CSE 108.01 Reinforced Concrete Codes, Standards and Design P

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
REINFORCED CONCRETE CODES,

STANDARDS, AND DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-108.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Reinforced Concrete Codes
Standards, and Design Principles
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 4
SAES-Q-001 ............................................................................................. 5
SAES-Q-001 ............................................................................................. 8
ACI 318M.................................................................................................. 8
Design Approach ............................................................................................... 21
Loads For Structural Design .............................................................................. 27
Dead Loads ............................................................................................ 27
Live Loads .............................................................................................. 27
Impact Loads .......................................................................................... 30
Vibrating/Dynamic Loads ........................................................................ 30
Thermal Loads........................................................................................ 31
Fluid Loads ............................................................................................. 33
Test/Erection/Maintenance Loads .......................................................... 33
Wind Loads............................................................................................. 34
Earthquake Loads................................................................................... 38
Loading Conditions ................................................................................. 39
Structural Member Design ................................................................................. 45
Definitions.......................................................................................................... 46
Required Strength ............................................................................................. 47
Design Strength................................................................................................. 50
Strength Design Basis ....................................................................................... 51
Working Stress Method ..................................................................................... 55
Transformed Area Concept ............................................................................... 55
Crack Control (Beams And One-Way Slab)...................................................... 56
Example.................................................................................................. 57
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Practical Comments On Design......................................................................... 59
ACT MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE ................................................................ 61
SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 62
WORK AID 1: COMPARISON OF SAUDI, METRIC AND ENGLISH

REINFORCING BAR PROPERTIES.................................................... 63
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 64
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Reinforced Concrete Standard Flow Chart.................................................... 6

Figure 2. Standard Hooks For Epoxy Coated Reinforcement .................................... 14
Figure 3. Termination Of Spirals ................................................................................ 16
Figure 4. Termination Of Column Ties ....................................................................... 17
Figure 5. Lateral Support Of Column Bars By Ties .................................................... 18
Figure 6. Code Definition Of Closed Tie Or Stirrup .................................................... 19
Figure 7. Structural Design Flowchart ........................................................................ 25
Figure 8. Thermal Activity........................................................................................... 32
Figure 8. Thermal Activity (Cont’d) .............................................................................. 33
Figure 9. Required Strength Flowchart....................................................................... 48
Figure 10. Typical Stress-Strain Curves For Concrete ............................................... 52
Figure 11. Flexural Forces In A Reinforced Concrete Beam ...................................... 53
Figure 12. Balanced Strain Condition In Flexure........................................................ 54
Figure 13. Transformed Area Concept ....................................................................... 56
Figure 14a. Distribution Of Reinforcement For Effective Crack Control .................... 57
Figure 14b. Distribution Of Reinforcement For Effective Crack Control .................... 58
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

List of Tables
Table 1. Listing Of Referenced Standards .................................................................... 7
Table 2. Aci Standard 318m Contents......................................................................... 10
Table 3. Material Requirements For Reinforcing Steel Bars ...................................... 12
Table 4. Reinforcing Bar Properties ............................................................................. 26
Table 5. Uniform And Concentrated Live Loads.......................................................... 28
Table 6. Minimum Roof Live Loads ............................................................................. 29
Table 7. Impact Loads................................................................................................. 30
Table 8. Combined Height, Exposure, And Gust Factor Coefficient (Ce) ................... 35
Table 9. Pressure Coefficient ...................................................................................... 36
Table 10. Site Coefficients .......................................................................................... 40
Table 11a. Structural Systems .................................................................................... 41
Table 11b. Structural Systems .................................................................................... 42
Table 12. Design Loads For Structures....................................................................... 43
Table 12. Design Loads For Structures (Cont’d) ......................................................... 44
Table 13. Required Strength For Combinations Of Loading........................................ 49
Table 14. Strength Reduction Factors......................................................................... 50
Table 15. Percentage Of Shrinkage And Temperature Reinforcement ....................... 60
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete is the most common building material used
by Saudi Aramco. It is used for pilings, foundations, building
frames and walls, and support structures for petrochemical
equipment.
As a design engineer you are responsible for developing

material and construction specifications, analyzing the structural
system, and designing the components or members. The term
‘‘design” means sizing the member and determining the amount
and distribution of steel reinforcement. As the designer, you
must satisfy all of the applicable concrete requirements provided
in the Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards.
It is your responsibility to produce a “safe” design and,

ultimately, a structure that will perform satisfactorily for its
intended service life. As the designer, you must oversee the
construction activities to ensure that concrete with sufficient
strength and durability is achieved.
In this module you will be introduced to analysis and design of

reinforced concrete. The first discussion is on Saudi Aramco
Engineering Standard SAES-Q-00I and other concrete
standards, and how they affect concrete durability and quality.
You will then learn how to apply ACI 318. Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete. Following that, you will
learn to determine loads and recognize critical load
combinations for reinforced concrete. Next, you will learn to flow
chart the overall design approach for structural members and
learn to use ultimate strength design principles. Finally, an
overview of material presented in the ACI Manual for Concrete
Practice will be given.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

SAES-Q-001
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-Q-001, together

with the Saudi Aramco Building Code (SABC) SAES-M-100,
governs the design and construction of all concrete structures.
SAES-Q-001 provides minimum mandatory requirements. It
makes extensive references to other references to other codes
and Saudi Aramco standards to form the complete set of
requirements. Unique requirements, based on Saudi Aramco’s
experience, are provided in SAES-Q-001.
Other standards referenced by SAFS4Q-00I cover layout and

loads, materials, design, construction, and specific structures. A
flowchart illustrating the use of the SABC. SAES-Q-001,
American Concrete Institute Code ACI 318M, and referenced
standards is shown in Figure 1. The referenced standards are
listed in Table 1.
Unique requirements include cement type, concrete cover for

reinforcement, epoxy-coated rebar, and restricted use in
offshore structures. These requirements were developed as a
result of severe problems with corrosion of steel reinforcement
and concrete deterioration. SAES-Q-001 Table 1 provides
retirements of cement type and reinforcing based on exposure
type.
Table 2 increases the minimum concrete cover for

reinforcement compared to industry practice. “Cover” is the
depth of concrete from the exterior concrete surface to the
outermost surface of the underlying reinforcing bars. Cover
provides corrosion protection for the reinforcing bars.
Epoxy coatings are specified for all reinforcing bars as added

corrosion protection per Table 1. The epoxy coating provides
protection against sulfate, chloride, and acid, and acid attack.
Epoxy coating requirements are provided in 09-SAMSS- 106
‘‘Epoxy Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars”.

Aramco Building Standards for

Code Layout / Loading
SAES-M-100 Requirements
Aramco/SASO
Criteria for Design & Standards for
Construction of Materials
Concrete Structures
SAES-Q-001
ASTM Standards for

Materials & Testing
ACI 318M ACI Standards for

AASHTO Construction
(Bridges) All Others
Standards for Specific

Structures
Figure 1. Reinforced Concrete Standard Flow Chart

Table 1. Listing of Referenced Standards

SAES-Q-001
Section 17 restricts the use of concrete in marine environments

unless a detailed a detailed environmental evaluation is
conducted to identify any destructive rock—boring mollusks,
sponges, and other organisms.
A primary goal of SAES-Q-001 is to ensure that durable

concrete is provided. The lack of durability is a widespread
concern in Saudi Arabia due to the number of factors including:
extreme heat, poor quality aggregates, sulfates and chlorides
present in water, humidity, and other factors. SAES-Q-001
addresses these factors by strict material requirements,
minimum concrete strength, cement type, increased cover and
epoxy coatings. As the designer you may also need to specify a
maximum permitted water-cement ratio, and concrete strengths
higher than that required based on strength only.
ACI 318M
SAES-Q-001 specifies the American Concrete institute “Building

Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete” ACI 318M-99
code as the basis for design, construction, strength, testing, and
acceptance criteria for all reinforced concrete structures except
bridges. This code provides detailed requirements covering
materials, construction, strength, and serviceability and for
specific structural components. A condensed table of contents
is shown in Table 2.
Although not specified in SAES-Q-001, the commentary

prepared by the ACI 318 code committee is a valuable
resource. The commentary provides background information,
discussion, and suggestions for interpreting and applying the
ACI 318 code. An extensive list of references is included. The
commentary is organized with the identical chapter and section
numbering used in the code, and is placed for convenience
immediately opposite the specific code provisions, with the left
column of each page containing the specific code requirements
and the right hand column containing the associated
commentary.

