨ ˥ Q ∨R) ∧ (˥ P ∨ Q ∨R) ∧ (P ∨ ˥ Q ∨R)
• ∧ (P ∨ Q ∨R)

Min and Max terms
• Minterm: A minterm consists of conjunctions in which each statement
• variable or its negation , but not both, appears only once.
• Ex: For two variables P and Q, there are 4(2^2) minterms given by
P ꓥ Q, P ꓥ ˥Q, ˥P ꓥ Q, ˥P ꓥ˥Q .
• Maxterm: A maxterm consists of disjunctions in which each statement
• variable or its negation , but not both, appears only once.
• Ex: For two variables P and Q, there are 4(2^2) maxterms given by
P ꓦ Q, P ꓦ ˥ Q, ˥P ꓦ Q, ˥P ꓦ˥Q .
P Q ˥P ˥Q PꓥQ P ꓥ ˥Q ˥P ꓥ Q ˥P ꓥ˥Q
T T F F T F F F
T F F T F T F F
F T T F F F T F
F F T T F F F T
•Principal disjunctive normal form(PDNF):
. An equivalent formula consisting of disjunctions of min terms
. only is known as its principal disjunctive normal form
. (sum-of-products form) or simply PDNF.
• Obtain the PDNF of P→ Q
• Sol: The truth table of P→ Q is
P Q P→ Q Minterm
T T T PꓥQ
T F F P ꓥ ˥Q
F T T ˥P ꓥ Q
F F T ˥P ꓥ˥Q
• The PDNF of P→ Q is (P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ˥Q)

PDNF procedure with out constructing truth table

1. Obtain the PDNF of P→ Q.(without using
truth table)
Sol: P→ Q ⇔ (˥ P ꓦ Q)
⇔ (˥ P ꓥ T) ꓦ (Q ꓥ T) (Missing factors are obtained by
introducing’ꓥT’)
⇔ [˥P ꓥ (Q ꓦ ˥Q )] ꓦ [Q ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥P)] (Distributive

law)
⇔ ((˥ P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥Pꓥ˥Q )) ꓦ ((Q ꓥ P) ꓦ (Q ꓥ˥P ))
⇔ (˥ P ꓥ Q) ꓦ (˥Pꓥ˥Q )) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q)
⇔(P ꓥ Q)ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ˥ Q ) is the PDNF
2. Obtain the PDNF of (P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ R) ꓦ(Q ꓥ R)
• (P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ R) ꓦ(Q ꓥ R)
• ⇔ [(P ꓥ Q) ꓥ T] ꓦ [(˥P ꓥ R) ꓥ T] ꓦ[(Q ꓥ R) ꓥ
T]
• ⇔ [(P ꓥ Q) ꓥ (R ꓦ ˥R)] ꓦ [(˥P ꓥ R) ꓥ (Qꓦ ˥Q)]
ꓦ[(Q ꓥ R) ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥P)]
• ⇔ ((P ꓥ Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R)) ꓦ ((˥P ꓥ R ꓥ
Q)ꓦ
• (˥P ꓥ R ˥Q) ) ꓦ((Q ꓥ R ꓥ P) ꓦ (Q ꓥ R ˥P) )
• ⇔ (P ꓥ Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ R)
ꓦ
3. Obtain a PDNF of P →((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P))
• Sol: P →((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P))
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P)) (since(P →Q) ⇔ (˥P ꓦ Q) )
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((˥P ꓦ Q) ꓥ ˥(˥(Q ꓥP))) (Demorgan’s law)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((˥P ꓦ Q) ꓥ (Q ꓥP)) (Distributive law)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥP) ꓦ (Q ꓥ Q ꓥP)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (˥P ꓥP ꓥ Q ) ꓦ ( Q ꓥP)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ F ꓦ (P ꓥ Q)
• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ (P ꓥ Q) ⇔ (˥P ꓥ T) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q)
• ⇔ (˥P ꓥ (Q ꓦ ˥ Q)) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q)
• ⇔ (˥P ꓥ Q) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ ˥ Q) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q)
• Which is the required PDNF.
Min and Max terms of 3 variables
P Q R Minterms Maxterms
T T T PꓥQꓥR PꓦQꓦR
T T F P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R PꓦQꓦ˥R
T F T P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R Pꓦ˥QꓦR
T F F P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R Pꓦ˥Qꓦ˥R
F T T ˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ R ˥PꓦQꓦR
F T F ˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R ˥PꓦQꓦ˥R
F F T ˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R ˥Pꓦ˥QꓦR
F F F ˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R ˥Pꓦ˥Qꓦ˥R

