Stem 12-Einstein

Capacitance

Nearly everyone is familiar with the static charge generated by friction — a phenomena formally
known as triboelectricity. Walking across a carpeted floor, combing one's hair on a dry day, or
pulling transparent tape off a roll all result in the separation of small amounts of positive and
negative charge. The earliest known written account of charging by friction goes back as far as
the 6th century BCE when the Greek scientist Thales of Miletus (635–543 BCE) noted that
amber rubbed with animal fur acquired the ability to pick up small bits of material. For roughly
the next 2300 years, wherever electricity was studied, somebody had to take two different
materials and rub them together to create separated islands of positive and negative charge.

Fast forward to 18th century Europe, an era known as the Enlightenment, a time and place
characterized by the expansion of culture and the acquisition of knowledge. Among the
empowered and educated classes of the Enlightenment, science was a fashionable pursuit and
lectures on scientific subjects were well attended. Those given by electricians were among the
most popular. (The word electrician originally referred to a person knowledgeable in the nature
of static electricity.) Electricity was a hot topic in the 18th century and much exploration was
being done with electrostatic machines that generated charge by friction.

While friction is an easy and inexpensive means to separate charge for use in electric
experiments, the amounts of charge available are quite small. If electricity was going to be
anything other than an irritating side effect of walking across a carpet, some means for increasing
the amount of charge available for experiments had to be found.

The first device for storing charge was discovered in the winter of 1745–46 by two electricians
working independently: Ewald von Kleist (1715–1759), dean of the cathedral at Kammin,
Prussia (now Kamień, Poland), and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692–1761), professor of
mathematics and physics at the University of Leyden in Holland (now spelled Leiden). The
device built by von Kleist consisted of a medicine bottle partly filled with water and sealed with
a cork. A nail was pushed through the cork and into the water. Holding the bottle in one hand,
the nail was then brought in contact with the terminal of an electrostatic machine allowed to
acquire some charge. When von Kleist reached for the nail to remove it from the stopper while
still holding the bottle the separated charges were able to reunite by flowing through his body.
Van Musschenbroek's device and experiences with it were almost the same as von Kleist's, but
with three major exceptions. First, a visiting student Andreas Cunæus (1712–1788) made the
shocking discovery not van Musschenbroek himself; second, he made many improvements to the
device (most importantly, removing the water and wrapping the inside and outside of the jar with
metallic foil); and third, he wrote his colleagues to tell them all about it.

Never say "never try" something — especially something "terrible" — because then everyone
will want to try it. Soon scientists across the Continent (and Benjamin Franklin in America) were
constructing their own new and improved electric charge storage devices.

Raw notes…

 Refinement of design: filled with water, ink, vinegar, melted butter, wine or beer, and
finally nothing (foil). A glass vessel partly coated, inside and out, with metal foil and
the Leyden jar (de Leidsche flesch) was born.
 Applications by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) United States
 Such a device is known today as a capacitor.
 1746 French clergyman and physicist Jean Antoine Nollet demonstrated that electricity
could be transmitted instantaneously over great distances suggesting that communications
could be sent by electricity much faster than a human messenger could carry them. With the
connivance of the Abbot of the Grand Convent of the Carthusians in Paris he assembled 200
monks in a long snaking line with each monk holding the ends of eight metre long wires to
form a chain about one mile long. Without warning he connected a Leyden Jar to the ends of
the line giving the unsuspecting monks a powerful electric shock and noted with satisfaction
that all the monks started swearing and contorting, reacting simultaneously to the shock. A
second demonstration was performed at Versailles for King Louis XV, this time by sending
current through a chain of 180 Royal Guards since by now the monks were less than
cooperative. The King was both impressed and amused as the soldiers all jumped
simultaneously when the circuit was completed.
 Observations sur quelques nouveaux Phénomènes d'Electricité. Par M. l' Abbé NOLLET
(20 Avril 1746). Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences.

theory

Informal definition of capacitance

Formal definition of capacitance. The capacitance (C) of an electrostatic system is the ratio of

the quantity of charge separated (Q) to the potential difference applied (V).
Q
C = 
V
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad [F], which is equivalent to the coulomb/volt [C/V].
⎡ C⎤
F = 
⎣ V⎦

One farad is generally considered a large capacitance.