The following pages illustrate some of the highlights of Chapters

3 through 7 (Materials and Construction requirements) of ACI
31M as they pertain to Saudi Arabian practices. Other chapters
of ACI 318M are discussed later in the course.
Chapter 3 of ACI 318M provides standards for materials and

testing methods. Subjects specifically covered include cement,
aggregates, water, reinforcing steel, and admixtures. The code
makes extensive references to American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM) standards. The material requirements in
Chapter 3 of the code and the referenced ASTM standards form
the basis of Saudi Aramco purchase and construction job
specifications. Often, the Saudi Aramco engineer will also
specify these requirements directly on the construction
drawings.

Table 2. ACI Standard 318M Contents
ACI STANDARD 318M CONTENTS
PART 1 – GENERAL
Chapter 1-General Requirements

Chapter 2-Definitions
PART 2-STANDARDS FOR TESTS AND MATERIALS
Chapter 3-Materials
PART 3-CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
Chapter 4-Durability Requirements

Chapter 5-Concrete Quality, Mixing and Placing
Chapter 6-Formwork, Embedded Pipes, and Construction Joints
Chapter 7-Details of Reinforcements
PART 4-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Chapter 8-Analysis and Design – General Considerations

Chapter 9-Strength and Serviceability Requirements
Chapter 10-Flexure and Axial Loads
Chapter 11-Shear and Torsions
Chapter 12-Development and Splices of Reinforcement
PART 5-STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OR ELEMENTS
Chapter 13-Two-way Slab Systems

Chapter 14-Walls
Chapter 15-Footings
Chapter 16-Precast Concrete
Chapter 17-Composite Concrete Flexural Members
Chapter 18-Prestressed Concrete
Chapter 19-Shells and Folded Plate Members
PART 6-SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 20-Strength Evaluation of Existing Structures

Chapter 21-Special Provisions for Seismic Design
APPENDICES
Appendix A-Alternative Design Method

Appendix B-Unified Design Provisions For Reinforced And Prestressed
Concrete Flexural And Compression Members
Appendix C-Alternative Load And Strength Reduction Factors

Concrete aggregates shall conform to ASTM C33. In addition,

paragraph 3.3.2 in the AGI 318M code limits the maximum size
of coarse aggregates to:
a) 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms.
b) 1/3 the depth of slabs.
c) 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual

reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bars, or pre-stressing
tendons or ducts.
Concrete aggregates shall also conform to Saudi Aramco

standard 09-SAMSS-088. This Saudi Aramco standard provides
additional requirements and exceptions to ASTM C33. The
critical exceptions arc the acceptable physical properties and
amounts of deleterious substances. However, the acceptable
values per 09-SAMSS-088 are consistent with, and similar to,
the ASTM requirements.
Requirements for quality of water used in mixing concrete are

provided in ACI 318M, section 3.4. Generally, water suitable
drinking satisfactory without need for testing. Water that is
unsuitable for drinking shall be tested to ensure that substances
detrimental to concrete strength or durability are not present.
Saudi Aramco standard 09-SAMSS-097 provides acceptance
criteria for mixing water.
Material requirements for reinforcing steel bars are given in

SASO standard SSA 2/1979. Note that the bar diameter size
designations are different from those used in the ACI 318M
code. The following table lists all ACI 318M bar designations,
as well as commonly used Saudi bar equivalents. For a
complete listing of all Saudi bars, see SSA 1/1979.

Table 3. Material Requirements for Reinforcing Steel Bars
ACI 318M-99 SASO SSA 2/1979
Bar No. Diameter Area Diameter Area

(mm) (sq mm) (sq mm)
- - - 10 79
10 11.3 100 12 113
15 16.0 200 16 201
20 19.5 300 20 314
- - 22 380
25 25.2 500 25 491
- - - 28 616
30 29.9 700 32 804
35 35.7 1000 36 1020
45 43.7 1500 45 1590
- - - 50 1960
55 56.4 2500 - -
Admixtures shall conform to the ASTM standards referenced in

section 3.6 in the ACI 318M code. Additional requirements are
given in the Saudi Aramco standard 09-SAMSS-097. The Saudi
Aramco standard mandates that high range water reducers (or
super-plasticizers) be used to provide the necessary workability
in the field. This is done to help avoid durability problems
associated with excessive water added at the job site to
maintain workability (or slump) in hot weather concreting
operations. Also, calcium chloride or other admixtures
containing chloride salts shall not be used.

Construction requirements governing concrete strength,

durability, testing, quality, mixing and placing, formwork, and
construction joints are provided in Chapters 4 to 6 in ACI 318M.
The primary objective of the requirements is to provide high
quality, durable concrete. Saudi Arabia presents a severe
environment for concrete, with severe high temperatures during
both placement and service, large imposed thermal stresses,
and application of brackish or sulfate-contaminated water.
Consequently, provisions consistent with severe exposures
given in the code shall be used. Saudi Aramco standard 09-
SAMSS-097 provides additional requirements. This standard
states that the maximum water-cement ratio shall not exceed
0.4.
Good structural details are vital to the satisfactory performance

of reinforced concrete structures. Chapter 7 of the ACI 318M
code provides requirements for details of reinforcement
covering standard hooks and bend diameters, surface
conditions, placement tolerances, spacing limits for reinforcing,
requirements for lateral reinforcing (spirals and ties), allowances
for shrinkage and temperature effects, and requirements for
structural integrity.
Requirements for standard hooks and minimum finished

inside—bend diameters for reinforcing bars are given in
sections 7.1 and 7.2 of the code. Note that bend diameters are
larger for epoxy-coated bars per ACI Code.. These
requirements are illustrated in Figure 4. The intent of these
provisions is to develop sufficient anchorage to develop the
yield strength of the bars. Bend diameters are set to prevent
cracking, and/or fractures occurring during cold bending, since
bars shall not be heated per Paragraph 7.3.1.

Figure 2. Standard Hooks for Epoxy Coated Reinforcement

Section 7.4 of the code requires that reinforcing steel he free of

mud, oil, or other coatings which adversely affect bonding
capacity. The presence of rust and/or mill scale, which do not
impair bond strength is acceptable. The lower bonding capacity
of epoxy coatings requires a greater distance to develop the
yield strength of the bars.
It is essential that reinforcing steel be adequately supported,

located, and placed as shown on the construction drawings.
Section 7.5 of the code provides acceptable placement
tolerances.
Section 7.6 of the code provides minimum spacing requirements

or clear distance between bars. These requirements, based on
past successful practice, provide (IC the minimum space
between bars to permit concrete to flow without honeycombing.
Section 7.7 provides concrete cover requirements are;

superseded by SA ES-Q-001 provisions previously discussed.
Sections 7.8 and 7.9 provide special requirements for

reinforcing details at columns and connections, respectively.
Sections 7. I 0 and 7.11 provide requirements for lateral

reinforcement of compression and flexural members,
respectively.
Circular spirals must be held firmly in place at proper pitch and

alignment to prevent displacement during concrete placement.
Guidance for the number of vertical spacers required to hold the
spiral cage in place is provided in the commentary to ACI 318M.
Minimum bar diameter of spiral reinforcement in cast-in-place is

10 mm and the clear spacing must be between the limits of 25
mm to 80 mm. Splices in spirals must be welds or tension lap
splices of at least 48 nominal bar or wire diameters, but not less
than 300 mm.