Principal conjunctive normal form
• P.C.N.F: An equivalent formula consisting of
• conjunctions of max terms only is known as
• its principal conjunctive normal form
• (product-of-sums form) or simply PCNF.
• *: In obtaining PCNF of a given formula we
• have to introduce “ꓦ F” to obtain the missing
factors.

1. Find the PCNF of (˥P → R) ꓥ(Q ↔ P)
• (˥P → R) ꓥ(Q ↔ P)
• ⇔[˥ (˥P) ꓦR] ꓥ[(Q → P) ꓥ(P → Q)]
• ⇔(P ꓦ R) ꓥ(˥ Q ꓦ P) ꓥ(˥ P ꓦ Q)
• ⇔[(P ꓦ R) ꓦ F] ꓥ [(˥Q ꓦ P) ꓦ F] ꓥ [(˥P ꓦ Q) ꓦ F] (missing factors)
• ⇔[(P ꓦ R) ꓦ(Q ꓥ ˥Q)] ꓥ [(˥ Q ꓦ P) ꓦ(R ꓥ ˥R)]
• ꓥ [(˥ P ꓦ Q) ꓦ (R ꓥ ˥R)]
• ⇔[(P ꓦ R ꓦ Q) ꓥ(P ꓦ R ꓦ ˥Q)] ꓥ[(˥ Q ꓦ P ꓦR) ꓥ (˥ Q ꓦ P ꓦ
˥R)]
• ꓥ[(˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ(˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥R)]
• ⇔(P ꓦQ ꓦ R ) ꓥ(P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ R)ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥ Q ꓦ ˥R)
• ꓥ (˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ(˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥R)
• ⇔(P ꓦ Q ꓦ R ) ꓥ(P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥ Q ꓦ ˥R)
•October 15, 2020 ꓥ (˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ(˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥R) is PCNF.
Dr. KRK 88
Min and Max terms of 3 variables
p Q R Minterms Maxterms
T T T PꓥQꓥR PꓦQꓦR
T T F P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R P ꓦQ ꓦ ˥R
T F T P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R P ꓦ˥Q ꓦ R
T F F P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ ˥R
F T T ˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ R ˥P ꓦ Q ꓦ R
F T F ˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R ˥P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥R
F F T ˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R ˥P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ R
F F F ˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R ˥P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ ˥R

PDNF &PCNF-problem
• 2) Given A=(Pꓥ Q) ꓦ (˥PꓥR) ꓦ (Qꓥ R) find its PDNF and PCNF.
• Sol: The PDNF of A is (refer slide 80)
• ⇔(P ꓥ Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (P ꓥ Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R )
• The PDNF of ˥A is the disjunctions of remaining min terms
• PDNF of ˥A ⇔ (P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ˥R) ꓦ
• (˥P ꓥ ˥Q ꓥ ˥R)
• Since ˥(˥A) ⇔A, therefore
• ⇔˥[(Pꓥ˥Q ꓥ R) ꓦ (Pꓥ˥Q ꓥ ˥R) ꓦ (˥P ꓥ Q ꓥ˥R) ꓦ (˥Pꓥ˥Q ꓥ ˥
R)]
• ⇔ (˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥ R) ꓥ (˥ P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ R) ꓥ ( P ꓦ Q ꓦ
R)
• ⇔ ( P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (˥P ꓦ Q ꓦ R) ꓥ (˥P ꓦ Q ꓦ ˥R)
• Which is the PCNF.
•October
Note:
15, 2020 PDNF and PCNF areDr.
unique
KRK normal forms 90
Practice
3.Find the PDNF and PCNF of
S : P  (P → (Q  (Q → R )))