Energy storage

Q Q     

⌠ ⌠q 1 Q2
U =  V dq =   dq =   
⌡ ⌡C 2C
  0 0
Since Q = CV, and also since C = Q/V
Q2
2
Uc = ½QV = ½CV  = ½ 
C
The English scientist Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) determined the factors affecting
capacitance. The capacitance (C) of a parallel plate capacitor is…
 directly proportional to the area (A) of one plate,
 inversely proportional to the separation (d) between the plates, and
 directly proportional to the dielectric constant (κ, kappa) of the material between the
plates.
κε0
C =  A
d
Derivation

σ σ σ ε0
Q 1 ε0
A A A A
C =   =   =   =     = 
E
V Ed σ d d
d

More advanced…

Cylindrical capacitor (e.g., coaxial cables)

2πκε0ℓ
C = 
ln(r2/r1)

Spherical capacitor

4πκε0
C = 
(1/r1) − (1/r2)
If the two radii are nearly similar (e.g., positive troposphere h = 8.5 km above negative Earth),
then the equation above can be approximated as …
4πκε0r2
C ≈ 
h
Self-capacitance of a sphere (e.g., van de Graaff generator). Let r2 → ∞.
C = 4πε0r
Electromotive Force

You can think of many different types of voltage sources. Batteries themselves come in many
varieties. There are many types of mechanical/electrical generators, driven by many different
energy sources, ranging from nuclear to wind. Solar cells create voltages directly from light,
while thermoelectric devices create voltage from temperature differences. A few voltage sources
are shown in Figure 1. All such devices create a potential difference and can supply current if
connected to a resistance. On the small scale, the potential difference creates an electric field that
exerts force on charges, causing current. We thus use the name electromotive force, abbreviated
emf. Emf is not a force at all; it is a special type of potential difference. To be precise, the
electromotive force (emf) is the potential difference of a source when no current is flowing.
Units of emf are volts.

Figure 1. A variety of voltage sources (clockwise from top left): the Brazos Wind Farm in
Fluvanna, Texas (credit: Leaflet, Wikimedia Commons); the Krasnoyarsk Dam in Russia (credit:
Alex Polezhaev); a solar farm (credit: U.S. Department of Energy); and a group of nickel metal
hydride batteries (credit: Tiaa Monto). The voltage output of each depends on its construction
and load, and equals emf only if there is no load.

Electromotive force is directly related to the source of potential difference, such as the particular
combination of chemicals in a battery. However, emf differs from the voltage output of the
device when current flows. The voltage across the terminals of a battery, for example, is less
than the emf when the battery supplies current, and it declines further as the battery is depleted or
loaded down. However, if the device’s output voltage can be measured without drawing current,
then output voltage will equal emf (even for a very depleted battery).

Internal Resistance

As noted before, a 12-V truck battery is physically larger, contains more charge and energy, and
can deliver a larger current than a 12-V motorcycle battery. Both are lead-acid batteries with
identical emf, but, because of its size, the truck battery has a smaller internal resistance r.
Internal resistance is the inherent resistance to the flow of current within the source itself. Figure
2 is a schematic representation of the two fundamental parts of any voltage source. The emf
(represented by a script E in the figure) and internal resistance r are in series. The smaller the
internal resistance for a given emf, the more current and the more power the source can supply.

Figure 2. Any voltage source (in this case, a carbon-zinc dry cell) has an emf related to its source
of potential difference, and an internal resistance r related to its construction. (Note that the script
E stands for emf.). Also shown are the output terminals across which the terminal voltage V is
measured. Since V = emf − Ir, terminal voltage equals emf only if there is no current flowing.
The internal resistance r can behave in complex ways. As noted, r increases as a battery is
depleted. But internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and direction of the current
through a voltage source, its temperature, and even its history. The internal resistance of
rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells, for example, depends on how many times and how deeply
they have been depleted.