Spiral reinforcement must extend from the top of footing or slab

in any story to the level of the lowest horizontal reinforcements
in slabs, drop panels, or beams above. If beams or brackets do
not frame into all sides of the column, ties must extend above
the top of the spiral to the bottom of the slab or drop panel (see
Figure 5).
Authorized reprint from ACI 318-99 Notes, Figure 3-4 Page 3-11 with permission from
Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, Illinois 60077.
Figure 3. Termination of Spirals

In reinforced concrete columns that are tied, ties must be

located no more than half a tie spacing above floor or footing
and no more than half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal
reinforcement in the slab or drop panel above. If beams or
brackets frame from four directions into a column, ties may be
terminated no more than 80 mm below the lowest horizontal
reinforcement in such a beams or brackets (see Figure 6).
Authorized reprint from ACI 318-99 Notes, Figure 3-5, Page 3-11 with permission
from Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, Illinois 60077.
Figure 4. Termination of Column Ties

Minimum tie size is 10 mm diameter. The following conditions

also apply: vertical spacing of ties must not exceed 16
longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tiebar diameters, or the least
dimension of the column; every corner bar and alternate bar
must have lateral support provided by a tie with a maximum 135
degree bend; no unsupported bar shall be farther than 150 mm
from a supported bar (see Figure 5). Note that the 150 mm
clear limitation is measured along the tie.
Figure 5. Lateral Support of Column Bars by Ties

According to Section 7.11.3, a closed stirrup is formed either in

one piece with overlapping 90 degree or 135 degree end hooks,
or in one or two pieces with a Class B lap splice, as illustrated in
Figure 6. Class B splices have a lap length of 1.3 times the
development length. The one-piece closed stirrup with
overlapping end hooks is not practical for placement. Closed
stirrups are recommended when members are subjected to
stress reversals (say during earthquakes) or torsion.
Authorized reprint from ACI 318-99 Notes, Figure 3-8, Page 3-13 with permission from
Figure 6. Code Definition of Closed Tie or Stirrup

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement requirements, based

on U.S. experience, are provided in Section 7. I 2. Minimum
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement normal to primary
flexural reinforcement is required for structural floor and roof
slabs (not slabs on ground). Minimum steel ratios, based on the
gross concrete area, are:
• 0.0020 for Grade 300 deformed bars (Grade 40 or 50

deformed bars, English system).
• 0.0018 for Grade 400 deformed bars (Grade 60 deformed

bars, English system) or welded wire fabric.
Spacing of bars must not exceed five times the slab thickness or
500 mm. Splices and end anchorages of shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement must be designed for the full
specified yield strength in tension.
Note that these provisions may not provide acceptable

protection for concrete in hot Saudi Arabian climates. The
amount of reinforcement should be increased based on your
experience and judgment.
Section 7.13 of ACI 318M is a new section in the code

addressing specific requirements for structural integrity intended
to ensure that members of a structure are effectively tied
together. Experience has shown that the overall integrity,
redundancy, and ductility of a structure can be substantially
enhanced by minor changes in detailing of reinforcement, such
as:
• Continuous bottom reinforcement in beams over column

supports with splices at the supports.
• Continuous top and bottom reinforcement in perimeter or

spandrel beams to provide a tie around the structure.
• Perimeter tension ties in precast concrete buildings.

Design Approach
The design of any structure is performed in a sequence of steps
as illustrated in Figure 9.
You are usually instructed to design a specific. Therefore, you

need to be aware of all structural requirements and understand
the intended function and occupancy of the proposed structure.
Based on the specific requirements and function, you then
select the materials of construction in accordance with the Saudi
Aramco standards and other referenced codes.
You then determine the design loads and critical load

combinations using the procedures in the Saudi Aramco
Building Code and the Uniform Building Code (UBC). The
procedures are summarized in the following section. The
participant manual for the Saudi Aramco Building Code course
provides a more in-depth coverage of these procedures.
The loads, together with the definition of the structure geometry

and size, form the input to a structural analysis of the overall
structure. The analysis translates the loads into the forces and
moments for each structural component. Deflections and
support reactions are also computed during the analysis.
You then use these deflections, forces, and moments to design

structural components using the design methods outlined in the
ACI 318M code and other referenced ACI codes. The design
includes sizing the individual member (beams, columns, walls)
and selecting the amount, size, and distribution of reinforcing
steel. Frequently, the structural analysis may need to he redone
because the geometry and size (as-designed) of the structural
members are different from those initially assumed for the
analysis. The analysis and design steps are repeated as
necessary.

Construction drawings and specification are then prepared.

These documents convey all of the structural requirements you
have defined to the fabricator/contractor chosen to construct the
structure. Remember, you are ultimately responsible for public
safety, and therefore, must review the construction work to
ensure that your structural requirements as presented on the
drawings and specifications have been properly interpreted and
met.
The flowchart presented in Figure 7, while suitable for most

structural designs, requires some modification for design or
reinforced concrete structures in Saudi Arabia. Modifications
are required to the design process because of the fact that
Saudi Aramco is committed to the “metric” system; yet all the
design aids that help simplify and expedite the iterative process
of reinforced concrete design have been developed, and are
currently only available, in “English” units. These design aids,
known in this course as work aids, will be presented in the
following modules of the course.
In order to take advantage of the design aids, the following

changes to the design process are suggested:
• Design Loads and Load Combinations
Loading on the structure will be developed in English or metric

units as appropriate. All loads will then be converted to English
units. Note that if the UBS was used to develop loads, then
these loads will already be in English units.
• Structural Analysis
Proposed structure and member dimensions will be converted

to English units for the structural analysis, which will utilize the
applied (English) loads. Results of the structural analysis will be
member forces, moments, stresses, displacements, and
reactions in English units.
• Member Structural Design

Structural design of the members (refinement of member

dimensions, determination of reinforcing bar sizes and locations,
ties, etc.) should be performed in English units using the design
aids and the “English” version of the ACI Code, ACI 318-99.
This version of the code identically matches ACI 318M
paragraph numbers and organization, apart from using English
units.
• Conversion Back to Metric System
After the iterative process of design is complete, units should be

converted back from the English system to the metric system.
Dimensions will require small adjustments, as necessary, in
order that they are convenient for metric construction.
Reinforcing bars, however, is the English system are not the
same as those in the metric or Saudi systems, and often a
simple substitution of a Saudi bar equivalent to the English bar
determined in the design will not be possible.
A comparison between Saudi and metric bar sizes has been

given earlier in this module. Table 4 contains two useful
additional tables. The first table contains the properties
(diameter and area) of standard English reinforcing bars from
ACI 318-99. Properties are given in both English arid metric
units. The second table lists English bars and the closest Saudi
equivalent bars. It also contains the ratio of the diameters of the
two bars and the ratio of the areas of the two bars. Diameters of
the two bars are within 5% of each and areas within 11% of
each other, apart from the large #1 8 English bar, which has no
direct Saudi equivalent.

Although these differences are not large, care will need to be

taken when converting back from English equivalent to Saudi
bars. For example, the bending moment capacity of a
reinforced concrete beam is a function of the area of steel, and
therefore a diameter conversion will be required when
determining splice lengths and anchorage embedment lengths,
etc. The designer is cautioned not to get too “accurate” during
the design by pushing it to the limit and not leaving any excess
conservatism that allows for variations between English and
Saudi bar sizes. It is also suggested that metric dimensions be
rounded up or down, as appropriate, for construction
convenience. A rebar spacing of 279mm (11 inches), for
example, is not practical. It should be rounded down to say,
250mm. A splice length, on the other hand of 279 mm should
be rounded up to 280mm.
Because of the above changes to the design process, English

units will mainly be used throughout the remainder of this
course. References will also be made to the English version of
the Code, ACI 318-99.