Valid Arguments in Propositional Logic
• Consider the following argument involving propositions
• “If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
• network.”
• “You have a current password.”
• Therefore, “You can log onto the network.”
• Use p to represent “You have a current password” and
• q to represent “You can log onto the network.”
• Then, the argument has the symbolic form
• p→q
• p
• ∴q valid

Theory of Inference
• Inference theory: The main aim of logic is to provide rules of
• inference to infer a conclusion from a set of premises. The
• theory associated with rules of inference is known as
• inference theory.
• Def: An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of
• propositions. All but the final proposition in the argument
• are called premises and the final proposition is called the
• conclusion. An argument is valid if the truth of all its
• premises implies that the conclusion is true.
• Def: If a conclusion is derived from a set of premises by using
• the accepted rules of reasoning then such a process of
• derivation is called a deduction or a formal proof and the
• argument is called valid argument or conclusion is called a
• valid conclusion.
Theory of Inference
• Def: Let A and B be two statement formulas.
• We say that “B logically follows from A” or “B is a
• valid conclusion of the premise A” iff A → B is a
• tautology ie. A ⇒B.
• By extending the above definition we see that the
• argument form with premises p1, p2, . . . , pn and
p
• conclusion q is valid, when 1
p
2
• 3 p

(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pn) → q is a tautology,ie p --→(*)
n
−−−
q
Theory of inference using truth table

Rules of inference
Rule of Inference Tautology Name
p (p ∧ (p → q)) → q Modus ponens(law of

p→q detachment)
∴q
￢q (￢q ∧ (p → q))→￢p Modus tollens
p→q
∴ ￢p
p→q ((p → q) ∧ (q → r)) → (p → r) Hypothetical syllogism
q→r
∴p→r
p∨q ((p ∨ q)∧￢p) → q Disjunctive syllogism
￢p
∴q
P p → (p ∨ q) Addition
∴p∨q
p∧q (p ∧ q) → p Simplification
∴p
p∨q ((p ∨ q) ∧ (￢p ∨ r)) → (q ∨ r) Resolution
￢p ∨ r
∴q∨r
problems
• 1) If it is raining, then I will study discrete math. It Is raining.
• Therefore I study discrete math.
• Let p: it is raining
• q: I will study discrete math
• Symbolically : p →q (Modus ponens)
p
• ∴q
• 2) If it is raining, then I will study discrete math. I will not study
• discrete math. Therefore it is not raining.
• Symbolically: p →q (Modus Tollens)
• ˥q
• ∴ ˥p

problems
• 3) State which rule of inference is the basis of the
• following argument:
• “It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either
• below freezing or raining now.”
• Sol: Let p be the proposition “It is below freezing now”
• And q the proposition “It is raining now.”
• Then this argument is of the form
• Symbolically : p
• ∴p∨q
• This is an argument that uses the addition rule.

• 4) If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue
• today. If we do not have a barbecue today, then we
• will have a barbecue tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains
• today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow.
• Sol: Let p be the proposition “It is raining today,”
• let q be the proposition “We will not have a

• barbecue today,” and let r be the proposition “We
• will have a barbecue tomorrow.” Then this
• argument is of the form p → q
q→r
• symbolically: ---- -
 p → r valid
• Hence, this argument is a hypothetical syllogism.
Check the vailidity of the arguments
5) If sachin hits a century, then he gets a free car. Sachin hits a
century. Sachin gets a free car.
• Ans: Let P: sachin hits a century
• Let Q: Sachin gets a free car
• Symbolically: P→ Q
P
∴ Q (Valid)
6) If sachin hits a century, then he gets a free car. Sachin does
not gets car. There fore sachin has not hit a century.
• Symbolically: P→ Q
˥Q
∴˥P (Valid)
7) If 3x+7=16, then 3x=9
. if 3x=9, then x=3.

here p: 3x+7=16 q: 3x=9 r: x=3.
p→q
q→r
∴p→r
• 8) If I study then I do not fail in exam. If I do not fail in exam, my father