In the case of a lead-acid battery, an energy of 2 eV is given to each electron sent to the anode.
Voltage is defined as the electrical potential energy divided by charge

V=PEqV=PEq.

An electron volt is the energy given to a single electron by a voltage of 1 V. So the voltage here
is 2 V, since 2 eV is given to each electron. It is the energy produced in each molecular reaction
that produces the voltage. A different reaction produces a different energy and, hence, a different
voltage.

Terminal Voltage

The voltage output of a device is measured across its terminals and, thus, is called its terminal
voltage V. Terminal voltage is given by
V = emf − Ir,
where r is the internal resistance and I is the current flowing at the time of the measurement. I is
positive if current flows away from the positive terminal, as shown in Figure 2. You can see that
the larger the current, the smaller the terminal voltage. And it is likewise true that the larger the
internal resistance, the smaller the terminal voltage. Suppose a load resistance Rload is connected
to a voltage source, as in Figure 5. Since the resistances are in series, the total resistance in the
circuit is Rload + r. Thus the current is given by Ohm’s law to be
I=emfRload+rI=emfRload+r.

Figure 5. Schematic of a voltage source and its load Rload. Since the internal resistance r is in
series with the load, it can significantly affect the terminal voltage and current delivered to the
load. (Note that the script E stands for emf.)

Current, Voltage and Resistance

The flow of electricity through an object, such as a wire, is known as the current (I). It is
measured in amps (A); if the current is very small then it is described in milli-amps (mA), 1000
mA = 1A. The driving force (electrical pressure) behind the flow of a current is known as the
voltage and is measured in volts (V) (Voltage may also be referred to as the potential difference,
or electromotive force). The property of a material that limits current flow is known as its
resistance (R), the unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). Resistance to alternating current is more
properly called impedance but, in this application, resistance and impedance can be considered to
be equivalent.

The relationship between current, voltage and resistance is expressed by Ohm’s Law. This states
that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant.

Ohm’s Law:        Current (I) = Voltage (V) / Resistance (R)

To increase the current flowing in a circuit, the voltage must be increased, or the resistance
decreased.

A simple electrical circuit is depicted in Figure 1a. The flow of electricity through this circuit is
further illustrated by analogy to the pressurized water system in Figure 1b.

In the electrical circuit the power supply generates electrical pressure (voltage), equivalent to the
pump creating water pressure in the pipe; the current is equivalent to the rate of flow of water;
and the light bulb provides the resistance in the same way as the restriction in the water system.
The ammeter is equivalent to the flow meter and the voltmeter measures the difference in
electrical pressure each side of the restriction in the water system. There will be a drop in voltage
due to the energy used up in driving the current through the light bulb, which has a higher
resistance than the wire in the circuit. Similarly, the water pressure at (A) will be less than at (B).

Figure 1a Simple Electric Circuit Figure 1b Pressurised Water System

The overall resistance of an object depends on a number of properties including its length, cross-
sectional area and the type of material. The longer a conductor, the greater its resistance; for
example, a two metre wire has twice the resistance of a one metre wire of similar properties. The
larger the cross-section of a conductor, then the lower its resistance: overhead power cables have
a much lower resistance than a lamp flex of the same length. Different materials also have
different abilities to conduct electricity. Metals conduct very well but materials such as ceramics
or glass do not usually conduct electricity at all and are known as insulators.

Animals contain a high proportion of liquid that will conduct electricity well; however skin, fat,
bone and hair are poor conductors. Electrical current will take the path of least resistance through
animal tissue, with the result that only a small proportion of the measured current will penetrate
the brain. Animals with heavy fleeces, thick skin, fat layers or thick skulls will have a high
electrical resistance. Table 1 shows how the relationship between current, voltage and resistance
differs when stunning sheep of different physical condition. In this example, the minimum
current required for an effective stun is one amp.