Figure 7. Structural Design Flowchart

Table 4. Reinforcing Bar Properties

Loads for Structural Design

As the designer you must consider all possible loads that may
act on the structure. These include:
Dead Fluid
Live Test/Erection
Impact Wind
Vibrating/Dynamic Earthquake
Thermal Earth Pressure
Dead Loads
Dead loads are defined as the total weight (mass) of the

structure and all materials permanently attached to or supported
thereby, including fireproofing, empty equipment, vessels,
attached piping, insulation, and building partitions. The dead
load is determined by the designer with input from mechanical
engineers for piping and equipment weights.
Live Loads
Live loads include the following movable loads:
• Personnel and portable machinery, tools, and equipment
• Material to be temporarily stored during maintenance, such

as exchanger parts, pipes, fittings, and valves.
• Material normally stored during operation such as tools,

catalyst and chemicals, and other supplies.
Live loads are specified as either a uniform pressure (psf) or as

concentrated Section 1615 Table 16-A of the Saudi Aramco
Building Code (ABC) and the ABC and the UBC. Live loads per
the ABC and UBC for various classes of structure use or
occupancy are shown in Table 5 and in Table 6 for roofs.

Table 5. Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads

Table 6. Minimum Roof Live Loads
See Section 1606 for live load reductions. The rate of reduction r in Section 1606 Formula (1-6) shall be
as indicated in the Table
“Reproduction from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building code, Table 16-C copyright  1997, with the
permission of the publishers, the International Conference of Building Officials.

Impact Loads
Impact loads are usually specified as a percentage of the

moving total load (dead load plus live load) for facilities such as
elevators and cranes. The specified impact loads per the UBC
are shown in Table 7.
Vibrating/Dynamic
Loads
Dynamic loads induced by vibrating equipment and machinery

should be evaluated for each structure. You need to work
together with mechanical or machinery engineers in order to
define the dynamic loads.
Table 7. Impact Loads
STRUCTURE LOAD APPLICATION IMPACT LOAD

Elevators 1. Vertical on Supports 100% of Total Load
Cranes 1. Vertical on Supports 25% of Total Load
2. Longitudinal on Supports 10% of Total Load
(Parallel to Runway)
3. Lateral on Supports 20% of Total Load
(Transverse to Runway)

Thermal Loads
Thermal load effects should also he evaluated for each

structure. These effects include determining the expected
thermal movement (unrestrained) and any resulting forces if
movement is partially or totally restrained. The amount of
thermal movement can dictate joint spacing and joint width in
exposed members especially slabs on grade. If a member is
restrained, like in a building frame, and if that member is heated
or cooled to a different temperature than the other connecting
members, thermal induced forces/moments will occur. These
forces are additive to the other structural loads and must be
considered. A prime example is in a building frame where one
side is directly exposed to the sun and the other side is shaded.
Both the total expansion/contraction as well as thermal gradient
effects should he considered. Refer to Figure 8. However, for
concrete members subjected to severe thermal service loads, a
cracked section should be considered in the design process.
Detailed thermal analysis/design is considered beyond the
scope of this course.

Figure 8. Thermal Activity

Figure 8. Thermal Activity (Cont’d)
Fluid Loads
Fluid loads are the gravity loads of liquid or solid materials in

equipment and piping during operation. They are considered
live loads when assigning load factors. Fluid loads arc usually
provided on equipment outline drawings.
Test/Erection/Main
tenance Loads
Test loads most commonly refer to the weight of water in

equipment during hydrotesting. Hydrotest loads are usually
considered as dead loads when assigning load factors.
Erection loads are temporary loads imposed by rigging and/or
lifting of equipment. Maintenance loads include any load
imposed on a structure by maintenance operations. Loads
imposed on a heat exchanger foundation during bundle pulling
are one example. A lateral force equal to the weight of the
bundle should he used for the design of structures and
foundations supporting heat exchangers.

Wind Loads
Wind loads are determined by using the procedures in Section

1618 of the 1997 UBC. For wind-sensitive structures,
procedures in the ASCE 7-88 Standard are to he used. The
wind load, per the UBC, is determined at different elevations of
the structure or process vessel by the following equation:
W = CeCqQsIAP
Where: W = Lateral wind load on structure or portion

thereof, lbs.
Ce = Combined height and gust coefficient for
exposure C, UBC Table 16-F ,see
Figure I5.
Cq = Shape coefficient per UBC Table 16-H,
reprinted in Figure 16.
Qs = Wind pressure at 30 feet height, equal
to 16 psf per SABC (for wind speed
equal to 78 mph). UBC Table 16-F
I = Importance factor, equal to 1.15 per
SABC for plant buildings or per plant
design criteria. UBC Table 16-K
A1 = Projected area normal to the wind
direction, ft2.
The above formula and the value of coefficients Ce, Cq and Qs

specified herein are based on the wind loading provisions of the
1997 UBC, referred to by the current ABC.
When computing wind forces on vertical process vessels, it is

important to include the drag effects of ladders and platforms,
piping, and other appurtenances. These effects should be
determined for each case. For preliminary calculations only,
these effects can be incorporated into the design of foundations
by use of an effective vessel diameter in calculating wind force
on the vessel. The effective diameter of the vessel is equal to
the vessel plus insulation outside diameter multiplied by a factor
as follows:

Effective Diameter Factors for Wind Force Calculation.
Vessel Diameter Multiplying Factor
Less than 3.0 feet 1.50

3.0 feel to 4.49 feet 1.40
4.5 feet to 6.49 feet 1.30
6.5 feet or greater 1.20
Table 8. Combined Height, Exposure, and

Gust Factor Coefficient (Ce)
HEIGHT ABOVE AVERAGE EXPOSURE C

LEVEL OF ADJOINING
GROUND, IN FEET
0-20 1.2
20-40 1.3
40-60 15
60-100 1.6
100-150 1.8
150-200 1.9
200-300 2.1
300-400 2.2
“Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building code,

Table 16-G copyright © 1997, with the permission of the publishers,
the International Conference of Building Officials.”

Table 9. Pressure Coefficient
STRUCTURE OR PART THEREOF DESCRIPTI0N Cq FACTOR

Method 1 (Normal force method)
1. Primary frames and systems
Walls: 0.8 inward
Windward wall 0.5 outward
Leeward wall
Roofs1:
Wind perpendicular to ridge 0.7 outward
Leeward roof or flat roof
Windward roof 0.7 outward
Less than 2:12 (16.7%) 0.9 outward or 0.3
Slope 2:12 (16.7%) to less than 9:12 (75%) inward
Slope 9:12 (75%) to 12:12 (100%) 0.4 inward
Slope > 12:12 (100%) 0.7 inward
Wind parallel to ridge and flat roofs 0.7 outward
Method 2 (Projected area method)

On vertical projected area 1.3 horizontal any
Structures 40 feet (12 192mm) or less in height direction
Structures over 40 feet (12 192mm) in height 1.4 horizontal any
On horizontal projected area1 direction
0.7 upward
2. Elements and components not in Wall elements

areas of discontinuity2 All structures 1.2 inward
Enclosed and unenclosed structures 1.2 outward
Partially enclosed structures 1.6 outward
Parapets walls 1.3 inward or outward
Roof Elements3
Enclosed and unenclosed structures
1.3 outward
Slope < 7:12 (58.3%)
1.3 outward or inward
Slope 7:12 (58.3%) to 12:12 (100%)
Partially enclosed structures

1.7 outward
Slope < 2:12 (16.7%)
1.6 outward or 0.8
Slope 2:12 (16.7%) to 7:12 (58.3%)
inward
Slope > 7:12 (58.3%) to 12:12 (100%)
1.7 outward or inward

6
3. Elements and components in Wall corners 1.5 outward or 1.2
2..4,5
areas of discontinuities 6 inward
Roof eaves, rakes or ridges without overhangs
Slope < 2:12 (16.7%) 2.3 upward
Slope 2:12 (16.7%) to 7:12 (58.3%) 2.6 outward
Slope > 7:12 (58.3%) to 12:12 (100%) 1.6 outward
For slopes less than 2:12 (16.7%)
Overhangs at roof eaves, rakes or ridges, and 0.5 added to values
canopies above
4. Chimneys, tanks and solid towers Square or rectangular 1.4 any direction
Hexagonal or octagonal 1.1 any direction
Round or elliptical 0.8 any direction
5. Open-frame towers7,8 Square or rectangular