• gifts me a two wheeler. Therefore if I study then my father gifts me a two
• wheeler.
• Solution: Let P: I study
• Q: I do not fail in the exam
• R: My father gifts a two wheeler
• Symbolically: P → Q
• Q→R
• ∴ P → R valid
Rules of inference

Rules of inference
• Rule P(premise): A premise may be introduced at
• any point of the derivation.
• Rule T(tautology): A formula S may be introduced in
• a derivation if S is a Tautology implied by any one or
• more of the preceding formulas in the derivation.
• 1) Prove that ˥p is valid from premises ˥q, p→q.
• [1] (1) p→q rule P
• [2] (2) ˥q rule P
• [1,2] (3) ˥p rule T, and I12(modus Tollens).
• Hence ˥p is valid .

Demonstrate that S is a valid inference from
the premises P→ ˥Q, Q ꓦ R, ˥S →P and ˥R.
• Sol:
• [1] (1) ˥R Rule P

• [2] (2) QꓦR Rule P
• [1,2] (3) Q Rule T, (Disjunctive syllogism)
• [4] (4) P→ ˥Q Rule P
• [1,2,4] (5) ˥P Rule T,(Modus Ponens)
• [6] (6) ˥S →P Rule P
• [1,2,4,6] (7) S Rule T, (Modus Ponens)
• Hence S is a valid inference.
Show that (R ꓦ S) follows logically from the premises
(C ꓦ D), (C ꓦ D) → ˥H, ˥H →(A ∧ ˥ B) and (A ∧˥ B) →(R ꓦ S)
• Sol:
• [1] (1) (C ꓦ D) Rule P
• [2] (2) (C ꓦ D) → ˥H Rule P
• [1,2] (3) ˥H Rule T
• [4] (4) ˥H →(A ∧ ˥ B) Rule P
• [1,2,4] (5) (A ∧ ˥ B) Rule T
• [6] (6) (A ∧˥ B) →(R ꓦ S) Rule P
• [1,2,4,6] (7) (R ꓦ S) Rule T
• Hence (R ꓦ S) follows logically from the premises.
Show that (R ꓦ S) follows logically from the premises
(C ꓦ D), (C ꓦ D) → ˥H, ˥H →(A ∧ ˥ B) and (A ∧˥ B) →(R ꓦ S)
• Sol:
• [1] (1) (C ꓦ D) → ˥H Rule P
• [2] (2) ˥H →(A ∧˥B) Rule P
• [1,2] (3) (C ꓦ D) → (A ∧˥B) Rule T,(Syllogism)
• [4] (4) (A ∧˥B) →(R ꓦ S) Rule P
• [1,2,4] (5) (C ꓦ D) → (R ꓦ S) Rule T,(Syllogism)
• [6] (6) (C ꓦ D) Rule P
• [1,2,4,6] (7) (R ꓦ S) Rule
T ,(addition)
• Hence (R ꓦ S) follows logically from the premises.

Practice
• 2) Prove that r is a valid inference from the
premises p→q, q→r and p.
• 3) Show that ˥s is a valid argument from the
premises p→q, (˥q ꓦ r), (˥r), ˥(˥p ꓥ s).
• 4) Use rules of inference to show that the
hypotheses “Randy works hard,” “If Randy
works hard, then he is a dull boy,” and “If
Randy is a dull boy, then he will not get the
job” imply the conclusion “Randy will not
get the job.”
(Deduction theorem)Rule Conditional proof (ruleCP):
If we can derive ‘S’ from R and a set of premises, then
we can derive R→ S from the set set of premises only.
• Show that R→ S can be derived from the premises
• P →(Q →S), ˥R ꓦ P and Q.
• (Include Antecedent of conclusion as an additional premise)
• [1]
Sol: (1) ˥R ꓦ P Rule P
• [2] (2) R Rule P (Additional premise)
• [1,2] (3) P Rule T, (Disjunctive syllogism)
• [4] (4) P →(Q →S) Rule P [(P → Q)⇔ (˥P ꓦ Q)]
• [1,2,4] (5) (Q →S) Rule T, (Modus Ponens)
• [6] (6) Q Rule P
• [1,4,6] (8) R→ S Rule CP
problems
• Show that P→ S can be derived from the premises