Diagonal 4.0
Normal 3.6
Triangular 3.2
6. Tower accessories (such as Cylindrical members 1.0

ladders, conduit, lights and 2 inches (51 mm) or less in diameter 0.8
elevators) Over 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter
Flat or angular members 1.3
7. Signs, flagpoles, light poles, 1.4 any direction
minor structures8
1
For one story or the top story of multistory partially enclosed structures, and additional value of 0.5 shall be added to the
outward Cq. The most critical combination shall be used for design. For definition of partially enclosed structures, see
Section 1616.
2 2 2
Cq values listed are for 10-square-foot (0.93 m ) tributary areas. For tributary areas of 100 square feet (9.29 m ), the value
of 0.3m may be subtracted from Cq, except for areas at discontinuities with slopes less than 7 units vertical in 12 units
horizontal (58.3% slope) where the value of 0.8m my be subtracted from Cq. Interpolation may be used for tributary areas
2 2
between 10 and 100 square feet (0.93 m and 9.29 m ), use primary frame values.
3
For slopes greater than 12 units vertical in 12 units horizontal (100% slope), use wall element values.
4
Local pressure shall apply over a distance from the discontinuity of 10 feet (3048 mm0 or 0.1 times the least width of the
structure, whichever is smaller.
5
Discontinuities at wall corners or roof ridges are defined as discontinuities breaks in the surface where the included angle
measures 170 degree or less.
6
Load is to be applied on either side of discontinuity but not simultaneously on both sides.
7
Wind pressures shall be applied to the total normal projected area of all elements on one face. The forces shall be
assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
8
Factors for cylindrical elements are two thirds of those for flat or angular elements.

Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes may occur in the western province and need be

considered in design of facilities located there. Earthquake
loads are determined by using the procedures in Sections 1624
through 1633 of the UBC. The total design base shear in a
given direction is determined by the following equation:
ZIC
V= W
R
W
Where: V = Total earthquake base shear, kips.
Z = Seismic zone factor. Refer to UBC 1997

Table 16-I and Table 2 of SAES-A-112.
I = Importance factor, equal to 1.25 for plant

buildings per SABC or per plant design
criteria. UBC 1997 table 16-k
C = 1.25 S where Cmax = 2.75

T 2/3
S = Site soil coefficient, see Figure 17 reprinted

from UBC Table 16-J.
T = Fundamental period of vibration of structure,

seconds.
RW = Structural system coefficient, see Figure 18

reprinted from UBC Tables 16-N & 16-P.
W = Total weight of structure. kips.

Loading
Conditions
Four general loading conditions are considered for designing

petrochemical vessels and equipment:
• Erection
• Hydrotesting
• Normal Operation
• Abnormal Operation.
The loads to be considered for each loading condition are

shown in Table 11a. The term normal operation is not limited to
only operating conditions, but also covers non-operating loading
conditions. For normal operation, both summer and winter
thermal effects should be considered especially the presence of
temperature differentials. Since the hydrotest and abnormal
operation conditions occur infrequently, a reduced wind load
should be considered. Commonly, wind loads associated with a
maximum wind speed of 35 mph are used. Since wind loads are
proportional to the wind speed squared, the wind load for the
35-mph speed is 1/5 of the design wind load (for 78 mph).
Earthquake loads are not considered for these infrequent
conditions.

Table 10. Site Coefficients
TYPE DESCRIPTION S FACTOR
S1 A soil profile with either: 1.0
(a) A rock-like material characterized by a shear wave velocity

greater than 2,500 feet per second or by other suitable
means of classification, or
(b) Stiff or dense soil condition where the soil depth is less than
200 feet.
S2 A soil profile with dense or stiff soil conditions, where the soil depth exceeds 1.2
200 feet.
S3 A soil profile 70 feet or more in depth and containing more than 20 feet of 1.5
soft to medium stiff clay but not more than 40 feet of soft clay.
S4 A soil profile containing more than 40 feet of soft clay characterized by a 2.0
shear wave velocity less than 500 feet per second.
I The site factor shall be established from properly substantiated geotechnical data. Geothenical data
is available from the Geothenical Engineering Unit, Consulting Services Department.
”Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code, copyright © 1997, Table 16-J with
the permission of the publishers, the International Conference of Building Officials.”

Table 11a. Structural Systems

HEIGHT
LIMIT FOR
SEISMIC
BASIC ZONES 3
LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING AND 4 (feet)
STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION R ΩQ
SYSTEM2 X 304.8 for
mm
1. Bearing wall system 1. Light-framed with shear panels
a. Wood structural panel walls for structures three stories or less 5.5 2.8 65
b. All other light-framed walls 4.5 2.8 65
2. Shear walls
a. Concrete 4.5 2.8 160
b. Masonry 4.5 2.8 160
3. Light steel-framed bearing walls with tension-only bracing 2.8 2.2 65
4. Braced frames where bracing carries gravity load
a. Steel 4.4 2.2 160
b. Concrete3 2.8 2.2 ---
c. Heavy timber 2.8 2.2 65
2. Building frame system 1. Steel eccentrically braced frame (EBF) 7.0 2.8 240
2. Light-framed walls with shear panels
a. Wood structural panel walls for structures three stories or less 6.5 2.8 65
b. All other light-framed walls 5.0 2.8 65
3. Shear walls
a. Concrete 5.5 2.8 240
b. Masonry 5.5 2.8 160
4. Ordinary braced frames
a. Steel 5.6 2.2 160
b. Concrete3 5.6 2.2 ---
c. Heavy timber 5.6 2.2 65
5. Special concentrically braced frames
a. Steel 6.4 2.2 240
3. Moment-resisting frame 1. Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF)

a. Steel 8.5 2.8 NL
4
b. Concrete 8.5 2.8 NL
2. Masonry moment-resisting wall frame (MMRWF) 6.5 2.8 160
3. Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frame (IMRF)5 5.5 2.8 ---
4. Ordinary moment-resisting frame (OMRF)
a. Steel6 4.5 2.8 160
b. Concrete7 3.5 2.8 ---
5. Special truss moment frames of steel (STMF) 6.5 2.8 240
4. Dual systems 1. Shear walls

a. Concrete with SMRF 8.5 2.8 NL
b. Concrete with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 160
c. Concrete with concrete IMRF5 6.5 2.8 160
d. Masonry with SMRF 5.5 2.8 160
e. Masonry with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 160
f. Masonry with concrete IMRF3 4.2 2.8 ---
g. Masonry with masonry MMRWF 6.0 2.8 160
2. Steel EBF
a. With steel SMRF 8.5 2.8 NL
b. With steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 160
3. Ordinary braced frames
a. Steel with steel SMRF 6.5 2.8 NL
b. Steel with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 160
3
c. Concrete with concrete SMRF 6.5 2.8 ---
d. Concrete with concrete IMRF3 4.2 2.8 ---
4. Special concentrically braced frames
a. Steel with steel SMRF 7.5 2.8 NL
b. Steel with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 160
5. Cantilevered column 1. Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2.0 356

building systems
6. Shear wall-frame interaction 1. Concrete8 5.5 2.8 160
systems
7. Undefined systems See Sections 1629.6.7 and 1629.9.2 --- --- ---

N.L. ---no limit

1
See Section 1630.4 for combination of structural systems.
2
Basic structural systems are defined in Section 1629.6.
3
Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4.
4
Includes precast concrete conforming to Section 1921.2.7.
5
Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4, except as permitted in Section 1634.2.
6
Ordinary moment-resisting frames in Seismic Zone 1 meeting the requirements of Section 2211.6 may use a R value of 8.
7
Total height of the building including cantilevered columns.
8
Prohibited in Seismic Zones 2A, 2B, 3 and 4. See Section 1633.2.7.
Table 11b. Structural Systems

RW Factors for Non-Building Structures
Structure Type R Ωo
Vessels, including tanks and pressurized spheres, on braced or 2.2 2.0

unbraced legs.
Cast-in-place concrete silos and chimneys having walls 3.6 2.0

continuous to the foundation.
Distributed mass cantilever structures such as stacks, 2.9

chimneys, silos and skirt supported vertical vessels.
Trussed towers (freestanding or guyed), guyed stacks and 2.9 2.0

chimneys.
Inverted pendulum-type structures. 2.2 2.0
Cooling towers. 3.6 2.0
Bins and hoppers on braced or unbraced legs. 2.9 2.0
Storage racks. 3.6 2.0
Signs and billboards. 3.6 2.0
Amusement structures and monuments. 2.2 2.0
All other self-supporting structures not otherwise covered. 2.9 2.0
“Responding from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code, Tables 16-P copyright  1991, with the
permission of the publishers, the International Conference of Building Officials.”

Table 12. Design Loads for Structures
LOADING DESIGN LOADS AND FORCES

CONDITION (All loads and forces are additive)
a. Erection 1. Dead load of structure, less fireproofing and piping.
2. Dead load of equipment, less all loose internals,

insulation and platforms supported from the equipment.
3. Temporary loads and forces caused by erection.
4. With or without full wind or earthquake, whichever is greater.
b. Testing or 1. Dead load of structure, plus fireproofing.

Flushing
Equipment
2. Dead load of equipment, including all internals, insulation, and platforms
(Hydrotest)
supported from the equipment.
3. Dead load of piping, plus insulation.
4. Fluid load (water) for testing or flushing equipment and piping unless
pneumatic test is specified.
5. Applicable live loads from platforms and walkways.
6. With or without wind load for a wind speed of 35mph (16 m/s) fastest-mile.

Table 12. Design Loads for Structures (Cont’d)
LOADING DESIGN LOADS AND FORCES

CONDITION (All loads and forces are additive)
a. Normal 1. Dead load of structure, plus fireproofing.

Operation
2. Dead load of equipment, including all internals, insulation, and
platforms supported from the equipment.
4. Fluid load during normal operation.
5. Thermal forces.
6. Unbalanced forces from vibrating equipment and impact.
7. Applicable live loads from platforms and walkways. (These live loads
are excluded if they result in a more conservative design.)
b. Abnormal 1. Dead load of structure, plus fireproofing.

Operation
2. Dead load of equipment, including all internals, insulation, and
platforms supported from the equipment.
4. Fluid load during normal operation, startup or upset, whichever is

greatest.
5. Thermal forces.
6. Unbalanced forces from vibrating equipment and impact.
7. Applicable live loads from platforms and walkways.

Structural Member Design

Each structural member is designed in accordance with the
procedures outlined in the ACI 318 Code. The ACI 318 Code
provides design criteria and methods to satisfy three primary
objectives:
• Strength - Provide sufficient strength so that

probability of failure is low.
• Ductile Behavior - Ensure that structure fails in a ductile

mode if subject to overload conditions.
• Serviceability - Control cracking and deflections under

service loads.
The ACI 318 Code provides two alternate methods for design:
• Ultimate Strength Design Method.
• Alternate (or Working Stress) Design Method.
The ultimate strength design method is used for most

structures. The alternate (or working stress) design method,
covered in Appendix A of the ACI 318 Code, is used for
sanitary/liquid retaining structures. Either method may be used
for structural design of piles. Additional provisions to be used
with the alternate design method are given in ACI 350 report
“Concrete Sanitary Engineering Structures” (see ABC
paragraph 26.4).
The ultimate strength design method requires that the computed

nominal strengths be reduced by specified strength reduction
factors in order to determine the design strength, and that the
design strength should equal or exceed the factored service
load (or required strength). The strength relationship may he
expressed as follows:
Design Strength ≥ Required Strength
or

[Strength Reduction Factor] [Nominal Strength] ≥ [Load Factors]

[Service Loads]
Since the distinction between “design strength” and “required

strength” is crucial to understanding the strength design
method, key definitions are summarized as follows:
Definitions
Service Loads Loads specified by general building code (without load

factors).
Factored Loads Service loads multiplied by appropriate load factors,

used to proportion members by the strength design.
Required Strength Strength of a member or cross section required to

resist factored loads or related internal moments and
forces in such combinations as are stipulated.
Nominal Strength Strength of a member or cross section calculated in

accordance with provisions and assumptions of the
strength design method before application of any
strength reduction factors.*
Design Strength Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction

factor.
Ultimate Strength Design Method
*Generally approximates lower bound of “Ultimate Strength” of member.

Required Strength
The required strength, U, is expressed in terms of factored
loads, or their related internal moments and forces. Factored
loads are the loads specified in the general building codes, 11
multiplied by the appropriate load factors. The purpose of the
load factors is to account for:
• Possible Overloading.
- Uncertainties with assumed loads.
- Uncertainties with analysis assumptions and techniques.
• Consequences of failure.
- Personnel/public safety.
- Financial loss due to unit downtime.
- Financial cost of structure replacement.
Generally, the service loads are multiplied by the load factors,

the factored loads are combined into a total factored load, and
then the structure is analyzed to determine the internal member
forces and moments under the total factored loads (see Figure
9). The actor assigned to each load type is influenced by the
degree of accuracy to which the load effect can be calculated
and the potential variation in the load during the service life of
the structure. Consequently, the specified load factor for dead
loads is lower than the live load factor because dead loads can
be more accurately determined and are less variable.

Figure 9. Required Strength Flowchart
The code gives load factors for specific combinations of loading.

In assigning factors to combinations of loading, consideration is
given to the probability of simultaneous occurrence. Various
load combinations, with special attention to the proper sign,
positive and negative, need to be considered in order to
determine the most critical design condition. The critical design
condition can vary among the different members of the
structure.
Load factors per Section 9.2 in the code are shown on Table 13.

Table 13. Required Strength for Combinations of Loading
Code Loads Required Strength Code

Section Eq. No.
9.2.1 Dead (D) & Live (L) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1
9.2.2 Dead, Live & Wind (W) (i) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1
(ii) U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W) 9-2
(iii) U = 0.9D + 1.3W 9-3
9.2.3 Dead, Live & Earthquake (i) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1

(E) (ii) U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.8E) 9-2
(iii) U = 0.9D + 1.3E 9-3
9.2.4 Dead, Live & Earth and (i) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1
Groundwater Pressure (H)* (ii) U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H) 9-4
(iii) U = 0.9D + 1.7H
where D or L reduces H
9.2.5 Dead, Live & Fluid Pressure (I) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1
(F)** (ii) U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.4F
(iii) U = 0.9D + 1.4F
where D or L reduces F
9.2.6 Impact (I)*** In all of the above equations

substitute (L+I) for L when impact
must be considered.
9.2.7 Dead, Live and Effects from (i) U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9-1
Differential Settlement, (ii) U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L) 9-5
Creep, Shrinkage, (iii) U = 1.4 (D+T) 9-6
Expansion of Shrinkage-
Compensating Concrete, or
Temperature (T)
† D, L, W, E, H, F, and T represent the designated service loads or their corresponding

effects such as moments, shares, axial forces, torsion, etc. Note: E is a service-level
earthquake force.
* Weight and pressure of soil and water in soil. (Groundwater pressure is to be
considered part of earth pressure with a 1.7 load factor.)
** Weight and pressure of fluids with a well-defined densities and controllable maximum
heights.
*** Impact factor is required for design of parking structures, loading docks, warehouse
floors, elevator shafts, etc.