• ˥P ꓦ Q, ˥Q ꓦ R, R→ S.
• (Include Antecedent of conclusion as an additional premise)
• Sol: [1] (1) ˥P ꓦ Q Rule P
• [2] (2) P Rule P (Additional premise)
• [1,2] (3) Q Rule T, (Disjunctive syllogism)
• [4] (4) ˥Q ꓦ R Rule P
• [1,2,4] (5) R Rule T, (Disjunctive syllogism)
• [6] (6) R→ S Rule P (P → Q⇔ ˥P ꓦ Q)
• [1,4,6] (8) P→ S Rule CP

Consistency of Premises
• A set of formulas H1, H2, · · · , Hm is said to be consistent if
• their conjunction has the truth value T for some assignment
• of the truth values to the atomic variables appearing in
• H1, H2, · · · , Hm.
• If, for every assignment of the truth values to the atomic
• variables, at least one of the formulas H1, H2, · · · , Hm is false,
so that their conjunction is identically false, then the
formulas H1, H2, · · · , Hm are called inconsistent.
• Alternatively, a set of formulas H1, H2, · · · , Hm is inconsistent
if their conjunction implies a contradiction, that is,
• H1 ∧ H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hm ⇒ R ∧ ¬R
• where R is any formula.

• Example: Show that the following premises are inconsistent:
• (1). If Jack misses many classes through illness, then he fails
high school.
• (2). If Jack fails high school, then he is uneducated.
• (3). If Jack reads a lot of books, then he is not uneducated.
• (4). Jack misses many classes through illness and reads a lot
of books.
• Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows:
• E: Jack misses many classes through illness.
• S: Jack fails high school.
• A: Jack reads a lot of books.
• H: Jack is uneducated.

• The premises are E → S, S → H, A → ¬H, and E ∧ A.
• {1} (1) E→S Rule P
• {2} (2) S→H Rule P
• {1, 2} (3) E → H Rule T, (1), (2), and I13
• {4} (4) A → ¬H Rule P
• {4} (5) H → ¬A Rule T, (4), and P → Q ⇔ ¬Q → ¬P
• {1, 2, 4} (6) E → ¬A Rule T, (3), (5), and I13
• {1, 2, 4} (7) ¬E ∨ ¬A Rule T, (6) and P → Q ⇔ ¬P ∨ Q
• {1, 2, 4} (8) ¬(E ∧ A) Rule T, (7), and ¬(P ∧ Q) ⇔ ¬P ∨ ¬Q
• {9} (9) E∧A Rule P
• {1, 2, 4, 9} (10) ¬(E ∧ A) ∧ (E ∧ A) Rule T, (8), (9) and I9

Consistency of premises and Indirect method of proof

Prove by indirect method that (˥Q), P → Q, P ꓦ R ⇒ R
• Here R is the conclusion. We will introduce ˥R as an
additional premise. We prove a contradiction.
• Sol: [1] (1) PꓦR Rule P

• [2] (2) ˥R Rule P (Additional premise)
• [1,2] (3) P Rule T,
• [4] (4) P→Q Rule P [(P → Q)⇔ (˥P ꓦ Q)]
• [1,2,4] (5) Q Rule T, (Modus Ponens)
• [6] (6) ˥Q Rule P
• [1,2,4,6] (7) Q ꓥ ˥Q Rule T, (Contradiction)

practice
• 2) using indirect method of proof, derive

• p → ˥s from p →(q ꓦ r), q → ˥p, s → ˥r, p.
• 3) using indirect method of proof, derive
• p →q, q → r, ˥(p ꓥ r), p ꓦ r ⇒ R

Example
• With these hypotheses:
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.”
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny.”
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a jolly trip.”
“If we take a jolly trip, then we will be home by sunset.”
•
Using the inference rules, construct a valid argument for the
conclusion: “We will be home by sunset.”
• Solution:
Let p: “It is sunny this afternoon.”
q: “It is colder than yesterday.”
r: “We will go swimming.”
s: “We will take a jolly trip.”
t: “We will be home by sunset.”

Example contd….
• Symbolically:
p  q, r → p, r → s, s → t  t
• Sol: [1] (1) ˥Pꓥq Rule P
• [1] (2) ˥p Rule T
• [1] (3) q Rule T,
• [4] (4) r→p Rule P [(P → Q)⇔ (˥P ꓦ Q)]
• [1,4] (5) ˥r Rule T, (Modus Tollens)
• [6] (6) ˥r →s Rule P
• [1,4,6] (7) s Rule T,
• [8] (8) s →t Rule P (Modus Ponens)
• [1,4,6,8] (9) t Rule T.

• Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent:
”If the contract is valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John
is liable for penalty, he will go bankrupt. If the bank will loan
him money, he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the
contract is valid, and the bank will loan him money.”
• Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows:
• V : The contract is valid.
• L: John is liable for penalty.
• M: Bank will loan him money.
• B: John will go bankrupt.

• {1} (1) V→L Rule P
• {2} (2) L→B Rule P
• {1, 2} (3) V→B Rule T, (1), (2), and I13
• {4} (4) M → ¬B Rule P
• {4} (5) M → ¬M Rule T, (4), and P → Q ⇔ ¬Q → ¬P
• {1, 2, 4} (6) V → ¬M Rule T, (3), (5), and I13
• {1, 2, 4} (7) ¬V ∨ ¬M Rule T, (6) and P → Q ⇔ ¬P ∨ Q
• {1, 2, 4} (8) ¬(V ∧ M) Rule T, (7), and ¬(P ∧ Q) ⇔ ¬P ∨ ¬Q
• {9} (9) V∧M Rule P
• {1, 2, 4, 9} (10) ¬(V ∧ M) ∧ (V ∧ M) Rule T, (8), (9) and I9
• Thus, the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is
inconsistent.

• Determine the validity of the following argument.
• My father praises me only if I can be proud of myself.
Either I do well in sports or I can’t be proud of myself.
If I study hard, then I can’t do well in sports.
Therefore, if father praises me, then I do not study
well.

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

October 15, 2020 Dr. KRK 3

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• Negation: Let p be a proposition. The negation

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• In the conditional statement p → q,

• The following ways to express this conditional statement:

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• The contrapositive always has the same truth

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• 1)Sol: P Q ˥P P→Q ˥Pꓦ Q

• Ans: 1) TTTT 2) TFFF 3) TTTF

• Contradiction: A statement formula which is false

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• Therefore ˥P →(P →Q) is a tautology.

• Ex: (P→Q) ⇔ (˥ P ꓦ Q).

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P Q ˥P ˥Q P∧Q ˥(P ∧ Q) ˥ P∨￢Q ˥(P∧ Q) ↔˥ P ∨￢ Q

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(pꓦq)ꓥ(rꓦs) ⇔(p ꓥ r) ꓦ (p ꓥ s) Extended distributive law

˥(p ∧ q) ⇔ ˥p ∨˥q De Morgan’s laws

p∨ ˥p⇔T Negation laws

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P Q ˥P ˥Q (P→Q) (˥Q→˥P) (P→Q) →(˥Q→˥P)

Method -2 : Prove that ˥Q ꓥ(P→Q) ⇒ ˥P

• Assume that P is false(F), when P is false

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• So far, we have defined the connectives

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• Two formulas A and A∗ are said to be duals of

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• 1) Obtain a d.n.f. Pꓥ (P →Q)

• Conjunctive Normal form(CNF): A formula which is equivalent to a given

• 1) Obtain a c.n.f. Pꓥ (P →Q)

• Note: These two normal forms are not unique.

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• Sol: P →((P →Q) ꓥ ˥(˥Q ꓦ ˥P))

• ⇔ ˥P ꓦ ((˥P ꓦ Q) ꓥ ˥(˥(Q ꓥP))) (Demorgan’s law)

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• The PDNF of P→ Q is (P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ Q) ꓦ(˥P ꓥ˥Q)

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⇔ [˥P ꓥ (Q ꓦ ˥Q )] ꓦ [Q ꓥ (P ꓦ ˥P)] (Distributive

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