Design Strength
The design strength of a member is equal to the nominal
strength, calculated per the ACI code, multiplied by a strength
reduction factor, which is less than unity. The provisions for
computing the “nominal” strength of a member are based on
chosen limiting states of, stress, strain, cracking, or crushing
and conform to research data for each type of structural action.
The purpose of the strength reduction factor are: (1) to allow for
the probability of under strength members due to the variations
in material strengths and dimensions; (2) to allow for
inaccuracies in design equations for nominal strength; (3) to
reflect a degree of ductility and reliability of the member for the
imposed loading; and (4) to reflect the importance of the
member in the structure. The factors prescribed in section 9.3
of the code are shown in Table 6.
Table 14. Strength Reduction Factors
Flexure, without axial load 0.90
Axial tension, and axial tension with flexure 0.90
Axial compression, and axial compression with flexure:

Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to 0.75*
Section 10.9.3
0.70*
Other reinforced members
Shear and torsion 0.85
Bearing on concrete (except for post-tensioned 0.70

anchorage zones)
Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85
*May be increased linearly to 0.90 as φPn decreases from 0.10 f’c Ag or φPb,
whichever is smaller, to zero.
Authorized reprint from ACI 318-99 Notes, Table 5-2, Page 5-10 with permission

Strength Design Basis

The nominal strength of a member or cress section computed
by the Strength Design Method requires that two basic
conditions be satisfied:
• Static equilibrium
• Compatibility strains
Equilibrium between the compressive and tensile forces acting

on the cross section at “ultimate” strength must be satisfied.
Compatibility between stress and strain for the concrete and the
reinforcement at “ultimate” conditions must follow the design
basis established by the code.
The term “ultimate” is used frequently in reference to the

Strength Design Method; however, it should be realized that the
nominal strength computed per the code approximates a lower
bound value of the actual ultimate strength. The nominal
strength of a member is computed in accordance with the
design basis as defined in section 10.2 of the code. The design
basis includes the following assumptions:
• Strain in the concrete and reinforcement is proportional to

the distance from the neutral axis.
• The maximum concrete strain is 0.003.
• The tensile stress in the reinforcement is equal to Es times

the steel strain up to a maximum value equal to the specified
yield strength.
• The modules of elasticity of the reinforcing steel are

29,000,000 psi (200,000 Mpa).
• Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural

calculations.
• Stress and strain are not proportional in concrete.

• The maximum permissible compressive stress in the

concrete is 85% of the 280-day compressive strength.
The non-linearity of stress with respect to strain in concrete is

apparent in the stress-strain curves from typical compression
tests shown in Figure 10. The distribution of compressive stress
in a concrete beam at failure is similar to the curves, but the
exact distribution is not known.
Figure 10. Typical Stress-Strain curves for Concrete
The flexural forces in the beam may be represented by Figure

11, in which compressive force C is the summation of the
compressive stress distribution over the concrete area above
the neutral axis, and tensile force T is equal to the steel area
times the steel stress.

Figure 11. Flexural Forces in a Reinforced Concrete Beam
The ACI code permits the use of a simplified, equivalent

rectangular distribution of stresses in the concrete shown in
Figure 12. The depth of the rectangular block is 0.85c for
concrete strengths up to 4,000 psi (30 Mpa in ACI 318) and
decreases at higher strengths. For example, the depth for
4,800-psi (35 Mpa) strength concrete is 0.81c. The depth need
not be taken below 0.65c.

Authorized reprint from ACI 318-99 Notes, Figure 6-9, Page 6-10 with permission from
Figure 12. Balanced Strain Condition in Flexure

Working Stress Method

The design of reinforced concrete members can also he based
on conditions at the service load with load factors equal to I.
The alternate design method provides permissible service load
stresses. The design basis, permissible stresses, and
procedures are provided in Appendix A of the ACI 318M code.
This method is generally recognized as being slightly more
conservative than the strength design method.
The major difference from the strength design method is the

assumption that there is a linear stress-strain relationship. This
relationship is valid if stresses do not exceed the permissible
values, which are used with the service loads (no load factors)
and are based on the ultimate or yield strength of the material
divided by a safety factor greater than or equal to two. For liquid
retaining structures, to control cracking minimize leakage, stress
limits are imposed by ACI 350.
Transformed Area Concept

The concept of transformed area is required in order to
determine effective moments of inertia for computation of
deflections of reinforced concrete beams. Consider a concrete
beam with the concrete in the tension zone of’ the beam having
cracked under service loads. The moment of inertia of the
cracked section can he computed as shown in Figure 13 under
the following basis:
• Beam cross-sections that are plane before loading retrain

plane after loading.
• The stress-strain relation for the concrete is a straight line

under service loading.
• The steel resists all the tension.

• The steel reinforcement in the tension zone (area, As) is

replaced by an equivalent concrete tension area equal to
nA5, where n is the ratio of modulus of elasticity of the steel,
F5, to the modulus of elasticity of the concrete, Ec.
Figure 13. Transformed Area Concept
Crack Control (Beams and One-Way Slab)

When high strength reinforcing steels are used at high service
load stresses, visible cracks can he expected. Corrosion of
reinforcing steel has been found to he related to the width of
such cracks. Thus, for hot both aesthetic and corrosion reasons,
provisions to control cracking are required. These provisions are
covered in section 10.6 of die ACI Code. A simple and more
practical equation has been adopted starting with the 1999
code, which directly limits the maximum reinforcing spacing.
The new method is intended to control surface cracks to a width
that is generally acceptable in practice but may vary widely in a
given structure. The spacing of reinforcement closest to a
tension surface shall not exceed that given by the following
example.

Example
1. For 2 No. 11 bars (As = 3.12 in. 2)
Cc = 1.5 + 0.5 = 2.0 in. (No. 4 stirrup)
Use fs = 0.6 f y = 36 ksi
Maximum spacing allowed,
S = 540/36 – 2.5 x 2.0 = 10 in. (Eq. 10-5)

12 (36/Fs) = 12 in. > 10 in.
No. 4 stirrup
2-No. 11
1.5” dc
16”
Figure 14A. Distribution of Reinforcement

for Effective Crack Control
Spacing provided = 16 – 2 (1.5 + 0.5 + 1.41/2)
= 10.6 in. > in. N.G.

2. For 4 No. 8 bars (As = 3.16 in. 2)
Cc = 2.0 in. (No. 4 stirrup)
Maximum spacing allowed, S = 10 in.
4-No. 8
Figure 14B. Distribution of Reinforcement

for Effective Crack Control
Spacing provided = 1/3 [16-2(1.5 + 0.5 + 1.0/2)]
= 3.7 in. < in. O.K.
For liquid retaining structures, additional provisions per ACI 350

govern the spacing of bars in walls. For crack control, it is
preferable to use a large number of small diameter bars for
main reinforcement rather than an equal area of lager bars. Bar
spacing in walls shall not exceed 12 inches. ACI 350 specifies
a higher percentage of shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement (see Table 15) than are given in section 7.12 of
ACI 318. ACI 350 also presents relationships between
exposure, bar spacing, bar diameter, and steel stress.

Practical Comments on Design

At this stage it is worth pointing out some general practical
comments on reinforced concrete design, mostly related to
simplifying the construction process:
• Dimensions should he standardized to the extent possible to

aid in constructability
• Different beams on a structure should have similar widths;

say 10, 12 or 14 inches [usually even numbers (in inches)
are specified]. Each beam should not have a different width.
This makes forming difficult and can lead to errors in the
field.
• Column width should be at least as large as beam width. If

beams are too wide, continuous reinforcing will not “fit’ in the
column as it passes through.
• Only a few different sizes of reinforcing bars should be used

on a given project. If too many sizes are specified, errors
may occur during construction. Often one size bar is picked
for slab reinforcement, no more than three sizes for beam or
column reinforcement, and a single size for ties and stirrups
• Do not “sharpen the pencil” too much during initial design.

Changes that occur during construction or during the service
life may require a re-design or upgrade if there is insufficient
additional conservatism built into the original design.
• Specify the same strength of concrete and grade of

reinforcement throughout the project. Do not change spacing
of ties and stirrups too frequently.
• Try to simplify the construction of the structure.

Table 15. Percentage of Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
FOR CONCRETES MADE WITH ASTM C150 AND C195 CEMENTS
Spacing Between Expansion Joints in FT. Minimum Percent of Shrinkage

and Temperature Reinforcement
0.3
Less than 30 (9.14)
0.4
30 to 40 (9.14 to 12.2 m)
0.5
40 to 50ft (12.2 m to 15.2) ml
0.6
Greater than 50ft) (15.2 m)
*The minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement should be #4 bars; maximum

spacing should be 12 in. (300 mm) on center in each face.
Authorized reprint from ACI 350 Table 2.5.1

ACT MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

The ACI Manual of Concrete Practice provides a complete
documentation of all ACI standards and reports and is updated
annually. The manual comprises five volumes:
1) Materials and General Properties of Concrete.
2) Construction Practices and Inspection, Pavements.
3) Use of Concrete in Buildings - Design, Specifications and

Related Topics.
4) Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary and other Special

Structures, Structural Properties.
5) Masonry, Precast Concrete, and Special Processes.
The manual is an excellent reference source. It provides the

state of the art, as prepared by committees of experts, for a
wide range of topics. It is to be used by designers, inspectors,
testing laboratories, and construction personnel. The reports
and standards in the manual are extensively referenced by
Saudi Aramco standards. A list of the standards specifically
referenced by SAES-Q-001 is shown in Table 1 presented
previously.

SUMMARY
In summary this module introduced you to analysis and design
of reinforced concrete. You discussed Saudi Aramco SAES-Q-
001, Concrete Standards and how they affect quality. You
learned to apply ACI 318, Building Code Requirements to
reinforced concrete structures. You then learned to determine
loads and recognize critical load combinations for reinforced
concrete. Following that you learned to flowchart the overall
design approach for structural members, and you discussed
ultimate strength design, crack control, and working stress
design. Finally, you learned to locate and retrieve material in the
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.

WORK AID 1: COMPARISON OF SAUDI, METRIC AND ENGLISH

REINFORCING BAR PROPERTIES
Table 16. Bar Properties
ACI 318M-89 SASO SSA 2/1979
Bar Diameter (mm) Area (Sq. mm) Diameter (mm) Area (Sq mm)
No.
-- -- -- 10 79
10 11.3 100 12 113
15 16.0 200 16 201
20 19.5 300 20 314
-- -- -- 22 380
25 25.2 500 25 491
-- -- -- 28 616
30 29.9 700 32 804
35 35.7 1000 36 1020
45 43.7 1500 45 1590
-- -- -- 50 1960
55 56.4 2500 -- --
Properties of English (ACI 318-89) Reinforcing Bars

English Bar No. English Units Metric Units
ACI 318-89 Diameter (in) Area (Sq. in) Diameter Area
(mm) (Sq
mm)
#3 0.375 0.11 9.5 71
#4 0.500 0.20 12.7 127
#5 0.625 0.31 15.9 198
#6 0.750 0.44 19.1 285
#7 0.875 0.60 22.2 388
#8 1.000 0.79 25.4 507
#9 1.128 1.00 28.7 645
#10 1.270 1.27 32.3 817
#11 1.410 1.56 35.8 1007
#14 1.693 2.25 43.0 1452
#18 2.257 4.00 57.3 2581
Conversion Between English (ACI 318-89) and Saudi (SASO SSA 2/1979) Reinforcing Bars
English Bar No. Saudi Bar Dia. (mm) Ratio of Diameters Ratio of Areas
(Saudi/English) (Saudi/English)
#3 10 1.05 1.11
#4 12 0.95 0.89
#5 16 1.01 1.02
#6 20 1.05 1.10
#7 22 0.99 0.98
#8 25 0.98 0.97
#9 28 0.98 0.96
#10 32 0.99 0.98
#11 36 1.01 1.01
#14 45 1.05 1.10
#18 50(1) 0.87(1) 0.76(1)
Note: (1) There is no direct SASO equivalent to a #18 English bar. The closest is a SASO No. 50 bar.

GLOSSARY
Alternate (working stress) Alternate design method provided by ACI 318 Code
based on linear and stress-strain relationships.
Appurtenances Non-structural elements (signs, lights, parapets, etc.)

attached/supported by structure.
Cast-in-Place Construction Concrete which is poured in the place where it is

required to harden as part of the structure, as
opposed to precast concrete which is poured in a
fabrication plant offsite.
Dead Loads A constant load in structures due to the mass of the

members, the supported structure, and permanent
attachments or accessories.
Design Strength Nominal strength of a member multiplied by a

strength reduction (phi) factor.
Dynamic Loads Loads induced by vibrating equipment, machinery or

by vibrating structures.
Factored Load Service load multiplied by appropriate load factors,

used to proportion members by the strength design.
High Range Water Reducer A water reducing admixture capable of producing

(or super plasticizer) large water reduction or great flowability without
causing undue set retardation or entrainment of air in
mortar or concrete.
Impact Loads Additional loads associated with moving facilities.
Lap Splice Refers to splicing/joining of primary reinforcements.
Nominal Strength Strength of a member or cross section calculated in

accordance with provisions and assumptions of the
strength design method before application or any
strength reduction (phi) factors.
Precast A concrete member that is cast and cured in other

than its final position.

Required Strength Strength of a member or cross section required to

resist factored loads or related internal moments and
forces in such combinations as are stipulated in the
applicable code or specification.
Service Load The load specified by the general building code or

bridge specification, or the actual load applied in
service.
Slump A measure of consistency of freshly mixed concrete,

equal to the subsidence measured to the nearest ¼
in (6mm) of the molded of the specimen immediately
after removal of the slump cone.
Stirrup, Closed A lateral reinforcing bar completely enclosing flexural

reinforcement. Used to resist shear and torsion.
Strength Design Method A design method which requires service loads to be

(Ultimate) increased by specified load factors and computed
theoretical strengths to be reduced by the specified
phi factors.
Super Plasticizer See High Range Water Reducer.
Tension Lap Splices A connection of reinforcing steel made by lapping the

ends of the bars.
Test Loads Commonly associated with weight of water/fluid used

to hydrotest pressure vessels.
Thermal Loads Loads in a member caused by restraint of free

expansion due to temperature changes.

CSE 108.01 Reinforced Concrete Codes, Standards and Design P

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

REINFORCED CONCRETE CODES,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Practical Comments On Design......................................................................... 59

ACT MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE ................................................................ 61

WORK AID 1: COMPARISON OF SAUDI, METRIC AND ENGLISH

Figure 1. Reinforced Concrete Standard Flow Chart.................................................... 6

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Table 1. Listing Of Referenced Standards .................................................................... 7

Table 2. Aci Standard 318m Contents......................................................................... 10

Table 3. Material Requirements For Reinforcing Steel Bars ...................................... 12

Table 4. Reinforcing Bar Properties ............................................................................. 26

Table 5. Uniform And Concentrated Live Loads.......................................................... 28

Table 6. Minimum Roof Live Loads ............................................................................. 29

Table 7. Impact Loads................................................................................................. 30

Table 9. Pressure Coefficient ...................................................................................... 36

Table 10. Site Coefficients .......................................................................................... 40

Table 11a. Structural Systems .................................................................................... 41

Table 11b. Structural Systems .................................................................................... 42

Table 12. Design Loads For Structures....................................................................... 43

Table 12. Design Loads For Structures (Cont’d) ......................................................... 44

Table 13. Required Strength For Combinations Of Loading........................................ 49

Table 14. Strength Reduction Factors......................................................................... 50

Table 15. Percentage Of Shrinkage And Temperature Reinforcement ....................... 60

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

As a design engineer you are responsible for developing

It is your responsibility to produce a “safe” design and,

In this module you will be introduced to analysis and design of

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-Q-001, together

Other standards referenced by SAFS4Q-00I cover layout and

Unique requirements include cement type, concrete cover for

Table 2 increases the minimum concrete cover for

Epoxy coatings are specified for all reinforcing bars as added

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Aramco Building Standards for

ASTM Standards for

ACI 318M ACI Standards for

Standards for Specific

Figure 1. Reinforced Concrete Standard Flow Chart

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Table 1. Listing of Referenced Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Section 17 restricts the use of concrete in marine environments

A primary goal of SAES-Q-001 is to ensure that durable

SAES-Q-001 specifies the American Concrete institute “Building

Although not specified in SAES-Q-001, the commentary

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

The following pages illustrate some of the highlights of Chapters

Chapter 3 of ACI 318M provides standards for materials and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Table 2. ACI Standard 318M Contents

ACI STANDARD 318M CONTENTS

Chapter 1-General Requirements

PART 2-STANDARDS FOR TESTS AND MATERIALS

PART 3-CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Chapter 4-Durability Requirements

PART 4-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Chapter 8-Analysis and Design – General Considerations

PART 5-STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OR ELEMENTS

Chapter 13-Two-way Slab Systems

PART 6-SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS