CSE 202.05 Repair of Concrete Structures

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
REPAIR OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-202.05 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Engineering Aspects of Concrete Failure and Repair
Repair of Concrete Structures
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................. 6
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6
PURPOSE ............................................................................................................ 6
SCOPE ................................................................................................................. 7
IDENTIFYING CONCRETE REPAIR MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES ...................... 8
PRE-PROJECT CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................... 8
Preliminary Inspection................................................................................ 8
Diagnosis and Classification .................................................................... 10
Future Requirements for the Structure .................................................... 12
Present Code and Design Requirements................................................. 13
EXTENT OF REPAIRS....................................................................................... 13
Cosmetic Repairs .................................................................................... 14
Short-term Corrective Action (Band-Aid Fix)............................................ 14
Structural Repair ...................................................................................... 14
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF REPAIR MATERIALS ........................................ 16
Cementitious Materials ............................................................................ 17
Polymer Concrete and Mortar.................................................................. 19
PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES AND TESTS................................................... 24
Bond Strength.......................................................................................... 26
Length Change ........................................................................................ 28
Compressive Strength ............................................................................. 31
Consistency ............................................................................................. 31
Working Time........................................................................................... 32
Thermal Coefficient of Expansion ............................................................ 33
Durability.................................................................................................. 34
Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................ 36
Permeability ............................................................................................. 37
EVALUATING CONCRETE REPAIR PROCEDURES .................................................. 39
CONCRETE REMOVAL ..................................................................................... 39
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Blasting Method ....................................................................................... 43

Cutting Method ........................................................................................ 43
Impacting Method .................................................................................... 43
Pre-splitting Method ................................................................................. 44
SUBSTRATE PREPARATION ........................................................................... 44
Chemical Cleaning................................................................................... 45
Air and Sand Blast Cleaning .................................................................... 45
Water Blast Cleaning ............................................................................... 46
CONCRETE SUBSTRATE PRIMING AND BONDING....................................... 46
Cement-based Slurries ............................................................................ 47
Epoxies .................................................................................................... 47
Latex Emulsions ...................................................................................... 48
TESTING AND TEST METHODS FOR BONDING AGENTS............................. 49
PROTECTION OF REINFORCING STEEL........................................................ 50
Preparation .............................................................................................. 50
Without Primer ......................................................................................... 51
Cement Slurry Primers............................................................................. 52
With Epoxy Primer ................................................................................... 52
Cathodic Protection.................................................................................. 53
CRACK AND JOINT REPAIR............................................................................. 53
Static Crack ............................................................................................. 54
Capping the Crack ................................................................................... 55
Gravity Sealing ........................................................................................ 56
Route and Seal Technique ...................................................................... 56
Grouting ................................................................................................... 57
Dry Packing ............................................................................................. 58
Dynamic Crack ........................................................................................ 59
Flexible Sealing........................................................................................ 59
Stitching ................................................................................................... 61
REPAIR OF DISINTEGRATED CONCRETE ..................................................... 62
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Patching................................................................................................... 63
Concrete Replacement ............................................................................ 64
Form and Cast-in-place ........................................................................... 65
Form and Pump Method .......................................................................... 65
Traditional Concrete................................................................................. 66
Cement-based Repair Materials .............................................................. 68
Polymer Mortars and Concrete ................................................................ 68
Shotcrete ................................................................................................. 68
Pre-placed Aggregate Concrete .............................................................. 70
Curing Practices ...................................................................................... 72
SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE SURFACE TREATMENT....................................... 74
IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR TREATMENT .................................................. 74
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TREATMENT .......................................................... 75
Conditions of the Substrate...................................................................... 76
Exposure to Moisture ............................................................................... 76
Exposure to the Environment................................................................... 76
Exposure to Chemicals ............................................................................ 77
Exposure to Physical and Mechanical Attack .......................................... 77
Requirement for Cleanability.................................................................... 77
Special Considerations ............................................................................ 78
SURFACE TREATMENT CLASSIFICATIONS................................................... 78
Hardeners ................................................................................................ 79
Sealers..................................................................................................... 80
Coatings................................................................................................... 83
Cure and Seals ........................................................................................ 84
Thin Film Coating..................................................................................... 84
High Build Coatings ................................................................................. 85
Underlayments......................................................................................... 86
Traffic Bearing Membrane ....................................................................... 87
Liquid-Applied Systems ........................................................................... 87
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Prefabricated Sheet Membrane Systems ................................................ 89

Bonded Toppings..................................................................................... 90
IDENTIFYING POST-REPAIR ASSESSMENT ............................................................. 92
MONITORING REPAIRS ................................................................................... 92
Chloride Ingress....................................................................................... 93
Moisture Levels........................................................................................ 93
Debonding ............................................................................................... 93
Rebar Corrosion ...................................................................................... 93
Carbonation of Concrete.......................................................................... 94
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE.......................................................................... 94
REPAIR FAILURE ANALYSIS............................................................................ 95
WORK AIDS ................................................................................................................. 96
WORK AID 1. HOW TO SELECT APPROPRIATE CONCRETE REPAIR
MATERIALS.......................................................................................... 96
WORK AID 2. HOW TO EVALUATE CONCRETE REPAIR PROCEDURES............... 98
WORK AID 3. HOW TO SELECT THE CORRECT SURFACE
TREATMENTS.................................................................................... 101
WORK AID 3A: HOW TO IDENTIFY SURFACE CATEGORIES................... 101
WORK AID 3B: CHECKLIST FOR SELECTING THE CORRECT
SURFACE TREATMENT.................................................................................. 104
WORK AID 4. HOW TO IDENTIFY POST-REPAIR ASSESSMENTS ....................... 107
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 109
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 116
List of Figures
Figure 1. Load Distribution in Structurally-Repaired Columns...................................... 16

Figure 2. Schematic Design of Slant Shear Test (ASTM C 882).................................. 27
Figure 3. Schematic Design of Bond Test Using CSA A23.2-6B.................................. 28
Figure 4. Stresses Induced by Linear Shrinkage.......................................................... 30
Figure 5. Workability vs. Working Time ........................................................................ 33
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Figure 6. Repaired Section for Materials with Different Thermal Coefficients ............... 35
Figure 7. Deformation of Materials with Different Moduli of Elasticity........................... 36
Figure 8. Recommended Layout for Surface Repairs .................................................. 40
Figure 9. Feather-Edged and Butt-Jointed Patches ..................................................... 41
Figure 10. Saw Cut Configurations............................................................................... 42
Figure 11. Briquette for the Tension Test of Mortar....................................................... 49
Figure 12. Capping the Crack ...................................................................................... 55
Figure 13. Effect of a Bond Breaker .............................................................................. 60
Figure 14. Stitching Concrete........................................................................................ 61
List of Tables
Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Epoxy Patching Compounds................... 22

Table 2. Material Properties for Resin Only.................................................................. 23
Table 3. Advantages of MMA and HMWM ................................................................... 25
Table 4. Disadvantages of MMA and HMWM .............................................................. 25
Table 5. Permeability Rating of Repair Materials ......................................................... 38
Table 6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hand-applied Patching Materials ............ 63
Table 7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Poured or Placed Repair
Techniques................................................................................................. 64
Table 8. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Form and Pump Method of
Concrete Replacement............................................................................... 67
Table 9. Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry-mix Shotcrete ................................... 70
Table 10. Advantages and Disadvantages of wet-mix Shotcrete ................................. 70
Table 11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pre-placed Aggregate Concrete............ 72
Table 12. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hardeners ............................................. 80
Table 13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sealers.................................................. 82
Table 14. Advantages and Disadvantages of High Build Coatings............................... 86
Table 15. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Prefabricated Sheet
Membrane Systems ................................................................................... 91
Table 16. Surface Treatment Materials, Their Use, Advantages and
Disadvantages.......................................................................................... 103
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
These are the steps in a concrete repair procedure:
• Diagnose the damage
• Select the repair materials
• Select the repair procedures
• Prepare the deficient area
• Apply the repair
• Post-repair assessment
A repair program starts with an evaluation of the damage and
progresses through the selection of materials and methods,
preparation of the deficient area, and application of the repair.
Satisfactory completion of each one of these steps results in a
satisfactory repair. Lack of attention to any of these steps may
result in an unsatisfactory repair and additional expense to
correct the unsatisfactory repair.
Purpose
When the engineer chooses the repair materials, he must
understand that these materials have more properties than the
properties required for the basic repair. Frequently, these other
properties have a great influence on the materials performance
in service. For example, in an area of large temperature
variations, the load conditions may require the selection of a
repair material that has high compressive strength. If the
engineer does not consider that the repair material also has a
high coefficient of linear thermal expansion, the repair will
probably fail at the bond interface or within the parent concrete.
The reason for the failure is that the repair material expands and
contracts at a different rate than the parent concrete. All the
properties of both the repair material and the parent concrete
must be considered simultaneously. The engineer must
consider both the material's function and the effects of the
environment on the material.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

To guarantee predictable performance, an engineer must have

a good knowledge and understanding of the properties of the
repair material and how the material will interact with the parent
concrete in the in-service environment. The engineer also needs
a clear description of the required maintenance procedure and
maintenance intervals for the repair.
Scope
This module is the last in a series of five modules dealing with
concrete. This module only covers the repairs of existing
concrete whether old or just constructed. It does not cover the
original materials except as they pertain to the selection of the
repair materials. Module CSE-202.01 covered concrete
materials.
The same applies for the environment, production and
inspection, except as it pertains to the repair procedure.
Modules CSE-202.02, 202.03, and 202.04, respectively, cover
those subjects.

IDENTIFYING CONCRETE REPAIR MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES

The selection of concrete repair materials is an attempt to
maximize the future durability or performance of the concrete.
Therefore, the selection must be based on a knowledge of the
following criteria:
• The physical and chemical properties of these materials
• The function that the engineer plans for these materials
• The exposure environment in which these materials will be
used.
Pre-project Considerations
The following items should be considered before the project is
initiated:
• Preliminary inspection
• Diagnosis and classification
• Future requirements for the structure
• Present code and design requirements
Preliminary
Inspection
A cost-effective and successful repair program must address

the following basic questions:
• What are the types of defects, damage, or deterioration?
• What is the extent of the defects, damage, or deterioration?
• What caused the defects, damage, or deterioration?
• Will these causes re-occur?
• Can or should the concrete member or structure be restored
to the original state?
Only experts should handle the repair of damaged or
deteriorated concrete, in both of the following phases:
• The engineering phase, when the type and extent of the
repair work must be decided
• The project phase, when the correct practices and
techniques must be used.

Unqualified personnel should only do repairs of a cosmetic

nature limited to un-reinforced or non-structural concrete.
Inadequate or incorrect repairs of concrete can lead to further
deterioration.
Following are the factors to be considered before deciding to
repair concrete:
• Materials selection and surface preparation
• Project plan and specifications
• Flexibility of plans and specifications
• Schedule for execution of repair work
Pre-repair considerations are as important as the actual repair.
Proper materials selection and surface preparation are essential
to high quality, durable, and functional repairs. The selected
materials must meet the specifications for the particular
application and be used according to the manufacturers'
recommendations or other approved standards.
After the engineer selects the repair methods and materials, he
prepares the project plans and specifications base on existing
guide specifications. If the existing guide specifications do not
cover the selected methods and materials, the engineer has to
prepare detailed specifications based on experience gained
from similar projects.
The removal of the deteriorated concrete is often necessary to
determine the full extent of the damage. Plans and
specifications for repair should be flexible with regard to the
materials quantities. To minimize errors in the estimated
quantities, the engineer should begin repair work as soon as
possible after completion of the condition survey.
Other major considerations that precede the actual repair work
include the following:
• Diagnosis of damage and classification of deterioration.
• The future requirements that a structure will meet.
• Applicable codes or design requirements.

Diagnosis and
Classification
Frequently, the most difficult and important step in the repair

process is to determine the cause of the damage, defect, or
deterioration. If the cause is not understood, it will not be
possible to evaluate the need for repair or to select a repair
procedure. It is often impossible to identify the specific cause of
concrete damage, either because there is insufficient data to
pinpoint the trouble, or because several agents are at work
simultaneously. Using the process of elimination, an engineer
can reduce the number of possibilities.
Before initiating the repair work, it is often necessary to evaluate
the existing condition of the structure. The purpose of an
evaluation is to obtain sufficient information on the extent of
deterioration and to establish the cause and significance of the
deterioration. Obtaining this information requires a systematic
review of service records, and the original design and
construction details. After conducting this review, the engineer
must make a detailed field investigation.
CSE 202.04 discussed the steps in a field investigation, the
identification of concrete durability problems, the causes of
concrete durability problems, and the classification of
deterioration. Remember that the first step in the classification
of a field situation is to decide if the situation is safe or unsafe.
If the situation is safe, the engineer classifies the severity of the
problem using the categories listed in CSE 202.04, Work Aid
1D. If the causes of the defects and deterioration are likely to
remain active after the repair of the affected area, the
rehabilitation strategy should include ways to overcome the
contributing factors.

If the extent of deterioration warrants repairs, a qualified civil

engineer should make an estimate of the safety of the structure.
The estimate should take into account the extent of the damage
to the structure. The engineer derives the current safety factor
by comparing the maximum load that the component is likely to
experience, with the ultimate strength of the damaged structural
component. A safety factor greater than 1.8 is considered
satisfactory. If the repairs involve the removal of sound
structural material or the application of new loads while the
repairs are in progress, the engineer must calculate the safety
factor for the repair period. Normally, a safety factor of 1.5 is
acceptable for the repair period. The engineer bases the
decision of safety factor upon the level of supervision and the
opportunity for accidents to occur while the repairs are in
progress. A higher safety factor may be necessary while some
operations are in progress.
Regardless of the cause(s) of the deterioration, the engineer
must establish the extent of the damage, determine if the
repairs are necessary, and decide when to do the repairs. The
following factors influence the above measures:
• The cause of the damage.
• The extent of the damage.
• The effect of the damage on the safety of the structure.
• The estimated rate of deterioration.
• The importance of the plant supported by the structure.
• The hazards associated with structural failure.
• The relative costs of repair, replacement, and repair
deferment.
If the deterioration is the result of an inferior concrete subjected
to an aggressive environment, replacement by a good quality
concrete should provide several years of satisfactory
performance. However, if a good quality concrete has been
destroyed, the solution to the problem may require a very
superior quality of concrete and/or a change in the exposure
conditions.

Deterioration sometimes results from the corrosion of rebar

causing the concrete to crack and spall. Correction of the
situation requires more than replacing the concrete and the
original cover over the steel. If the structure is contaminated by
salt, it may be necessary to replace the contaminated members.
Application of new concrete to the affected areas could change
the electrolytic conditions and cause corrosion in other areas
that had been previously unaffected.
Future Requirements
for the Structure
Though deterioration may have reduced the original strength of

a structure, repairs that restore the original strength may not be
necessary. Give careful consideration to the present and future
requirements of the structure. Sometimes, in-service loads are
less than the original design loads due to the removal or
replacement of original equipment. Sometimes, the original
structure was over-designed because the exact loading
information was not known at the time of the design. The
company can incur significant, unnecessary expense if one
assumes that a structure must have the strength it had before
the deterioration occurred.
Because contractors often take a conservative approach to
strength restoration, engineers should review the contractor's
recommendations to increase the strength of a member,
structure, or foundation with a structural engineer from the CSD.
When there is a plan to increase the loading in the future, the
engineer should carefully review the structural requirements
before a repair strategy is developed.

Present Code and

Design Requirements
A difficult situation may arise when some code changes occur

between the time of constructing the structure and the required
repair of that structure. In some cases, such code changes can
cause the structure to have a low safety factor at the time of
repair. When this change in the safety factor is strictly due to
changes in the code, plans are not required to strengthen
structures merely to comply with the current code requirements.
If the structure would have complied with the code requirements
at the time of design and construction, no changes are
necessary. If signs of stress are apparent, other considerations
will affect the decision. If the engineer observes symptoms of
overstress, or if repairs involve an extensive rebuild, the
engineer should recommend strengthening the structure to
comply with the current code requirements. Some conditions
require the use of current codes for upgrades. These conditions
include increased loading caused by vessel modifications and
the addition of more pipes than were in the original design.
Extent of Repairs
When the engineers determine the cause of deterioration and
verify the strength of the existing structure, they must then
determine the extent of the repair work. The following possible
courses of action affect the determination of the extent of repair
work:
• Permit deterioration to continue
• Preserve the structure in its present condition, but not
strengthen it
• Strengthen the structure
• Abandon or rebuild, if deterioration is very severe.
Following are the categories of repair actions:
• No action at all.
• Cosmetic repairs that restore concrete to a more pleasing
appearance.
• Short-term corrective action that restores concrete members
to a satisfactory operational standard.
• Structural repair that restores sectional or monolithic
properties to damaged concrete members

Cosmetic Repairs
A cosmetic repair improves the appearance of the deteriorated

section. Cosmetic repairs may or may not offer a degree of
protection to the concrete. In most cases, the cosmetic repair
does not address the cause(s) of the deterioration. For example,
the application of a surface coating to a deteriorated area will
improve the appearance but may not prevent the reoccurrence
of the damage.
Cosmetic repairs only enhance the appearance of the section
for a few years. If the repairs require the application of a
coating, recoating the section will be necessary eventually. If the
cosmetic repair has contributed to further deterioration of the
structure, a more comprehensive repair program may be
necessary. Cosmetic repairs should be limited to un-reinforced
or non-structural concrete.
Short-term Corrective
Action (Band-Aid Fix)
Short-term corrective actions are sometimes referred to as

Band-Aid Fixes. In most cases, short-term corrective action
does not consider the causes of the deterioration and may
contribute to further distress. In a typical example, concrete
foundations were found to be cracking and spalling. A detailed
inspection discovered that there was also delamination,
inadequate cover, low permeability and frequent application of
raw water causing chloride contamination.
If the repair program only replaced the spalled and delaminated
concrete with repair material and left the other defects
uncorrected, the repair would be a short-term solution (Band-Aid
Fix). Deterioration of the repaired areas and adjacent section
will soon reoccur.
Structural Repair

A structural repair must accomplish the following objectives:

• Replace damaged concrete
• Replace corroded rebar
• Restore the required structural function
• Protect the patched area, and possibly the surrounding area,
from aggressive environments
A structural repair attempts to return the deteriorated section to
a condition that is as good as, or better than, the original
condition. To achieve a successful structural repair, the
engineer must analyze all possible stresses in the repaired
section and at the interface between the repair and the existing
substrate. The following factors generate stresses in the repair:
• Relative volume changes that occur between the repair and
the concrete substrate
• The service loads that are carried by the repair
If the stresses within the repaired area are not within the
capacities of the new and existing materials, failure of the
repaired section may occur.
In many cases, the structural repair can carry the same stresses
as the original section, but only with great difficulty. For
example, in a column with a significant amount of material loss
in the compression zone, loads will be redistributed around the
damaged area. To re-establish the original load distribution
requires the removal of all load from the column during repair
and curing. When the repair material reaches the specified
strength, the loads must be restored on the repaired section.
Engineers use jacks and temporary shoring to relieve loads on
the column.
Drying shrinkage reduces the volume of the repair material
relative to the volume of removed concrete. As a result, the
patch does not completely fill the originally prepared space. If
the repair material cannot shrink because of the bond between
the repair material and the old concrete, the repaired section will
crack when the patch exceeds its tensile strength. The tensile
strain of concrete is usually between 100 and 200 microstrains
- - -
(100 x 10 6 and 200 x 10 6). (One microstrain equals 1 x 10 6
mm/mm (in/in).)
If the repair material has a drying shrinkage of 600 microstrains,
the material will take an additional compressive strain of 600

microstrains in the column before the repaired area begins to

carry load. If the original cross-section is overstressed before
the repaired area begins to carry load, the column may fail.
Figure 1 illustrates the load distribution in repaired columns. In
most applications, the desirable condition is to have the repair in
a compressive state so that compressive loads can be carried.
Stress level is Overstressed

acceptable Area
Repaired area
not required to
carry structural
load
Repaired area
required to
carry load
Figure 1. Load Distribution in Structurally-Repaired Columns
General Categories of Repair Materials
It is difficult to select materials that have all the properties

required by the site condition. Almost every repair job has its
unique conditions and special requirements. Once the engineer
knows these criteria, the use of more than one material can
often produce equally good results. Final selection of the
material, or combination of materials, must take into account the
ease of application, cost, available labor skills, and equipment.
Repair and patching materials may be classified into two
groups: Cementitious and Polymer. Cementitious repair

materials contain Portland cement as an ingredient and may be

site-batched, ready-mixed, or bagged. Normally, cementitious
materials only require the addition of potable water when they
are site-batched. Polymer materials require the use of a "setting
agent" other than water. Both groups have advantages and
disadvantages.
Cementitious
Materials
Portland cement concrete and mortar offer the following

advantages as patching materials:
• Thermal movement is similar to the existing concrete.
• The appearance is similar to concrete.
• The cost is reasonable.
• Portland cement concrete and mortar are readily available.
• Portland cement concrete and mortar are "user-friendly."
Users have had considerable experience in the use of these
materials.
The engineers most often use concrete to replace complete
sections and fill deep cavities that extend beyond the reinforcing
steel bars. The smallest dimension of the repair section is
dictated by the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Although large projects can utilize ready-mixed concrete,
smaller projects often require that the concrete be proportioned
and mixed on site. This fact makes small projects susceptible to
materials variation that depend on the skill of the contractor.
Mortars can be placed by hand, gravity, or pump. Portland
cement mortars are generally used when the following two
conditions are present:
1 Repairs are too shallow to accommodate the coarse
aggregate in concrete, and
2. The fluidity of grout is not required.

Prepackaged repair products (concrete and mortars) are readily

available from specialist companies and have the advantage of
being consistent in quality, properties, and performance.
Although prepackaged repair materials are usually more
expensive than traditional materials, materials that are
proportioned and mixed on-site usually do not achieve the high
quality performance properties of prepackaged repair products.
Most of the prepackaged cementitious repair products use high
early strength (Type III) cement. This type of repair product also
contains an expansive agent that causes the concrete and
mortar to expand. This expansion takes place either in the
plastic stage or after the hardening of the repair product. The
expansion produced in the plastic state establishes intimate
contact with the concrete substrate before the reaction products
harden, completely filling the space and forming a good bond.
This expansion compensates for the anticipated plastic and
drying shrinkage, and maintains a tight bond to the substrate.
The expansion requires restraint to allow a buildup of
compressive stresses within the concrete or mortar. When the
material dries, the loss of moisture relieves the compressive
stress and reduces the extent of shrinkage.
The expansion in the concrete or mortar usually occurs through
the use of an expansive agent, such as aluminum powder,
anhydrous calcium sulfoaluminate, calcium oxide, or coke
powder. The use of iron filings in some products promotes
expansion after hardening by oxidation of the filings.
Unfortunately, the products that contain iron filings frequently
exhibit excessive expansion, cracking, and disintegration when
subjected to saline waters. Saudi Aramco does not recommend
the use of cementitious repair products containing uncoated iron
filings. Some manufacturers have introduced new products in
which the iron is coated against oxidation. These products
require no shrinkage correction in either the plastic or hardened
state.
Portland cement patching concrete and mortar mixes are
modified by using one or more of the following types of
admixtures:
• Pozzolons
• Water reducing admixtures
• Air entraining admixtures
• Set accelerators

• Set retarders
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Latex
• Fibers
Avoid the products that contain unknown ingredients or that use
unproved technology, except on experimental or pilot projects.
Many cementitious repair products make claims of being non-
shrinking, suggesting that the products will not shrink and crack.
Unfortunately, there is no single accepted definition of the word
"non-shrink". All cement-based mixtures will shrink because of
the hydration of the cement. Shrinkage is proportional to the
water content. If the shrinkage exceeds the tensile strength, the
concrete will crack.
One method of reducing shrinkage and cracking is "drypacking."
Dry pack repair material is any mortar or concrete that can be
used at a no-slump consistency. Usually, a dry pack repair
material at the proper consistency contains enough moisture to
stick together when molding the material into a ball. When a dry
pack material is at the proper consistency, the molded ball
leaves only a film of moisture on the palm. Although this
consistency minimizes the amount of shrinkage, voids can form
from incorrect placement of the material by experienced
installers.
The following are some of the disadvantages of cementitious
repair material:
• High shrinkage
• Poor bonding to the substrate
• Tendency to crack
• Good curing is required
• Setting time may be short in hot weather
Polymer Concrete
and Mortar

Polymer Portland cement concrete or mortars are mixtures that

contain latex or epoxy emulsions. These materials are
sometimes called latex-modified concretes or mortars. Synthetic
latex is added to conventional Portland cement repair mixes to
give the mixture greater bond strength, faster curing
characteristics, improved tensile strength and flexibility,
increased chemical resistance, and lower permeability.
Latex-modified mortars are mixtures of Portland cement, sand,
water, and latex admixtures, such as styrene butadiene rubber
(SBR), polyvinyl acetate, acrylics, and epoxy emulsions. Latex-
modified concretes have coarse aggregate added to the mortar.
The amount of latex used is usually less than 20% of the weight
of the cement in the mixture. Addition of the latex to the mixture
improves the permeability and the bond, and the tensile and
flexural strengths. Latex-modified mixtures exhibit good
workability and ease of application, which are important
advantages. Engineers often substitute these mixtures for
cementitious repair materials when the project requires a fast
cure time, higher bond strength, and some feather edging.
The following definitions are important and may be found in the
glossary:
• Monomer
• Polymerization
If more than one monomer is used, the process is called
copolymerization.
There are some important differences in the finishing and curing
procedures between normal Portland cement and latex-modified
mixes. A surface skin forms quickly on latex-modified mixes.
Trowelling the skin may tear the surface, often leading to
shrinkage cracks. The surface may be retempered with a diluted
solution of latex and water to extend the finishing time and avoid
shrinkage cracks. Protect the fresh surface from the sun, wet
cure for 24-48 hours, and allow to dry. Usually, the proponent
can resume full use of the area within 72 hours at normal
temperatures 20 to 23ºC (68 to 73ºF). Latex-modified mixes
have a tendency to entrain air in the mix requiring mixing by a
slow-speed mixer to reduce the amount of entrained air.

The disadvantages of latex-modified mixes are:

• Short working time
• Requires wet curing
• Requires special equipment (concrete mobile equipment)
• The mix acts as a bond breaker when used as a bonding
agent and allowed to dry.
• Vinyl acetate ethylene copolymer has limited water
resistance.
Polymer concrete or mortars consist of blends of aggregate held
together in a polymerized matrix. Polymers include epoxies,
unsaturated polyester resins, and acrylic monomers, such as
methyl methacrylate (MMA) or high molecular weight
methacrylate (HMWM).
Epoxy repair mixtures are usually epoxy mortars, but some
mortars can be extended into concretes by the addition of a
selected coarse aggregate. Epoxy repair materials are usually
prepackaged systems that contain resin binders. These binders
consist of two components added to a selected blend of
aggregate. The aggregates may be included in the prepackaged
system, or they may be purchased separately. A typical mortar
mix will consist of one part of mixed epoxy resin and hardener to
three parts of sand.
There is a broad range of applications for epoxy repair mixtures.
Typical applications include the following:
• The use of an unfilled resin binder to fill shallow surface
damage that was caused by popouts or scaling, and
• The use of thicker mortar sections to fill substantial spalled
areas that resulted from fire damage.
The chemical reactions that occur when the components are
mixed together in the prescribed ratio are exothermic and
generate heat as the mixture is polymerized and hardens. The
quantity of patching material mixed for an application should not
exceed the amount that can be readily used within the pot life of
the mixture. Pot life is usually two to three hours at 22ºC (75ºF),
but is dependent on the thickness of the patch and the
aggregate-to-resin ratio. Higher temperatures accelerate the
chemical reactions when the epoxy mixtures cure, hence
reducing the pot life.

Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of epoxy

patching compounds.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Extremely good bonding ability and, More expensive than cementitious

therefore, good adhesive materials
High compressive and tensile strengths Limited pot life
High resistance to chemical attack High coefficient of thermal expansion
Good resistance to wear Adversely affected if proportioned or mixed

improperly
Rapid cure Sensitive to moisture
Fast rate of strength development Sensitive to temperature
Objectionable odor with some formulations
Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Epoxy Patching Compounds
Because epoxy materials vary in formulation from one

manufacturer to another, always follow the manufacturers'
recommendations for mixing, application, and use. The
engineers who are uncertain whether an epoxy repair mixture
provides a satisfactory repair should discuss the application with
the manufacturer's technical representative.

Patching compounds based on unsaturated polyester resins

have not been used as widely as epoxies. These compounds
generally harden through a reaction between the base resin and
small amounts of catalyst. Polyester patches cure faster than
epoxy materials and are less sensitive to lower temperatures.
Polyester patches have good chemical resistance. Accurate
control of proportions and mixing are more difficult to achieve
with polyester patches as compared with the two-component
epoxies. The shrinkage that occurs when polyester patches
cure is significantly greater than the shrinkage of epoxy patches.
Limit the polyester patch size to thin sections and small areas.
Polyester patches are used in severe chemical environments.
Polyester materials are not fireproof.
Acrylic concretes and mortars can be viewed as aggregates
held together by an acrylic polymer. Two types of monomers are
usually used for this purpose: methyl methacrylate (MMA),
which has been used for about 20 years, and high molecular
weight methacrylate (HMWM), which is a relatively new
material.
Table 2 shows the differences between HMWM and MMA.
HMWM has properties that make it easier and safer to use than
MMA.
MMA HMWM
Low flash point. High flash point.
Disagreeable odor. Odor is not strong.
Short pot life. Longer pot life.
Flammable liquid. Less volatile than MMA.
Table 2. Material Properties for Resin Only

A typical product kit for an acrylic mixture may include the

following items:
• The monomer, which contains an inhibitor to prevent
spontaneous polymerization
• An initiator, which is added during the mixing stage to
activate the polymerization process.
• A promoter (also added during the mixing stage) to speed up
the process.
• A 25 kg (55 lb) bag of aggregate.
The following are the two ways to use the monomer:
1. Mix and place all the components of the product, or
2. Pour the monomer over a patch area that has been filled
with preplaced aggregate.
Use polymer concretes to patch sections that are larger than the
sections suitable for repair with epoxy mortars. Table 3 lists the
advantages of MMA and HMWM and Table 4 lists the
disadvantages of MMA and HMWM.
Performance Properties and Tests

Engineers select the repair materials to maximize the future
performance and durability of the structure. Almost every repair
project has unique conditions and special requirements
requiring the selection of repair materials based on the following
factors:
• Knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the
materials
• The function that the materials must perform
• The nature of the environment where the materials will be
placed.
Durable repairs can only be achieved when the properties of the
intended repair material is matched with the properties of the
base concrete. The selection of a repair material should
consider the following material properties:

MMA HMWM
Rapid strength (6000 psi in 1 hour) Rapid strength gain
Good bond to dry surface Excellent bond
Easy to mix Relatively low modulus
High compressive, tensile, and flexural High compressive and flexural

strength strength
Impermeable to water Impermeable to water
Excellent resistance to acids Very good resistance to acids
Excellent abrasion resistance Very good abrasion resistance
Pre-packaged or bulk materials Low flammability and low odor
Table 3. Advantages of MMA and HMWM
MMA HMWM
Very expensive Very expensive
Will burn when ignited Aggregate and substrate must be dry
Sharp pungent odor More expansion and shrinkage than

concrete
Aggregate and substrate must be dry
Moisture barrier
Moderate shrinkage
Table 4. Disadvantages of MMA and HMWM

• Bond strength
• Length change
• Compressive strength
• Consistency
• Working time
• Thermal coefficient of expansion
• Durability
• Modulus of elasticity
• Permeability
Bond Strength
There must be a good bond between the repair material and the
concrete substrate to restore the member being repaired. Bond
strength may be the most important and most ignored property
of a repair material.
Generally, repairs (patches) do not fail in compression;
however, they fail when there is inadequate bond strength or
excessive length change. Unfortunately, ASTM has not
published a test method to adequately determine the bond
strength of cementitious products to concrete substrates.
However, for many years, the construction industry has used a
modification of ASTM C 882. Figure 2 illustrates the test
process, which is accomplished in the laboratory as follows:
First, cut a 75 by 150 mm (3 by 6 inch) Portland cement mortar
cylinder in half diagonally at a 30-degree angle from the vertical.
Place one-half of the cylinder in a mold, and cast the repair
material on the top half to create a new cylinder (see Fig. 2).
After suitable curing period of the composite cylinder, perform a
compression test.

Compressive load
Original Repair
Concrete Material
Figure 2. Schematic Design of Slant Shear Test (ASTM C 882)
Calculate the bond strength as the load that the specimen bears
at the point of failure divided by the area of the bonded surface.
Standards frequently specify a minimum test result of 17.25
MPa (2500 psi) to ensure an adequate bond. CSA A23.2-6B
describes how to determine the adhesion of bonded toppings
using the pull-out test. Figure 3 shows the test procedure, which
is explained as follows:
First, apply the repair material to a concrete slab and allow it to
cure according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Use a
coring drill to drill a core through the overlay to a minimum of 30
mm into the underlying concrete slab. Glue a steel plate to the
cored disk. When the adhesion reaches sufficient strength,
apply a tensile load to the disk until failure occurs. Calculate the
bond strength as the applied load divided by the cross-sectional
area of the core at the failing surface. Standards frequently
specify a minimum test result of 1.0 MPa (145 psi) to ensure an
adequate bond.

Connect to pull-off device
Plate glued to surface
Repair
Concrete
Original min. 30 mm
Concrete
Figure 3. Schematic Design of Bond Test Using CSA A23.2-6B
You can improve the bond strength between the repair material
and the concrete substrate by using one of the following types
of bonding:
• Cement slurry
• Cement grout
• Latex emulsion
• Epoxy
Use the bonding agents with special care because they can
sometimes eliminate the bond between the repair material and
the substrate, causing delamination of the repaired area.
Length Change
Length changes (linear shrinkage) can cause cracks to occur

during and after the curing period. These cracks can result in
debonding. Cracks allow water and deleterious materials to
enter the repaired area, which may result in spalling and failure
of the patch. If the old material has developed a stable drying
shrinkage volume, the following effects will occur according to
the amount of drying shrinkage of the new material:
• Tension develops in the repair material.
• The loads carried by the repair will be reduced.

• The shear stress on the bond will increase.

Figure 4 illustrates the stresses that linear shrinkage cause.
Repair material
Original Concrete
Figure 4. Stresses Induced by Linear Shrinkage
Use ASTM C 157, Test Method for Length Change of Hardened

Cement Mortar and Concrete, to evaluate the length-change
properties of cementitious repair materials. Since most repair
materials contain aggregate, you may use 50 x 50 mm (2 x 2
in.) cross-sectional area to determine the length change. To
accurately reflect what happens in the field, modify the
measurement procedures to be able to have an initial reading
as soon as you demold the bars. Curing should be in
accordance with the manufacturers' recommended procedures.
A repair material should exhibit between +0.05% and -0.05%
length change to avoid cracking or stress buildup.
Use ASTM C 827 to measure plastic length change. This test
method covers the determination of change in height of
cylindrical specimens from the time the sample is cast until the
mixture is hard. The test measures and compares the relative
shrinkage or expansion of cementitious mixtures. Because the
specimen that is used in this method is not completely
unrestrained, the measurements are primarily useful for
comparative purposes rather than for the determination of
absolute values.

Use ASTM C 883 to measure the effective shrinkage that

occurs while the epoxy resin systems cures. Construct a
laminate of the epoxy resin and apply the laminate to a glass
plate. As the epoxy cures, any shrinkage will cause the glass
plate to bow. Failure in the test occurs when there is enough
shrinkage to fracture the glass.
Concrete of normal weight shrinks from 400 to 800 microstrains.
Compressive
Strength
Most quality repair materials (both cementitious and polymer)

develop compressive strengths equal to, or often greater than,
the concrete under repair. The engineer gains no advantage in
selecting a repair product solely because of its superior
compressive strength. Bond strength and length change are
better criteria than compressive strength for the selection of a
repair material.
For some concrete repairs, it may be advantageous to use a
fast strength-gain material to minimize shutdown time. Perform
compressive strength test according to the procedures in ASTM
C 109. The minimum compressive strength that the material
must achieve two hours after the addition of the mixing water is
frequently 17.25 MPa (2500 psi). Standards commonly specify a
minimum compressive strength of 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) at 24
hours. The achievement of high early strengths generally results
in very high strengths at ages greater than 28 days. These high
strengths can influence the load distribution between the original
concrete and the repair patch.
Consistency
Consistency is the mobility or ability of a freshly mixed material

to flow. The engineer usually makes consistency or flow rate
determinations immediately after mixing the material. The
consistency of cement-based materials will vary with the amount
of water added. For pre-bagged materials, it is usual to start the
mixing process with the minimum amount of water
recommended by the manufacturer. If necessary, add more
water to obtain the desired consistency. Never exceed the
manufacturer's maximum amount of recommended water, and
do not retemper the mixture.

The engineer usually requires a flowable consistency for

horizontal repairs. To repair or patch vertical or overhead
surfaces, he requires a plastic, trowelable consistency. Even at
a stiff plastic consistency, there will be areas where the depth of
repair will cause the repair material to sag. Formed repairs
require a fluid mixture that can be placed easily and
consolidated. For cementitious mixtures, keep the water
content and consistency as low as both placing and
consolidation requirements permit.
The consistency of polymer repair materials will vary in
accordance with the relative proportions of the resin and the
curing agent. As you increase the amount of curing agent, the
consistency of the mixture also increases. The engineer should
also keep the consistency of polymer mixtures as low as both
placing and consolidation requirements permit.
The engineer usually makes consistency determinations within
30 to 60 seconds after mixing the material. Unfortunately, the
installers cannot transport, place, and consolidate most of the
repair materials quickly. As a result, test results from slump
cones, flow tables, and flow cones have limited value in the
field. Field experience on similar projects under similar
conditions provides the best guide to the required consistency.
Working Time
Working time is very important when using cementitious grouts

or polymer repair materials. Working time is the length of time
in which the repair material maintains the ability to be placed
and consolidated.
Some repair materials, particularly grouts, are formulated to
stiffen in as little time as 15 minutes. This short time minimizes
plastic shrinkage. This rapid stiffening causes a rapid loss of
consistency, which may cause the contractor to rush the job and
make an ineffective repair.
Working time varies because of several factors, which include
the ambient and mixture temperatures, type of Portland cement
used, and the components in a polymer mixture. Most repair
materials have a shorter working time in hot weather and a
longer working time in cooler weather.

The engineer must determine the working time before selecting

the repair material to give the contractor adequate time to
properly place and consolidate the material by the most reliable
and economical method. Estimate the working time by using
consistency test results of the repair material. Repeat the tests
frequently over an extended time period. Figure 5 illustrates the
relationship between workability and working time.
max.
B Vibrated
Workability
A B
min
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Working Time (minutes)
Figure 5. Workability vs. Working Time
The working time should exceed the period that the contractor
estimates to transport, place, and consolidate the material. Do
not recommend repair materials that have working times less
than the contractor's estimates. These materials will usually
result in high waste and poor performance.
Thermal Coefficient
of Expansion
Thermal expansion and contraction of materials are measured

by the coefficient of thermal expansion. An average value for
the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is about 10
microstrains per degree Celsius (6 microstrains per degree
Fahrenheit). Values from 6 to 13 microstrains per degree
Celsius have been observed.

Measure the coefficient of thermal expansion using the

procedures in ASTM C 531. The thermal coefficient of a given
sample of concrete is not constant unless the sample is
completely dry or saturated. The thermal coefficients of concrete
vary over a wide range under different storage conditions and
with the kind of concrete.
A large difference in thermal coefficient between the concrete
substrate and the repair material may often result in disruption
and failure of the repaired area. Polymer repair materials can
have thermal coefficients three to five times greater than the
thermal coefficient of concrete. The higher coefficients of repair
materials cause the repaired areas to expand or contract more
and faster than the concrete substrate. As a typical example, a
concrete with a thermal coefficient of 10 microstrains per degree
Celsius (6 microstrains per degree Fahrenheit) is patched with
an epoxy product that has a thermal coefficient of 45
microstrains per degree Celsius (27 microstrains per degree
Fahrenheit). With a radical up or down temperature change), the
epoxy product will expand or contract 4.5 times as fast and 4.5
times as much as the old concrete. If the temperature change is
evenly distributed through the old concrete and the repair
material, linear movement will cause shear stresses to develop
at the interface.
Figure 6 illustrates the example. Large differences in thermal
coefficient often cause a cohesive failure of the concrete.
Fortunately, most cementitious repair products have thermal
coefficients very close to the thermal coefficient of concrete and
do not cause repair failures.
Durability
When the engineer evaluates the durability of the patch and

repaired area, he must consider the following:
• Absorption
• Permeability
• Abrasion resistance
A low absorption rate will preclude damage to and deterioration
of the patching material as a result of chemical attack, salt, or
moisture-induced volume changes.

Repair material
Old Concrete
Figure 6. Repaired Section for Materials with Different Thermal Coefficients
Repair materials must have low permeability to minimize

passage of water and salt solutions to the substrate. Highly
permeable patches will result in the saturation of the substrate
and may lead to chemical attack and the potential corrosion of
the reinforcing steel. If impermeable materials are used for large
patches, overlays, or coatings, moisture that passes through the
substrate can be entrapped between the substrate and the
repair material. Entrapped moisture can cause failure at the
bond line or within the weaker of the two materials.
Patches subjected to abrasion must exhibit good abrasion
resistance; otherwise, the patches will be worn through to the
substrate. The following is generally true regarding cementitious
materials:
• A decrease in the water/cement (W/C) ratio and an increase
in the aggregate/cement ratio will decrease the absorption
and permeability, and increase the abrasion resistance in the
cementitious materials.
Most outdoor repairs will be subjected to wetting from
precipitation. Gypsum and gypsum-based products have shown
poor resistance to wetting and the engineer should consider
them for use only as temporary patches.

Polymer materials generally have excellent durability, even

though some epoxies have absorption values as great as four
percent.
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity (E) of a material is a measure of the

material's stiffness. Most materials have a stress-strain curve
that includes an initial straight-line segment.
The selection of a modulus value is relatively simple. However,
polymeric materials have a continuously curving stress-strain
plot, so that arbitrarily defines the modulus. The specimen
shape and rate of loading affect the modulus of elasticity.
A given load deforms low-modulus materials more than high-
modulus materials. When materials with widely different moduli
are in contact with each other, the significant difference in
deformability may cause problems under specific loading
conditions. Figure 7 an example that applies to a uniformly
distributed load parallel to the bond line. Shear stresses develop
at the bond line as the lower modulus material deforms and
transfers the load to the higher modulus material. Load
overstresses may fracture the higher modulus material.
However, by applying the load perpendicular to the bond line,
the difference in moduli does not cause problems.
High
modulus
Low High Low

modulus modulus modulus
Figure 7. Deformation of Materials with Different Moduli of Elasticity

External loads do no cause all failures related to interfaced

materials with widely different moduli of elasticity. Shrinkage, or
thermal expansion and contraction, can cause loss of load
unless the modulus of the repair material is low enough to
permit movement without excessive stress at the bond line.
Portland cement concretes that have cube compressive
strengths between 20 and 50 MPa (3000-7500 psi) will have
mean values of modulus of elasticity (E) between 25 and 34
GPa (3.6 to 4.9 x 106 psi). Acrylic concrete and mortars that
have cylinder strengths of 48 to 83 MPa (7,000 to 12,000 psi)
will have mean values of E between 10 and 20 GPa (1.5 to 3.0 x
106 psi). Ideally, repair materials should have a modulus of
elasticity equal to E of the substrate. The engineer should avoid
repair materials that have a low or high modulus of elasticity
compared to that of the substrate.
Use the procedures in ASTM C 469 to measure the modulus of
elasticity in repair materials.
Permeability
Experts often identify low permeability as the key to durable

concrete and repair materials. The following factors influence
the permeability of cementitious materials:
• Quality of cement and aggregate
• Water/cement (W/C) ratio and degree of hydration
• Degree of compaction
• Extent of curing
• Presence or absence of cracks
To measure permeability, use the procedures and test
equipment reported in the U.S. Corps of Engineers test methods
CRD-C48 and CRD-C163.
The permeability of a mature, good quality concrete is
approximately 1 x 10−10 cm per second. Permeability increases
as the concrete dries.

Tabled 5 compares the permeabilities of repair materials on a

scale of one to ten with ten being the highest rating.
REPAIR MATERIAL RATING

Portland cement mortar 9
Portland cement concrete 9
Shotcrete 6
Latex Modified Portland Cement Concrete 5
Epoxy mortar 1
MMA (Methyl methacrylate) concrete 1
Table 5. Permeability Rating of Repair Materials
A good quality, natural concrete has a rating of 10.

The permeabilities of the parent concrete and the repair material
should be similar to avoid the presence of trapped moisture at
the bond line, which can cause a bond failure within the weaker
material.

EVALUATING CONCRETE REPAIR PROCEDURES

To ensure the success of any repair project, regardless of the
repair materials, the engineer must require the correct
preparation of the existing concrete substrate. The same
meticulous attention to preparation detail is also necessary
when applying the penetrating sealers, coatings, and toppings.
Various practices and techniques have evolved for the
preparation of concrete before repair application. Many repair
specialists' recommendations, although similar, are not always
consistent. These recommendations often vary on important
details. The International Association of Concrete Repair
Specialists (IACRS) publishes technical guidelines for the repair
of deteriorated concrete.
This section will cover the following repair procedures:
• Concrete removal
• Substrate preparation
• Concrete substrate priming and bonding
• Reinforcing steel protection
• Crack and joint repair
• Repair of disintegrated concrete.
Concrete Removal
The engineers must locate the areas requiring repair using the
inspection techniques given in the previous module (CSE
202.04). Mark the area of removal with paint.
Before removing concrete from suspended slabs, or load-
bearing walls or columns, the engineers must design and
require the installation of adequate propping and shoring.
Propping and shoring are particularly important if the plans call
for, or considers the possibility of, the complete removal of a
structural member.

Deterioration of concrete surfaces is rarely uniform; therefore,

the engineers should modify the areas that require repair to
provide simple repair layouts. Design these layouts to reduce
the boundary edge lengths. Figure 8 illustrates the
recommended layout for surface repairs.
Loose and Recommended layout

delaminated Concrete for Concrete removal
Figure 8. Recommended Layout for Surface Repairs

The contractor should cut the concrete around the perimeter of

the repair layout with a concrete saw providing a straight,
vertical butt joint. Although some repair materials can be
feather-edged, there is a danger that the thin edges will crack
and delaminate due to temperature and moisture changes.
Figure 9 illustrates feather-edging. Do not recommend feather-
edging in any of the concrete repairs.
Feather-edged patch Butt-jointed patch
Not Recommended Recommended
Figure 9. Feather-Edged and Butt-Jointed Patches
Make saw cuts at an angle of 90° to the surface and at least 15

mm (1/2 in) deep. Do not over-run the repair area with the saw
cut. For horizontal repairs, make a second series of shallower
saw cuts a few centimeters (inches) from the initial cut. These
secondary cuts provide a toehold for the breaker point of the
shipping tools to form the vertical butt joint. Figure 10 illustrates
this procedure.
To start concrete repairs, the installers usually remove all the
damaged and deteriorated concrete to reveal a sound substrate.
The selection of the concrete removal equipment will depend on
the amount and depth of concrete removal and the extent of the
total work.

The effectiveness of various removal techniques depends on

whether the repair area contains deteriorated or sound
concrete. Some techniques may be better for sound concrete,
while others may be better on deteriorated sections. Because
the same removal technique does not work on all sections of a
given structure, the engineer should select the most appropriate
technique for each area of the structure. The engineer may use
different removal techniques even within the same designated
repair area.
Initial Secondary saw cuts

saw cut
Break
out
corner Initial saw cut
Initial saw cut
Chisel point
Secondary saw cut

Outside edge of patch
Figure 10. Saw Cut Configurations

Blasting Method
Blasting methods usually involve the use of explosives and are

only implemented in situations designed to remove large
sections.
Cutting Method
Cutting methods usually employ mechanical diamond saw

cutting, intense heat from powder torch thermal lances, and
high-pressure water jets. These devices cut around the
perimeter of concrete sections to enable the removal of the total
section.
Impacting Method
Impacting methods use the machines that strike the concrete

surface repeatedly to cause fracturing and spalling of the
concrete. The most common removal tools are the 7 to 14 kg
(15 to 30 lb) chipping hammers. The 7 kg (15 lb) hammer is light
enough to be used on vertical and overhead surfaces. Avoid
heavy jackhammers and other demolition tools because they
can damage sound concrete adjacent to the repair area. Studies
have shown that the use of jackhammers can cause micro-
fractures at, or immediately beneath, the substrate surface.
These fractures can cause delamination failure of a new repair.
The use of heavy chipping tools can also result in the removal of
more sound concrete and more damage to reinforcing steel than
would occur through the use of lighter tools. Do not allow the
use of hammers heavier than 14 kg (30 lb) for concrete removal.
Select the correct breaker tool to avoid excessive damage to the
substrate. Standard 75 mm (3 in) chisel bits are usually used to
cut or score solid concrete and to break up weak concrete.
Gad or moil points are better than chisel bits for breaking the
concrete once it has been scored. They provide a rough surface
texture for bonding of the repair material. Moil points are better
to be inserted into cracks because chisel bits tend to extend the
crack length.

For large areas requiring the removal of a thin layer of concrete,

use a pneumatic scabber. Pneumatic scabbers use
reciprocating bushing tools to strike the concrete surface. Each
hit of the tool removes a small amount of concrete. Pneumatic
scabbers are effective tools for the removal of up to 6 mm (1/4
in) of surfaces for preparation of overlayments.
Pre-splitting Method
Pre-splitting methods include hydraulic splitters, water impulse

devices, and expansive agents. Wedge devices, water pressure
pulses, expansive chemicals, and wood plugs are placed in
boreholes spaced at predetermined intervals. This action
provides a crack plane for concrete removal. Use these
methods to remove large volumes of concrete. The advantage
of this method is that it is relatively nonviolent and causes little
or no damage to the remaining concrete.
Opinions vary regarding concrete removal around reinforcing
steel. Most repair specialists recommend the removal of
concrete beyond the spalled area and throughout the entire
reinforcement corrosion area. Some specifications require
removing concrete cover along and behind the bars until
exposing a clean, non-corroded rebar with a continuous length
of 50-300 mm (2-12 in) in sound concrete. The depth of
concrete removal from behind the rebar should be at least 25
mm (1 in). However, some repair specialists do not consider it
necessary to remove all the concrete that surrounds the rebar. If
chloride ions remain behind the reinforcing steel, the potential
for further corrosion still exists.
Substrate Preparation
After removal of all the unsound concrete, the engineer must
plan and verify the preparation of the repair area to receive the
repair materials. The installers should clean the substrate to
remove all loose particles, dust, oil, grease, etc. The removal of
surface contaminants allows primers and the repair materials to
have intimate contact with the substrate. The installers should
use one of the following methods to clean the substrate:
• Chemical cleaning
• Air and sand blast cleaning
• Water blast cleaning

Chemical Cleaning
Chemical cleaning uses detergents, trisodium phosphate, and

various proprietary concrete cleaners to clean the concrete
contaminated with oil, grease, or dirt. Verify that the installers
strictly follow the manufacturers' recommendations for the use
of cleaners. Verify that the workers vigorously scrub and
thoroughly rinse the substrate with water to remove all residue
from the contaminants and cleaners.
Air and Sand Blast

Cleaning
High-pressure air effectively removes loose particles and dust.

SAES-H-102 requires that the compressor has an effective oil
trap (oil and moisture separators) to avoid contamination of the
concrete surface in the preparation phase. Without an effective
oil trap, the blasting air absorbs oil and water that penetrates
into the concrete surface. It is the inspector’s responsibility to
check this item as part of a pre-blast checklist.
Sandblasting machines use compressed air to eject a high-
speed stream of sand or other abrasive materials from a nozzle.
Dust is a problem in dry sandblasting. Workers should use air-
fed helmets. Cleanup is another problem associated with dry
sandblasting. The abraded concrete and sand should be
collected in large volumes and are removed manually or with
the aid of industrial vacuum cleaners. Because of the dust and
related health problems, dry sandblasting is not used frequently.
SAES-H-102 also requires that the manufacturer's inlet and
outlet controls be removed and replaced with a “dead-man"
shut-off device so that one man can operate the blast machine
safely. When the operator releases the trigger, the blast
machine stops operating automatically. Without this automatic
shut-off device, an active high-blast air hose can injure workers
and damage equipment, if accidentally dropped.

Water Blast Cleaning
Water-jet cleaning uses low to medium-pressure water for

cleaning. A high velocity high-pressure water jet is directed
toward the concrete surface through a specially designed
nozzle. The nozzle may be hand held or mounted on a boom
that enables the nozzle to sweep back and forth across the
concrete surface as the equipment advances incrementally.
Equipment with operating pressures up to 172 MPa (25,000 psi)
is now commercially available. Verify the daily removal of
waterblasting debris to prevent it from setting up because of the
unhydrated cement in the debris.
Waterblasting has the following advantages:
• Minimum noise and no dust
• No mechanical vibrations to cause structural damage
• The concrete substrate is clean and wet.
After the concrete removal, verify the cleaning of the exposed
reinforcing steel to remove corrosion deposits. Always clean the
substrate immediately before applying the repair materials to
prevent subsequent contamination of the prepared surface.
Long delays can cause the prepared substrates to accumulate
dust and rust that will impair the bond with the repair materials.
Concrete Substrate Priming and Bonding

For most inorganic materials, a saturated surface dry substrate
will prevent rapid loss of water from the repair material to the
substrate. Rapid water loss can cause debonding, shrinkage,
and cracking. Maximum adhesion for organic (polymer)
materials is achieved when the concrete surface is dry. There
may be some dampness but no surface water is allowed to exist
when using some organic materials.
An adequate bond between the substrate and the repair
materials is a critical requirement for durable surface repairs.
You can achieve adequate bonding by placing the repair
materials directly against a properly prepared and clean
substrate. In some cases, it is advantageous to use a primer or
bonding agent. A primer or bonding agent is a substance that is
applied to a suitable substrate to create a bond between the
substrate and a succeeding layer.

Generally, bonding agents and priming systems should have the

following properties:
• Excellent adhesion to both steel and concrete surfaces
• High tensile, compressive, impact, and flexural strength
• Low modulus, to resist restrained bond stresses due to
movement
Bonding agents used to repair concrete include the following
types:
• Cement-based slurries
• Epoxies
• Latex emulsions
Cement-based
Slurries
For repair materials containing Portland cement, use a cement

or sand-based slurry as the bonding agent. A cement slurry
consists of a mixture of Portland cement and water that is mixed
to a thick, creamy consistency. A sand-cement slurry is a 1:1
mixture of Portland cement and fine sand, with enough water
added to make a stiff slurry. Some engineers prefer the sand-
cement slurry because the slurry properties are somewhat
similar to the properties of the base and the repair concretes.
After preparing the substrate and immediately before placing the
repair material, broom or brush a thin coating of "creamy" grout
vigorously and thoroughly into the prepared surface. This grout
should not exceed 2 mm (1/16 in.) in average thickness. Take
precautions that all parts of the substrate receive a thorough,
even coating and that no excess grout collects in pockets.
Carefully control the rate of application so that the grout cannot
dry before placing the repair material over it. If the grout dries
before the placing the repair material over it, the grout will act as
a bond breaker.
Epoxies
A wide variety of epoxy compounds are available for use as

bonding agents. Most epoxy bonding agents are two-part
materials that require mixing before application. After mixing,
the materials require immediate application to the substrate.
The pot lives of different compounds vary according to the

ambient temperature. Some formulations of these epoxies have

very long pot lives. Compounds with long pot lives can also
accommodate the erection and fixing of formwork.
If the application of the bonding film is continuous, epoxy agents
may serve as a waterproof membrane between the substrate
and the repair material. Waterproof membranes can be harmful
if water penetrates the surface repair material and collects at the
interface causing a bond failure.
When the repair must sustain a constant load, avoid the use of
epoxies because they have poor creep properties and should be
avoided. Epoxy bonding agents should meet the requirements
of ASTM C 881 and ACI 503.
Latex Emulsions
Polymer emulsion bonding agents used in concrete repair

materials include the following latex products:
• Styrene butadiene (SBR)
• Acrylic
• Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
In addition to their use as bonding agents, these materials may
also serve as a base to produce polymer mortars and
concretes.
Latex bonding agents usually contain 25% to 50% resin
dispersed in water. Apply the latex bonding agents using a
brush or spray applied to a pre-dampened substrate surface.
The substrate surface should not be wet or there should not be
ponded water. If the workers permit a latex emulsion to dry after
being applied to the substrate, the substrate must be re-coated
before application of the repair material. Failure to recoat the
substrate could cause the dry bonding agent to act as a bond
breaker.
Do not choose Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) for use in structural
applications because of the inability of the formed film to resist
moisture. PVA may re-emulsify after being subjected to wet-dry
cycles. This alternating moisture cycle will eventually cause
loss of bond.

Testing and Test Methods for Bonding Agents

There are several different test methods that the engineer can
use to evaluate the effectiveness of a bonding agent. The two
most commonly used tests are as follows:
• The Slant Shear Test
• The Direct Tensile Method
The Slant Shear Test was illustrated in Figure 2 and the Direct
Tensile Method was illustrated in Figure 3 Another direct tensile
test uses a briquette (which is also referred to as a "dog bone"
specimen) to determine the direct tensile strength of cement
mortar. Figure 11 illustrates the briquette specimen.
Perform this test by first breaking the mortar at the minimum
cross-sectional area. Treat one-half of the broken face with the
bonding agent being used on the repair area. Place the treated
half of the briquette back into the mold. Fill the other half of the
mold with the repair mortar and allow the material to harden.
Cure the specimen according to the manufacturer's
recommendations. When the mortar and bonding agent achieve
the required strength, place the briquette in a tensile testing
machine and apply the required tensile load.
76 mm (3.00 in.)
44 mm (1.75 in.)
Figure 11. Briquette for the Tension Test of Mortar

Failure may occur as follows:

• In the repair material
• In the old mortar
• At the bond line
Calculate the bond strength as the load at failure divided by the
cross-sectional area at the failure plane. Unless failure occurs
through the bonding agent or on the bond line, the reported
value is not a true indication of the bond strength of the bonding
agent.
Protection of Reinforcing Steel

The engineer usually finds corroded reinforcing steel in
conjunction with concrete delamination and spalling.
Delamination and spalling occur when heavy rust layers build up
on the corroded reinforcing steel.
This section explains the following procedures for protection of
reinforcing steel:
• Preparation of the corroded bars
• Use of cement-based repair materials, with and without
primer
• Cathodic protection
Preparation
Removal of the oxide buildup from the reinforcing bars is

important to the long-term success of surface repairs.
Experience demonstrates that the majority of severe corrosion
in slabs takes place on the underside of the top steel layer.
Concentration of corrosion under the top steel layer occurs for
these reasons:
• Lack of consolidation when placing the concrete
• Concrete settlement under the bars
• Entrapment of bleed water

Proper cleaning of corroded bars requires the removal of

concrete from the area surrounding each bar and the removal of
all scale and loose rust. Wire brushing is not a very good
cleaning method because it tends to polish the steel rather than
remove heavy deposits. Sand- and water-blasting are better
ways to remove scale and rust. The engineer should require the
replacement of those bars with excessive corrosion.
If the reinforcing steel has lost more than 25% of its cross-
section (or 20%, if two or more adjacent bars are affected), the
engineer should require the repair of the reinforcing steel.
Reinforcing steel repair may consist of complete bar
replacement or the addition of a supplemental bar over the
affected length. The new bar may be spliced mechanically to the
affected bar, or the new bar may be placed parallel to the
existing bar. The splice (or "lap") length should be in accordance
with ACI 318.
The complete removal of concrete from the vicinity surrounding
the reinforcing steel provides the following benefits:
• Removes contaminated concrete
• Repair materials surround the steel
• Repair material is anchored to the substrate behind the
steel.
Without Primer
Some repair specialists believe that cement-based repair

materials will establish a passivating film on the cleaned rebar
providing sufficient protection to the steel in the repaired
concrete. Laboratory evaluations of cement-based repair
materials with unprimed reinforcing steel indicate that these
materials can provide excellent protection to the steel in the
repair zone. However, using this repair technique may
accelerate corrosion of the steel in the surrounding concrete.
Accelerated corrosion in the surrounding concrete is thought to
occur when the bars in the patched area act as a cathode to the
bars in the surrounding area that have become a corroding
anode. Small patch areas are unlikely to affect, significantly, the
acceleration of corrosion in the surrounding concrete. However,
with large patch areas, the new cathode-to-anode relationship
may increase the corrosion rate in the surrounding concrete and
accelerate the formation of new delaminations.

When unprimed bars are surrounded by resin-based repair

mortars, a high alkaline environment does not form in the
patched area, and corrosion within the repair area can occur. In
this case, the reinforcing steel outside the repair area will
become cathodic and the rate of corrosion outside the patched
area will decrease.
Cement Slurry
Primers
The engineer can recommend the application of either cement-

based slurries or polymer-modified cement slurries to the
cleaned reinforcing steel immediately before placement of the
repair material. The alkaline slurry coating enhances the alkaline
environment around the bar and creates a passivating film on
the reinforcing steel. Cement slurry primers may create effects
similar to the effects created by concrete surrounding the
unprimed reinforcing bars.
When the placement of the repair material is delayed after the
application of the cement slurry to the reinforcing steel, the
slurry can dry and harden. This dry and hardened layer acts as
a bond breaker.
With Epoxy Primer
In a repaired concrete patch, some repair specialists argue that

by insulating the steel from the electrical currents in the
surrounding concrete, the performance improves. Coating the
rebar with epoxy primer is the best way to insulate the steel.
When using new bars, fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) provides the
best protection.
One hundred percent coverage of exposed bars is practically
impossible to achieve when applying the epoxy in the field.
Intersections and the backsides of the bars are the most difficult
areas to coat completely. Encapsulation will work well when all
the bars in the repair area are protected. However, when the
bars are only partially coated, either within the repair area or
adjacent to the repair area, electrical currents can become
concentrated in the unprotected areas and accelerated
corrosion may develop.

Laboratory evaluations of zinc-rich epoxy resins have shown

that these coatings offer excellent protection to the rebar, both
in the repair area and in the surrounding concrete. The zinc
coating supports electrical contact between the rebar and the
active zinc. The zinc acts as an anode that is "sacrificed" to
protect the steel. The zinc provides protection to the steel, even
when scratches or holidays occur in the coating.
The protective value of a zinc-rich epoxy coating will be
proportional to its thickness. However, a relatively thin coating
will provide a considerable amount of protection because the
corrosion rate of zinc is approximately 1/40 the corrosion rate of
steel. Thick coatings may reduce the bond between the rebar
and the concrete; this reduction does not permit the rebar and
concrete to act together to resist applied loads.
Cathodic Protection
The engineer can protect the reinforcing steel from electrical

currents that cause corrosion by recommending cathodic
protection.
To achieve cathodic protection, install anodes on or near the
concrete surface. Apply an electrical current to the circuit to
cause the anodes to corrode and protect the reinforcing steel.
Cathodic protection is effective when the reinforcing steel is
electrically continuous. If the reinforcing steel is not electrically
continuous, acceleration of the corrosion of the rebar may occur
in some areas.
Crack and Joint Repair

There are two types of cracks: static and active (dynamic). The
static crack is inactive and the dynamic crack is active.
The engineers must fully understand the causes and extent of
the damage before repairing and reinstating cracked concrete.
They must consider the effect that the selected repair method
and material will have on the structure after completion of the
repair work. For example, the use of a rigid epoxy to repair an
active crack may only lead to further damage.

Always expect some minor concrete cracking. Fine cracks,

having no structural impact or moisture ingress, may best be left
unrepaired. Recommend a surface sealing system for shallow
shrinkage cracks that are not affecting the reinforcing steel.
Consider the cracks for possible repair for the following reasons:
• The cracks are aesthetically unacceptable
• The cracks make the structure non-watertight
• The cracks affect the durability of the structure
• The cracks are structurally significant
If the decision is to repair a crack, make an evaluation as to
whether the crack is static or dynamic. Make this evaluation
before selecting the repair material and repair technique. The
evaluation may favor converting a dynamic crack into an
expansion joint, especially if there is progressive crack
movement. Also, decide whether to restore the cracked
concrete to its original integrity or merely seal the crack to
prevent water penetration.
The selected crack repair method should achieve one or more
of the following objectives:
• Improve the appearance of the concrete surface.
• Improve water-tightness.
• Improve durability.
• Reinstate the structural integrity of the element.
• Prevent the ingress of materials that promote corrosion.
Crack repair methods usually do not hide a crack and, in many
cases, crack repairs will accentuate the crack. If aesthetics are
important, the application of a suitable coating to the entire
surface after the repair is complete will usually restore an
acceptable visual appearance.
Static Crack
Static cracks remain unchanged in width and filling them with a
rigid material is possible. Non-recurring events cause the
formation of static cracks and the causal event does not
reoccur. For example, plastic shrinkage can cause static cracks
but once the shrinkage is complete, it will not reoccur. Some of
the methods of repairing static cracks are as follows:
• Capping the crack

• Gravity sealing
• Routing and sealing
• Grouting
• Drypacking
Capping the Crack
The engineer may use this repair technique to inhibit the ingress
of moisture and chemicals to prevent additional deterioration. A
common method of repairing individual cracks is surface sealing
with cement or resin-based low viscosity grout.
Fill the cracks that are wider than 1 mm (0.040 in) with a
cement-based grout or slurry using a brush, knife, or scraper
blade. Remember that cracks often taper into the concrete;
therefore, this method will generally leave a void below the
repaired crack. Figure 12 illustrates the "capping the crack”
method and the void that forms below the repair.
Crack repair
mortor
Void
Figure 12. Capping the Crack
A small break in the repair can allow moisture to enter and

move along the crack. Therefore, do not recommend this
method where the crack could reach the reinforcing steel and
allow moisture ingress to cause corrosion.

The engineer should require the removal of all debris and

fractured concrete from the crack before capping the crack.
Recommend the use of an industrial vacuum cleaner, wire
brush, or oil-free compressed air to clean the crack.
A Portland cement mortar that incorporates a polymer or latex
emulsion, such as acrylic or styrene butadiene, is a good repair
mortar. Cement or resin-based proprietary repair products are
available from companies that specialize in the formulation of
concrete repair products.
Gravity Sealing
This method involves pouring a low viscosity grouting material

(usually epoxy resin) directly into a horizontal crack. Gravity
sealing usually seals only wide cracks (1 mm (0.040 in.) or
greater), although cracks as narrow as 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) have
been sealed satisfactorily through the use of gravity sealing.
Use this method to solve the same problems listed for the
"capping the crack” method.
Preparation of the crack for gravity sealing is similar to the crack
preparation outlined for the "capping" crack method. After
cleaning the crack, pour the grout repair material into the crack.
Two or more applications may be necessary to fill the crack
completely, especially on decks or slabs that are not flat and
level. To improve the penetration of the grout, create a reservoir
along the crack to hold the grout by forming temporary bunds
(embankments). When the crack can contain no more liquid
grout, remove the surplus material and temporary bunds.
Route and Seal

Technique
In the route and seal crack repair techniques, the installers must
route or chase the crack along the crack length to open the top
of the crack to approximately 10-12 mm (3/8-1/2 in.). This
technique requires filling the routed crack with a suitable filler
material. Recommend the use of the route and seal crack repair
method to seal the cracks against the ingress of moisture and
aggressive chemicals, and to prevent further deterioration of the
cracks. Do not recommend this system for repairs that must
restore the structural integrity of a structural member.

For small horizontal crack repair projects, recommend chasing

the crack with a cold chisel and hammer, or a hand-held
concrete saw. For large horizontal crack repair projects,
recommend crack-routing equipment or special concrete saws.
Be sure that the entire crack is chased, or routed. Patch and
seal all the cracks that extend through a patched area. Failure
to follow the crack throughout the entire crack length could
cause the patch to crack later and cause a maintenance
problem.
Recommend the removal of all dust and debris from the routed
crack before sealing the crack. Use an industrial vacuum
cleaner; otherwise, oil-free compressed air may be used. If wet
sawing methods are used to route the crack, recommend
washing the crack clean of contamination immediately after
sawing. Remove any dried cement slurry with grinding
equipment or rotary wire brushes to verify that the repair
material can bond to the substrate.
To fill the chased crack or route, recommend trowelling a
mortar-consistency repair material into the crack, or fill the crack
by using the gravity seal method.
Grouting
When the installers use grouting or injection techniques to repair

cracks, they drill holes at close intervals along the crack. They
then install injection nipples at these holes and seal the surface
of the crack between injection ports. Using pressure, they inject
the grout into the crack through the injection nipples.
The engineers usually select epoxy resins for crack injection
because these materials have high mechanical strength and
good chemical resistance. There are many proprietary products
on the market that have low viscosity to penetrate and seal very
fine cracks. Resin can be injected into cracks as narrow as 0.05
mm (0.002 in.); half the thickness of a human hair.
Recommend the use of grouting to repair structural cracks in
order to restore the structural soundness of the element, and to
seal leaking cracks. Sealing leaking cracks requires a
specialized epoxy formulations and a high degree of skill that
only specialist contractors possess. Be sure that the installers
meet these qualifications.

Injection equipment varies from the basic, hand-held caulking

gun to more sophisticated automatic injection equipment. The
simplest hand-held gun holds a cartridge of premixed epoxy.
The gun operates manually or pneumatically. Hand-held guns
are only suitable for relatively small jobs or for projects in which
a number of small cracks require sealing. For large jobs,
recommend a compressed-air pressure pot for use. The
installers mix the epoxy materials before filling the pot. They
close the pot and pressurize it with compressed air. They
control the flow of grout with a valve at the nozzle end of the
delivery hose. Pressure pots are designed for a steady flow of
material at a constant pressure. These pots are suitable for
injection of moderate amounts of grout. The pot life of the epoxy
must be long enough to avoid viscosity buildup and blockage of
the crack.
There are several types of automatic injection equipment used
to pump the pre-proportioned resins and hardeners to a mixing
head at or near the injection port. The operator can adjust the
rates of delivery and control the flow at the point of injection.
With this type of equipment, the pot life of a material is not
important because mixing takes place at the injection nozzle.
Dry Packing
This technique is accomplished by placing a low W/C ratio

mortar into a routed crack. The placement is done by hand with
the aid of wooden tools. Before starting dry pack repair,
recommend routing the crack at the surface to form a slot that is
25 mm (1 in.) wide and 25 mm (1 in.) deep. Verify the cleaning
of any debris from the slot and the coating of the cavity surfaces
with a bonding agent immediately before placing the dry pack
material. Apply the bond coat either pneumatically or by
brushing the coat into the surface. Mix the dry pack mortar just
before placing it.
Hand tamp the dry pack material into place in layers not thicker
than 10 mm (3/8 in.). Recommend wood tamping because wood
tools produce a superior bonding surface. To finish the mortar,
place the side of a hardwood block against the filled crack and
strike it several times with a hammer. Use a curing compound to
cure the placed material, or a strip of wet burlap supported
along the length of the crack to promote curing.

These repair methods are for the repair of static cracks. If the
installers use these repair methods for active cracks, either the
repair material will crack, or a new crack will develop in the
parent concrete in the vicinity of the original crack.
Dynamic Crack
Dynamic (active) cracks do not remain constant in width, but

open and close as the structure is loaded or as thermal and
moisture changes occur in the concrete. Either the repair
materials must be flexible enough to allow crack movement, or
eliminate the movement. Recommend the usage of flexible
sealing or stitching for the repair of active cracks.
Flexible Sealing
When using flexible sealing, an active crack becomes a

movement joint. The installers cut a recess along the line of the
crack, and fill the recess with a flexible material. The width of
the recess and the strain capacity of the sealing material
determine the amount of movement that the joint will
accommodate. Use the manufacturer’s recommendations to
determine the shape (width and depth) of the recess. ACI 504
provides additional information for the selection of suitable
shape factors, sealants, and methods of installation.
After the routing of the active crack, the engineer should require
the cleaning of the crack using sandblasting, water jet, or air jet.
When the crack is clean, install a bond breaker at the bottom of
the recess so that the sealant will not flow into the crack. The
bond breaker will allow the sealant to change shape and will not
cause a concentration of stresses on the bottom of the sealant.
Figure 13 illustrates the effect of a bond breaker in dynamic
crack repair.
The bond breaker may be a polyethylene strip, pressure-
sensitive tape, or any other material that will not bond to the
sealant while the cure is in process. Of the many bond breaker
materials available, only closed-cell, foamed, polyethylene rod
can be used safely with all types of sealant.

No Bond Breaker
Sealant
Crack Closed Crack Open
With Bond Breaker
Sealant
Bond
Breaker
Crack Closed Crack Open
Figure 13. Effect of a Bond Breaker
The sealant should be a high range elastomeric sealant, which

includes materials such as silicones, urethanes, polysulfides,
solvent release acrylics, and certain proprietary compounds.
These products are designed for working or moving joints
(movement of ±10 to 40% of joint width). Sealants should resist
infiltration of debris and water into the crack, exhibit long-lasting
extensibility, and bond to the sides of the joint recess. Consult
the sealant manufacturers for technical information on sealant
properties. Some of the important properties are as follows:
• Adhesion
• Cohesion
• Hardness
• Modulus of elasticity
• Stress relaxation
• Compression set
• Resistance to weather
• Application characteristics

Stitching
When using the stitching method, the installers drill holes on

both sides of the crack and grout the stitching dogs in place to
span the crack. Stitching dogs are U-shaped metal units with
short legs, as illustrated in Figure 14. The crack is repaired with
a rigid resin material. The stitches that span the crack are often
recessed into closed grooves on both sides of the crack.
Recommend a non-shrink grout or an epoxy-based adhesive to
anchor the legs of the dogs.
Stitching dogs
Crack
Holes drilled
in Concrete
Figure 14. Stitching Concrete

Recommend stitching when the tensile strength must be re-

established across major cracks. Although stitching will not
close a crack, it provides a means to stop the movement of an
active crack and does not allow the crack to spread further.
Stitching a crack stiffens the structure locally and may
accentuate the overall structural restraint. This restraint may
cause the concrete to crack elsewhere. Therefore, recommend
stitching only when the restraint of the live crack will not cause
damage elsewhere in the structure. Where there is a water
problem and the crack is leaking, recommend sealing the crack
watertight before stitching it to protect the dogs from corrosion.
Some situations require stabilizing the structure before making
the crack watertight because movement may break the sealant
material within the crack.
In the stitching procedure, the installers drill holes on both sides
of the crack. They clean the holes, and anchor the legs of the
dogs in the holes using either a non-shrink grout or an epoxy-
resin-based bonding system. Vary the length and orientation of
the stitching dogs. Locate the stitching dogs so that the tension
that is transmitted across the crack is not applied to a single
plane within the section, but is spread over the whole area.
Because stress concentrations occur at the ends of cracks,
reduce the spacing of stitching at such locations. Drill a hole at
each end of the crack to blunt it and to relieve the concentration
of stress.
If the area is too large to use the stitching method, and if the
cracks must be closed, the stressing technique can be used.
First, the installers embed rods or cables in the distressed
concrete. Next, they stress the rods or cables to a
predetermined tension. Finally, they anchor the rods or cables.
Verify that a knowledgeable installer performs this procedure to
prevent the reappearance of the distress elsewhere in the
structure.
Repair of Disintegrated Concrete

The repair of disintegrated concrete may involve one or more of
the following techniques and materials:
• Patching
• Concrete replacement
• Traditional concrete
• Cement-based repair materials

• Polymer mortars and concretes

• Shotcrete
Patching
Patching refers to the restoration of relatively small areas of

damage to the profile of the surrounding concrete. Recommend
repair of spalls and other surface irregularities by hand-applied,
poured, or placed techniques.
Recommend hand-applied techniques to place non-sag repair
materials (cementitious or polymer) on vertical or overhead
locations. Most hand-applied materials are special blends of
cement, finely graded aggregates, non-sag fillers, shrinkage-
compensating systems, and water. The installers apply the
mixed materials to the prepared surface with a trowel or by
hand. The hand-applied pressure drives the repair material into
the pores of the substrate. The installers usually apply the repair
materials in layers. They make each layer rough to promote the
bond with the next layer. When encountering reinforcing steel, it
is very difficult to consolidate the repair materials behind the
rebar and provide complete encapsulation of the rebar.
Table 6 shows the advantages and disadvantages of hand-
applied patching.
Easy to use. Voids can form around embedded rebars.
Small quantities of materials can be Poor bond between layers.

mixed at one time.
Limited working time.
Materials with high shrinkage may crack and

debond.
Table 6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hand-applied Patching Materials

Poured and placed techniques are used to place flowable

materials (cementitious or polymer) in horizontal locations.
These techniques may also be used in vertical and overhead
locations if a formwork is provided.
The consistency of a poured material is much higher than the
consistency of a placed material. Most pourable materials are
formulated to be extremely flowable and self-consolidating.
Pourable materials are poured into the prepared cavity in the
substrate and left to harden. Materials that are placed, instead
of poured, into the prepared cavity must be consolidated by
vibration or rodding techniques.
Poured and placed techniques have the advantages and
disadvantages shown in Table 7.
Materials are easily placed. Generally higher shrinkage.
Longer working time. Formwork is required for vertical and

overhead repairs.
Consolidation is required for placeable mixes.
Properties differ from the substrate.
Generally expensive.
Table 7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Poured or Placed Repair Techniques
Concrete
Replacement
When concrete is to be replaced, the defective part is replaced

with a new cementitious or polymer concrete that is placed in a
conventional manner. If the repair material is a cementitious
concrete that has mix proportions and properties similar to the
parent concrete, the repair material is referred to as "traditional
concrete." Traditional concrete is discussed in the next section.
Replacement of defective concrete is a satisfactory and
economical solution if the following situations all exist:

• The volume of material to be replaced is relatively large

• The repair is several centimeters (inches) deep and extends
beyond the reinforcement
• The area that is to be repaired is accessible. Considerable
concrete removal is always required for concrete
replacements.
Repair by replacement is necessary for situations in which a
watertight construction is required or in which the deterioration
extends all the way through the original concrete section. Piers,
walls, columns, hydraulic structures, and similar heavy
structures above grade and at water level are the usual areas of
application.
If economically justified, the replacement of concrete is probably
one of the best repair methods with respect to durability and
soundness of the repaired work. The new section can be
reinforced and made self-sustaining. With proper construction
and contraction joints, and through the use of water-stops, the
repair can be rendered substantially watertight. Thin sections,
which may be troublesome when the temperature changes, are
avoided. In fact, the greater thickness reduces the magnitude
and frequency of temperature variations in the underlying parent
mass and, most important, at the interface between the new and
repaired concrete.
Concrete replacement may be achieved through the use of one
of these methods: form and cast-in-place or form and pump.
Form and Cast-in-

place
This technique follows the traditional method of concrete

construction. Formwork is erected around the cavity to be filled.
The repair concrete is placed and consolidated to follow normal
concrete placement procedures. However, the formed surfaces
make the placement of bonding agents difficult. In some cases,
it is difficult to completely fill a vertical cavity, and drypacking
must be applied at the top of the section as a final step after the
repair material has hardened.
A major advantage of the form and cast-in-place repair method
is that the construction procedures are well known.
Form and Pump

Method

It is a relatively new repair technique that has been developed

within the last 20 years. The form and pump repair method is a
two-step process. First, the formwork is constructed; then, the
repair material is pumped into the cavity that is bounded by the
formwork and the existing concrete. Prior to erection of the
formwork, any surfaces that may cause air to be entrapped
during the pumping process must be trimmed, or vent tubes
may be installed. Then, the formwork is erected around the
prepared cavity. The formwork must be designed to
accommodate the weight and pressure of the repair material.
The filling material is always pumped from the low points to the
high points unless the process is performed overhead. In
overhead operations, the material is pumped from one extremity
to the other. When the cavity is full, pump pressure is exerted
on the form to cause the repair material to consolidate and bond
with the substrate.
The form and pump technique has the advantages and
Traditional Concrete
Traditional concrete refers to a cementitious repair concrete of

conventional proportions that has properties similar to the
parent concrete (substrate). If the parent concrete was of
inferior quality, a similar material should not be used for the
repair work. In cases of inferior quality concrete, the repair
material should have properties that meet the structural and
durability requirements of the element under repair.
The use of normal concrete as a repair material has the
following advantages:
• Proportions of the new concrete can be made to resemble
the proportion of the section under repair.
• Incompatibilities between the new and old concretes can be
reduced.
• Damage that is caused by temperature changes is reduced.
• Damage that is caused by moisture changes is reduced.
• Differential elastic or inelastic strains are reduced.
Traditional concrete is normally produced, placed, consolidated,
and cured through the use of conventional procedures.

Concrete replacement is usually achieved through the use of

the form and cast-in-place technique.
Almost any repair material can be The substrate must be carefully prepared to
used. ensure that air entrapment is avoided.
Placement is not limited by the depth Vent pipes may be required.

of repair or by the size and density of
the exposed reinforcement.
Repair materials are premixed and Formwork must be tight and designed for the
continuously placed. weight and pressure of the repair material.
All materials are supported by Pumping equipment must be matched with

formwork as the material is placed the type of repair material and the size of the
and cured repair project.
Pressure consolidates the repair Repair materials must have good

material and provides full pumpability.
encapsulation of exposed rebar.
Formwork protects the repair material Repair materials must retain their workability
while it cures. until the cavity has been filled.
Bonding agents are difficult to use.
Polymer materials are expensive.
Table 8. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Form and Pump

Method of Concrete Replacement

Cement-based Repair
Materials
The uses, advantages, and disadvantages of cement-based

repair materials were discussed in the section titled Repair
Materials. Cement-based repair materials can be Portland
cement concrete or mortar. Concrete is most often used to
replace complete sections and to fill deep cavities that extend
beyond the reinforcing bars. Portland cement mortars are
generally used in the following situations:
• When the repairs are too shallow to accommodate the
coarse aggregate in concrete, and
• When the fluidity of grout is not required.
Polymer Mortars and

Concrete
The uses, advantages, and disadvantages of polymer-based

mortars and concretes were discussed in the section titled
Repair Materials. Polymer Portland cement concrete or mortars
are mixtures that contain latex or epoxy emulsions. When
compared to cement-based repair materials, these mixtures
exhibit greater bond strength, faster curing characteristics,
improved tensile strength and flexibility, increased chemical
resistance, and lower permeability.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete refers to a mortar or concrete that is pneumatically

projected at high velocity onto a prepared surface. Shotcrete
can be applied through the use of either a "dry mix" or "wet mix"
process.
In the dry mix process, the cement and sand are premixed and
transferred through a hose in a stream of compressed air to a
nozzle. At the nozzle, water is injected and mixed with the
material as the material exits at high velocity. The water content
can be adjusted at the nozzle. The dampened material is jetted
from the nozzle onto the prepared surface.

Dry admixtures, such as steel fibers, polypropylene fibers, silica

fume, accelerators, and latex, may be introduced into the
premix. Liquid admixtures, such as accelerators and liquid latex,
may be added at the nozzle. Accelerators have been shown to
increase drying shrinkage and to reduce shotcrete strength over
time. Chemical accelerators should be avoided unless they are
absolutely necessary.
The high impact force at which the material is applied compacts
it to form a dense concrete that has the following properties:
• Very high bond strength.
• High compressive strength of 35-50 MPa (5075 to 7250 psi).
• Low permeability.
• Low absorption.
• Low shrinkage.
Formwork is generally not required for shotcrete repairs.
In the wet mix process, a predetermined amount of cement,
aggregate, and water is batched, mixed, and transferred to a
pump. The concrete is pumped along a flexible hose to a
discharge nozzle and projected at high velocity onto the surface
that is under repair. A rapid setting admixture is commonly
added at the nozzle to enable buildup of thick layers. In the wet
process, the nozzleman only controls the material placement. In
the dry mix process, the nozzleman also controls the water
content and, therefore, the consistency of the mixture.
Dry mix shotcrete has the advantages and disadvantages
shown in Table 9.
Wet mix shotcrete has the advantages and disadvantages
shown in Table 10.
Moist curing is essential for shotcrete. Quick drying promotes
cracking that is caused by shrinkage. Cracking can be reduced
through the use of steel fibers or polymer latex.

Excellent bond Requires specially-trained workers
Very low shrinkage Quality is dependent on workers
Easily placed Unsuitable where excessive rebar congestion

exists
Shrinkage cracking is caused by high cement

content, improper curing, or excessive water
content
Table 9. Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry-mix Shotcrete
Easily placed Diminished bond to reinforcement
High placement rates Greater shrinkage potential
Requires accelerators which increase

shrinkage and pose a health hazard
Requires specially-trained workers
The tendency for the repair material to sag
Table 10. Advantages and Disadvantages of wet-mix Shotcrete
Pre-placed Aggregate
Concrete
Pre-placed aggregate concrete (PAC) is another useful repair

technique. PAC involves a two-step process. First, graded
coarse aggregate is placed into the repair cavity while the
formwork is erected. Then, a highly flowable grout is pumped
through the formwork and into the preplaced aggregate.

PAC was originally developed for structural repairs primarily

because PAC exhibits low setting shrinkage, good bond to the
substrate, and reduced drying shrinkage. PAC is used in vertical
or overhead structures and can be produced in either thick or
thin sections, under water or above ground. PAC is especially
useful for repairs in locations in which it is difficult to maneuver
construction equipment. The PAC method is used for situations
such as underwater, in which placing conditions are difficult and
low volume change is required.
In PAC restoration, the deteriorated concrete is removed and
the concrete substrate is cleaned to provide a good mechanical
bond. Before the aggregate is placed in the formwork, 19 to 25
mm (3/4 to 1 in.) diameter grouting pipes are installed. Proper
design and arrangement of pipes are necessary to ensure the
successful placement of the grout.
After the grouting pipes have been installed, the coarse
aggregate is placed in the designated area. To provide proper
flow and distribution of the grout, the maximum size of
aggregate is usually restricted to 12.5 mm (1/2 in.). To ensure a
good bond between the grout and the stone, the aggregate
must be clean, and all dust, grit, fines, and clay that have
adhered to the aggregate must be removed. The grouting
should be completed as soon as possible after the aggregate is
in place. The rate at which the grout is used should be in
accordance with the form design, the setting time of the grout,
pumping temperatures, and other job requirements.
The primary functions of the grout are to fill voids in the
aggregate, to bind the aggregate together as the mixture
hardens, and to consolidate the entire mass. Grout mixtures
consist of Portland cement, sand, supplementary cementing
materials, water, and admixtures. ASTM C 939 Standard Test
Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete
(Flow Cone Method) is used to determine the flow value of the
grout. Flow values of approximately 12 to 24 seconds may
indicate a suitable grout consistency. However, specific grout
consistency requirements may be based on experience or field
tests.

Grout is usually introduced at the lowest points of the formwork

to prevent the formation of entrapped air pockets. More than
one injection point is usually required. All pumping should be
done slowly to permit the grout to fill all the voids. Pumping
pressures of 0.069 to 0.103 MPa (10 to 15 psi) are generally
required. When pumping has proceeded to the top of the form,
pressure is usually monitored for 1 hour to ensure the removal
of any excess water. The pressure of the grout on the forms is
assumed to increase 0.0069 MPa (1 psi) for each 30 cm (1 ft) of
depth. Vents must be provided at high points in the formwork to
allow air to escape as the formwork is filled with the grout.
Pre-placed aggregate concrete has the advantages and
Low setting shrinkage. Requires skilled operators.
Good bond to substrate. Relatively high water content.
More time-consuming than pumping

conventional concrete.
Table 11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pre-placed Aggregate Concrete
Curing Practices
Cementitious repair materials must be properly cured to prevent

the evaporation of the mixing water, which can cause plastic
shrinkage cracking, drying shrinkage cracking, reduced
compressive strength, and reduced durability. The following two
approaches are used to ensure satisfactory moisture content:
• Continuous and frequent application of water.
• Prevention of excessive water loss, usually by the
application of a membrane-forming compound.

Curing, like proper substrate preparation, is necessary for good

cementitious repair material performance. Negligence of curing
can defeat all the care taken in proper preparation and
workmanship. Consult ACI 308 for detailed information on
curing of cementitious mixtures.
Polymer-modified materials are generally self-curing unless
drying conditions are hot and windy, in which case the material
should be covered by damp burlap. The manufacturers of the
polymer materials should be consulted before wet curing
techniques are used because wet curing is not universally
recommended for all repair materials. This precaution is
especially applicable to some polymer-modified and/or rapid-
setting materials.
Polymer Portland cement materials generally require 24 to 48
hours of wet curing that is followed by a 72-hour drying period
before the structure can be put into service.
The following publications provide additional information on the
curing of polymer materials:
• ACI 548.1
• ACI 548.3R.
• ACI 548.4

SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE SURFACE TREATMENT

No single coating will have all of the desired properties, but
there are many types of coatings that can be formulated to
enhance the characteristics that are required for a particular
application. Within any coating type, there are several products,
some of which may be unsuitable for the intended application.
When a coating is under consideration, the prospective user
should seek the advice of a trusted supplier.
An organized approach to the selection of the most appropriate
surface treatment would consist of the following steps:
• Definition of service conditions.
• Determination of required application properties.
• Equipment required.
• Practical considerations (maintenance issues).
• Tests of candidate materials
• Test reports.
• Selection of qualified contractor/installer.
• Job specification.
Identifying The Need For Treatment

Concrete repair materials are selected on the basis of the
following factors:
• The physical and chemical properties of these materials.
• The function that the engineer plans to impose on the
materials.
• The nature of the environment in which the materials will be
used.
If the correct material has been chosen, there is no need to
apply a surface treatment or coating to protect the repaired
area. However, if the area that includes the repaired section will
be subjected to moisture, chlorides, carbon dioxide, harmful
chemicals, ultra-violet (UV) exposure, or physical or mechanical
attack, a surface treatment may be appropriate for both the
repaired and unrepaired areas.

Most protection treatments are applied to protect the concrete.

All protection treatments are not necessarily designed to provide
a visually attractive surface. If aesthetics are important, give
special consideration to a protective system providing an
attractive surface. If aesthetics are not important, give
consideration to the application of additional treatments.
The properties that influence the performance of surface
protection systems include the following:
• Durability
• Chemical resistance
• UV resistance
• Adhesion
• Moisture vapor transmission capability
• Ease of application
• Thermal compatibility
• Tensile strength
• Hardness and abrasion resistance
• Porosity and permeability
Factors That Affect Treatment

The following factors should be considered in the selection of a
protection treatment:
• Condition of the substrate
• Exposure to moisture
• Exposure to the environment
• Exposure to chemicals
• Exposure to physical or mechanical attack
• Requirement for cleanability
• Special considerations

Conditions of the
Substrate
The conditions of the concrete surface can limit the choice of a

suitable surface treatment. Thin film coatings will not hide some
profile irregularities and may not provide an acceptable
aesthetic appearance.
A weak and friable surface can fail under a coating, which may
also cause the coating to fail. Cracked surfaces may result from
using heavy breakers to remove the deteriorated concrete.
Exposure to Moisture
The ability to reduce water absorption varies significantly for

some treatments. The designer must know if the system must
withstand total immersion in water, or frequent soaking and
cleaning. The designer must also know if the surface treatment
must allow moisture vapor to be transmitted through and out of
the slab.
Moisture in the substrate may influence the coating bond,
especially in cases of coatings that do not breathe. Breathable
sealers that are fully cured may transmit moisture vapor but will
often not be able to withstand rising moisture vapor from a
substrate during application. Verify that the substrate is allowed
to dry if water-cleaning or water-blasting techniques have been
used to prepare the surface. The adhesion and integrity of some
protection systems in service can be disrupted by moisture
vapor, especially under freezing and thawing conditions.
Exposure to the
Environment
Many surface treatments are only suited for an enclosed

environment. If protection from an exposed environment is
required, make a careful evaluation of the product's resistance
to moisture ingress, ultra violet exposure, chemical attack, and
compatibility with the substrate as temperature changes occur.

Exposure to
Chemicals
Many surface treatments are designed to protect concrete from

harmful chemicals that could cause deterioration as a result of
the alkaline, permeable, and the reactive nature of the substrate
materials. If a treatment may be exposed to potential chemical
spills, or if chemical cleaning preparations are to be used,
contact the manufacturer for advice. The engineer should fully
evaluate the concentration and temperatures of the cleaning
chemicals. The degree of exposure to chemicals is also
important because occasional spillage may be considered as
detrimental as the conditions of frequent immersion.
Exposure to Physical
and Mechanical
Attack
Evaluate the performance of surface treatments that will be

exposed to abrasive, impact, and point loading conditions.
Some systems may provide an extremely tough surface, but
continual abrasion may wear through a thin coating very quickly.
Discuss the optimum thickness of the surface treatment with the
manufacturer.
Requirement for
Cleanability
If hygiene conditions are important, examine the ability of a

treatment to provide a cleanable surface. For example, a
treatment (sealer) may be suitable to prevent floor dusting, but
the treatment may not be able to block the ingress of
contamination. If steam cleaning is required, evaluate the
treatment's porosity (for unsealed systems) and resistance to
thermal shock. Many environments in the hydrocarbon
processing plants require a surface protection system that can
be decontaminated.

Special
Considerations
The primary function of a surface protection system is to protect

the surface. The protection system may not necessarily provide
a visually attractive surface. If aesthetics are important, special
consideration should be given to the application of additional
treatments (such as painting), or to the use of dual-purpose
systems.
Many facilities may have heavy equipment in place that cannot
be removed easily or dismantled before a surface treatment.
Other access restrictions may also constrain the type of
preparation system that can be used. Evaluate fully the
limitations that these conditions impose on the application and
performance of a surface treatment. Make plans for these
factors at the time of surface treatment selection.
During application, many systems, especially those containing
volatile solvents, produce obnoxious odors and fumes. Some
systems provide varying degrees of toxic exposure, although
most systems tend to be harmless when fully cured. Evaluate
these problems, as appropriate.
The speed at which a concrete surface can be returned to use is
an important factor in many facilities and may often dictate an
expensive system to be selected over a more economical
alternative.
When considering the economics of alternative surface
treatments, do not overlook the maintenance issues and the
economics of maintenance. Planners often overlook these
factors. A high performance topping can sometimes provide a
more economical long-term solution than cheaper coating
materials. High-build coatings may prove more economical than
thin-film coatings.
Before selecting a surface treatment, find out from the
manufacturer, the maintenance techniques and practices
necessary to ensure long-lasting life and effective performance.
There are no standards or codes that cover the application of
repair materials.
Surface Treatment Classifications

Different surface treatments accomplish different objectives.

Select the surface treatment based upon those objectives.
Before determining what treatment to select, it is important to
know the classifications of surface treatments and the design
specification of each one.
Surface treatments are classified into the following groups:
• Hardeners
• Sealers
• Coatings
• Underlayments
• Traffic Bearing Membranes
• Bonded Toppings
Hardeners
Floor sealing and hardening products are not floor finishes.

These products are usually applied to upgrade the wear
resistance and reduce dusting. These products are usually
based on sodium silicate or silicofluorides. In North America, in
recent years, dilute solutions of both solvent and water-based
emulsions of resins such as epoxies, urethanes, and methyl
methacrylates have been used as floor hardeners. It should be
emphasized that these products will only improve the wear
resistance and reduce the dusting of the existing floor. Sealers
and hardeners will not convert a poor quality floor into a good
quality floor.
Hardeners are aqueous solutions that are broomed or
squeegeed on the surface of the hardened concrete. Hardeners
react with the free lime in the concrete to form a hard, glossy
material within the pores of the concrete. This material prevents
the concrete from dusting and toughens the immediate top
surface.

The treatment of a slab surface usually consists of three to four

coats applied on successive days. Since the degree of
improvement depends on the degree of penetration by the
hardener, highly diluted solutions are used to obtain adequate
penetration. The floor should be mopped with clear water shortly
after the application has dried to remove encrusted salts. Safety
precautions must be observed when fluorides are applied
because of the toxicity of these salts.
All liquid hardeners must be applied on concrete that is at least
28 days old and on concrete that has been moist cured. If liquid
curing compounds have been used, the surface should be
prepared through the use of conventional sandblasting or
waterblasting techniques. The surface can then be swept or
vacuumed.
Table 12 shows the advantages and disadvantages of floor
hardeners.
Substrate preparation is easy. Concrete must be dry.
Application is simple. More than one application is

required.
Dusting is reduced. Some materials can be toxic.
Wear resistance is improved.
Table 12. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hardeners
Sealers
One of the best methods to reduce the permeability of the

concrete surface is by applying a sealer. Previously, the sealers
commonly used for concrete were linseed oil, methyl
methacrylate, and polyurethane. However, very little control was
exercised over preparation and application. Therefore, these
materials did not prove very effective. Recent studies have
shown that linseed oil does not provide an effective barrier
against the ingress of chloride ions.

In recent years, better sealers have been developed. These

improved sealers are based on the use of the following
materials:
• Silane
• Siloxane
• Epoxy resin
• Blended or modified materials that are based on silane,
siloxane and epoxy resin
• Dual component systems that are based on combinations of
silane, siloxane and epoxy resin
• Other materials, such as methyl methacrylate.
Although water-based systems are also available, these new
materials are usually supplied in volatile solvent solutions that
aid penetration, coverage rates, and film formation.
Sealer application is effective when the material penetrates the
pores and capillaries of the substrate. The treated surface must
be free of oil, dust, dirt, curing compounds, and other coatings.
To ensure proper surface cleanliness before the sealer is
applied, the surface should be vacuum-cleaned after it is has
been shotblasted or sandblasted. All loose particles and dust
must be removed.
The concrete surface must be dry to ensure proper penetration
of sealers that are based on epoxy and methyl methacrylate
resins. These sealers must penetrate deep into the concrete for
best performance. In the case of silanes, a premature reaction
with moisture on the surface will prevent penetration of the
remaining silane solution. Sealer manufacturers generally
recommend that concrete should be at least 28 days old before
sealers are applied.
Sealer solutions can be applied with low pressure (0.103 to
0.207 MPa [15 to 30 psi]), positive displacement, airless spray
equipment that is fitted with fan spray nozzles that are adjusted
to a wet spray setting. Mist spraying causes too much material
to be lost. Sealers should be applied when there is little or no
wind and when ambient temperatures are between 4 to 40ºC
(40 to 100ºF). Most materials are applied as single coats, but
some applications may require two coats. Manufacturers
generally recommend application rates of 2.5 to 3.5 m2/l (125 to
175 ft2/gal).

Do not apply silane sealers in the rain or in the presence of

strong winds. Premature contact with water destroys the
effectiveness of a silane sealer. Most manufacturers
recommend that the treated surface be lightly wetted with water
12 to 24 hours after the application of the sealer to ensure that
the initial reaction with water takes place. The application rate
for silanes is about 1.5 m2/l (60 ft2/gal), which is somewhat
higher than the application rate that is used for other sealers.
Solutions of these materials must be stored in moisture-proof
containers. Repeated skin contact or prolonged breathing of the
vapors from sealer solutions should be avoided. Air respirators
should be used if silanes are applied in enclosed areas.
Warning: Avoid repeated shin contact and prolonged breathing of the vapors of silane
sealers to prevent serious injury. Wear air-supply respirators when applying
these materials in an enclosed area in accordance with SAES-H-102.
Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of using

sealers.
Reduce moisture penetration. Require good substrate

preparation.
Reduce chloride penetration. Do not improve chemical or

abrasion resistance.
Reduce surface permeability. Should not be used under

constant or frequent immersion
conditions.
Permit substrate to "breathe." Will not bridge cracks
Easy to apply, vertically or Require periodic reapplication

horizontally from 1 to 5 years.
Table 13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sealers

Curing compounds are sometimes erroneously called temporary

sealers. The primary function of a curing compound is to retain
the proper moisture content in the early curing stages of the
concrete. Typical curing compound products are wax-based,
petroleum resins, emulsified resin, and sodium silicate. All these
compounds are placed in volatile solvent or water, as
appropriate. The film formed by the application of a curing
compound is unable to penetrate the green concrete but "floats"
on the surface until the concrete has hardened.
Curing compounds do not provide a permanently sealed
surface. The film will eventually break down under ultra-violet
exposure and moderate abrasion, however, the residue within
pores and indentations will interfere with the penetration of
moisture.
Coatings
Coatings may be described as materials that form a membrane

that is intended to remain permanently on the surface of the
concrete. Coatings are generally non-breathable (in contrast to
sealers). Some coatings permit the transmission of moisture
vapor, to a limited extent.
Caution: Non-breathable coatings will block moisture passage from either side
of the coating. Care must be taken in selecting it for use.
If a coating is applied to the top surface of concrete that has

moisture moving through it (for example a pier or foundation in
contact with moisture), the coating will trap the moisture inside
the concrete and cause corrosion of the rebar and/or
delamination of the coating. What will happen on both sides of
the coating should always be considered before a coating is
selected for repair work.
Coatings are applied more heavily than conventional paints and
will usually produce a dry film of varying thickness. For the less
effective coatings, the film thickness varies from 0.025 to 0.125
mm (1 to 5 mils). For more effective systems, the coating
thickness varies between 0.5 to 3.0 mm (10 to 60 mils). Note
that the quality and type of material influence the coating
effectiveness as well as the thickness. Some materials require
several applications to reach the required minimum dry film
thickness.

The essential requirements for a coating include the following

properties:
• Impervious to liquid water
• Adheres to porous substrates
• Applies easily
• Simple to repair
Materials that are classified as coatings include the following
products:
• Cure and seals
• Thin film coating
• High build coatings
Cure and Seals
Cures and seals are usually one-component chlorinated rubber

or acrylic dispersions that can be applied to the freshly finished
concrete to promote curing. Cure and seals can be applied to
hardened concrete also and are generally selected to retard
surface dusting and staining. Cure and seals have varying
degrees of breathability, which depends on film thickness. Film
thickness is usually only 0.025 to 0.125 mm (1 to 5 mils). Cure
and seals are applied at greater thicknesses than conventional
curing compounds. However, these materials are not
considered to be long-lasting treatments and need to be
recoated on a regular basis. The time interval between
applications will depend on the resin quality and dry film
thickness. Cure and seals will generally have poor chemical
resistance and varying resistance to ultra-violet attack, in
accordance with the quality of the resin. Although classified as
coatings, these materials should not be considered for industrial
or exposed use.
Thin Film Coating
Thin film coating usually contain 40% to 60% solids that are
dispersed in a volatile solvent or water. Typical thin film coatings
are based on epoxy, modified epoxy, urethane, modified
urethane, acrylic dispersions, reactive methyl methacrylate, or
vinyl resin.

After the carrier evaporates, typical dry films are between 0.125
to 0.25 mm (5 to 10 mils) thick, although greater thicknesses
can be achieved if multi-coats are applied. The degree of
chemical and/or abrasion resistance will depend upon the
thickness of the application and the nature and type of material.
Treated surfaces should be recoated every one to three years.
To reveal heavy wear patterns, the top coat should be coated
with a darker or different colored coating than the underlying
coat. Heavy wear areas can be recoated more frequently or with
heavier film thicknesses.
Many thin film coatings are self-priming, although a seal coat
primer may be required to ensure a pin-hole-free finished
coating. A fine silica sand can be incorporated into the thin film
coatings to provide an anti-slip surface.
High Build Coatings
High build coatings provide a much thicker coating on the

surface of the concrete. The dry film thickness per coat usually
ranges from 0.375 to 0.625 mm (15 to 25 mils). Two
applications will provide a high build application of about 1.5 mm
(60 mils). These coatings are 100%-solid materials, which do
not contain an evaporative solvent. As a result, the wet and dry
film thicknesses should be the same. Typical products within
this category are based on epoxy, urethane, and reactive methyl
methacrylate resins.
Generally, high build coatings have superior chemical and
abrasion resistance as compared to thin film coatings. Service
lives of five to seven years should be achieved with high build
coatings. Coatings may be applied with a brush, roller or spray.
The substrate should be prepared in the same manner that is
used when sealers are applied.
The major advantages and disadvantages of coatings are
shown in Table 14.
Before a coating is selected, the manufacturers should be
consulted to obtain the current technical information on the
material properties and application procedures. ACI 515.1R, A
Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective,
and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete, provides
additional information to aid in the selection and application of
coatings.

Stop water penetration. Require good substrate

preparation.
May be aesthetic. Limited chemical resistance.
Able to span cracks up to 3 mm May require skilled applicators.

(1/8 in.) deep.
Membrane is continuous. Different coefficient of thermal

expansion than substrate.
Table 14. Advantages and Disadvantages of High Build Coatings
Underlayments
Underlayments are materials that are applied over irregular or

pitted floors in a commercial or residential environment.
Underlayments are only meant to provide a smooth surface on
which a subsequent floor covering, such as tile or carpet, will be
laid. Underlayments should not be used in exposed or industrial
environments.
Underlayments are cement- or gypsum-based, or a blend of
these two materials. Underlayments are generally applied as
very thin toppings ranging from 3 to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in.) thick,
although some gypsum-based applications can be as thick as
75 mm (3 in.).
Thin-set, self-leveling underlayments are highly fluid materials
that have true self-leveling properties when they are applied to a
prepared substrate. The materials may be poured or pumped
over a substrate that is clean and free of oil, sealers, curing
compounds, paint, polymer coatings, dust, or other foreign
(bond-breaking) matters. Some underlayments require a primer
to be brushed into the substrate before the underlayment is
applied.
Thickset, trowel-applied underlayments are usually thin-set
materials with a suitable filler added, such as silica sand. The
resulting mortar-consistency material may be applied thickly by
trowel to correct floor slopes and/or to provide adequate cover
of severe profile irregularities.

Traffic Bearing
Membrane
Traffic-bearing membranes are used to protect concrete parking

structures and bridge decks. Traffic-bearing membranes prevent
the ingress of water and chloride-laden moisture into reinforced
concrete, especially through cracks in suspended and exposed
decks. These membranes are not often applied to slabs on
grade where penetrating sealers or breathable coatings are
used.
When bonded properly to the substrate, traffic-bearing
membranes provide an extremely effective barrier against the
ingress of water. The membranes must also bridge "live" cracks
to provide effective moisture protection. Most manufacturers
recommend special treatment of cracks that are present when
the membrane is applied.
It should be noted that although the top surface of a suspended
slab may have been waterproofed, moisture vapor and oxygen
will still be able to penetrate the slab from the underside unless
an impermeable coating has been applied.
Traffic-bearing systems are classified into two categories: liquid-
applied and prefabricated sheet membrane systems.
Liquid-Applied
Systems
Each liquid-applied elastomeric system is designed for a specific

method of application that includes multiple coats and curing
regimes. These systems are sold to licensed applicators, who
are usually trained in the application of the membrane by the
manufacturer.
When liquid-applied systems are installed, the substrate must
be clean and free of oil-based contaminants. A trisodium
phosphate solution is used to remove oil, grease, and other oil-
based contaminants. The solution must be completely rinsed
from the surface, and the concrete substrate should be dry
before the coating is applied. If the moisture content of the
substrate is high, moisture will collect at the interface between
the substrate and the membrane. This moisture collection can
cause the coating to develop pinheads or blisters. Moisture
content can be determined through the use of the plastic sheet
test.

Working joints and all cracks that are wider than 0.5 mm (0.02
in.) should be routed and filled with a low modulus sealant.
Cracks less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) in width may be coated with
the membrane material at least 50 mm (2 in.) on either side of
the crack. Any voids in the substrate that are wider than 3 mm
(1/8 in.) should be filled with a latex/cement or epoxy mortar. All
preparatory work on the substrate should be performed at least
one day before the membrane is applied; this timeline allows 18
to 24 hours of cure time for the patching materials.
Liquid-applied traffic-bearing systems consist of the following
two separate but integrated components:
1. A flexible moisture barrier (membrane)
2. A heavy-bodied but thin coating (wearing course).
A hard aggregate is incorporated into the coating. Generally, the
membrane portion is neoprene, latex/rubber emulsion or
urethane. The membrane is applied in multiple applications to
develop the required thickness, which is usually 0.50 to 1.0 mm
(20 to 40 mils). The membrane, which may be a one-component
or two-component product, is usually applied to a primed
surface.
The wearing course is generally a modified epoxy or urethane.
The wearing course is applied by squeegee at a slurry
consistency to achieve a thickness that ranges from 0.5 to 1.5
mm (20 to 60 mils) to meet wear resistance requirements.
Generally, the wearing course is applied in a single coat. A hard
aggregate can be mixed into the product, or the aggregate can
be broadcast over the wearing course. The covered surface is
cross-rolled or left totally saturated to cure. The next day, the
surplus aggregate is swept from the surface, and a tie coat can
be applied to produce a cleanable surface, if required. The tie
coat can be of the same material as the wearing course that has
been diluted in solvent, or the tie coat may be a specially
designed product.
Usually, a traffic-bearing membrane is warranted by the
manufacturer and applicator for 3 to 5 years against
deterioration that may result from reasonable wear and tear
under ordinary weather conditions.

Prefabricated Sheet
Membrane Systems
It consists of a prefabricated waterproofing sheet that has been

covered by an asphaltic concrete wearing surface.
Common waterproofing sheets include rubber types, such as
ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) and neoprene,
PVC, modified asphalt, hypalon, and ethylene inter-alloy. These
products are manufactured in factories and are subjected to
careful quality control, however, careful field installation is
required.
The substrate is prepared in the same way that the substrate is
prepared for liquid-applied, traffic-bearing systems. The
procedures and techniques that are used to join and fasten
prefabricated sheet membranes are described under the
following categories:
• Rubber sheets
• PVC sheets
• Modified asphalt
Rubber sheets must be bonded with adhesives because they
are not thermoplastic and cannot be heat fused. Contact
adhesives that are based on butyl and neoprene are commonly
used to bond rubber sheets. EPDM sheets are usually coated
with talc so that the sheets will not stick to the calendar rolls in
the manufacturing process. The talc must be completely
removed to ensure proper seaming when the sheets are
installed.
The adhesive can be applied with a brush or roller. Some
manufacturers specify brush application only. The
recommended brushing method is to use long strokes parallel to
the edge of the seam. Circular motion of the brush is
discouraged to avoid weakened seams. The contact adhesive
must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the sheets are
bonded. After the sheets are bonded, the prepared joints are
rolled out with a 5 cm (2 in.) diameter steel roller to ensure
proper seam contact and to force out any entrapped air. Care
must be taken with non-reinforced EPDM sheets that have a
tendency to tear. EPDM does not bond well to reinforcement
materials.

PVC Sheets are normally reinforced with glass mat or woven

polyester. Glass-reinforced sheets are available in various
colors. Glass-reinforced sheets can be UV-resistant or non-UV-
resistant. The sheets are seamed in the field by hot air and
solvent welds. The hot air weld is more reliable than solvent
welds under severe weather conditions. Defective seams are
located with the aid of a screwdriver that is pressed firmly along
the seam or by cut tests across the seam.
Modified asphalt waterproofing membranes can be applied in
several ways. These membranes can be applied by mop with
hot asphalt, by torch, cold adhesive, or self-stick methods.
Superior bonding and flexibility characteristics are achieved
when a propane torch is used to produce a homogeneous
modified asphalt membrane. However, because of the fire
hazard associated with torch application, alternative methods,
such as solvent cutback, are preferred.
Solvent blends must be compatible with the modified asphalt to
prevent degradation of the modified sheet. The slow release of
solvents through the heavy modified sheets is also a problem
because the system will not develop its interply adhesive
strength rapidly. Several products are available with self-
adhesive characteristics. These products consist of a layer of
modified asphalt that is usually 1 to 2.4 mm (40 to 60 mils) thick
and a heavy polyethylene backing. To apply these products, a
release paper is removed from the modified asphalt layer and
the sheet is pressed into the substrate.
After the pre-formed sheets have been joined and bonded to the
concrete substrate (in accordance with the manufacturers'
recommendations), the waterproofing membrane is protected
with an asphalt impregnated protection board and paved with
the asphalt paving.
Table 15 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the
prefabricated sheet membrane systems.
Bonded Toppings
Bonded toppings are materials that are applied at greater

thickness than coatings. Bonded toppings are bonded to the
concrete substrate. (Unbonded toppings are not bonded to the
concrete substrate.)

Impermeable, if applied properly. System is not a structural

component of the deck.
May decrease corrosion activity. Not suitable for rough deck

surfaces.
Bridges cracks. Proper surface preparation is

required.
May increase dead load.
Table 15. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Prefabricated

Sheet Membrane Systems
The main differences between a floor coating and a floor

topping are the thickness of the coating and the extent to which
the coating is filled. Unfilled and partly-filled coatings that are
under 0.75 mm (30 mils) in thickness are usually called
coatings. Filled systems with thicknesses between 0.75 mm (30
mils) and 10 mm (3/8 in) are called toppings.
Toppings are used to resurface industrial floors that are in
advanced stages of deterioration. Materials that are used for
topping mixes may be either cementitious or polymers.
Materials that are currently available for topping repairs can be
classified into the following categories:
• Normal or high early strength Portland cement mortars or
concretes.
• Latex-modified mortar or concrete.
• High alumina cement mortar or concrete.
• Fiber-reinforced mortar or concrete.
• Silica fume mortar or concrete.
• Resin-based mortars, such as epoxies, polyesters, and
urethanes.
The properties, application methods, advantages, and
disadvantages of topping materials were discussed in the
section titled “Repair Materials”.

IDENTIFYING POST-REPAIR ASSESSMENT

Concrete repairs must successfully integrate new and old
materials to form a composite that is able to endure the
exposures to serve in, environment, and time. However,
concrete structures are dynamic, which means that these
structures constantly adjust to the ambient temperature,
moisture conditions, and other environmental factors. Stresses
and strains that are imposed on the parent concrete and repair
materials will cause the structures to deteriorate continually.
Repairs and the parent concrete must be continuously
monitored through the use of a comprehensive inspection
program. If deterioration reaches a critical stage, remedial
action must be taken.
This section discusses the following aspects of an inspection
program for repaired concrete:
• Monitoring repairs
• Preventive maintenance
• Investigation of repair failures
Monitoring Repairs
There are no established in situ test methods that are specially
designed to monitor the performance of repairs. However, a
program can be set up to monitor the following items:
• Chloride ingress.
• Moisture levels.
• Debonding.
• Rebar corrosion.
• Carbonation.
These items are to be monitored because most of the failure
occasions in the repair systems or the parent concrete are
associated with one or more of these items. Accordingly, these
items have to be continuously monitored.

Chloride Ingress
A monitoring program is recommended to evaluate the ability of

a surface protection system to prevent the ingress of salt. When
the surface protection system is applied to the concrete,
chloride profiles should be established through the use of
powder samples or concrete cores. These chloride values
provide a "background" level of the chloride content.
Periodically, after the protection system is applied, the chloride
profiles should be determined and compared to the background
profiles. The increase in chloride content provides an indication
of the effectiveness of the protection system.
Chloride content may also be determined for the repair
materials shortly after the repairs are completed to provide the
"background" level of chloride content in the repair material.
Periodically, samples can be taken from the repaired area and
compared to the background level to estimate the rate of
chloride ingress.
Moisture Levels
A monitoring program is recommended to evaluate the ability of

the surface protection systems to keep water out of concrete
and/or to allow the concrete to breathe. The moisture content of
the parent concrete should be established through the use of
one of the methods that are discussed in the Moisture Contents
section. Special probes that monitor the ingress and level of
moisture should be installed in the concrete. These probes are
connected to a datalogger, which will measure and record any
changes in the moisture levels in the concrete.
Debonding
Periodically, sounding with a hammer or chain drag can be used

to detect debonding. If debonding has not occurred, but if cracks
or voids in the concrete are suspected, ultrasonic testing or
impact-echo testing may be performed.
Rebar Corrosion

Standard half-cell potential testing can be used to check for

signs of active corrosion after a repair has been made. This
work should be carried out at regular intervals. Epoxy rebar
coatings and dielectric repair materials may yield inconclusive
readings.
Carbonation of
Concrete
Carbonation of concrete can be monitored by testing drilled

concrete cores through the use of a solution of phenolphthalein.
Color changes in the phenolphthalein solution indicate the
alkalinity of the concrete. An alkalinity above pH 9.5 is indicated
by a pink or purple color. A pH of this level would indicate the
preservation of passivity around the reinforcing steel. Otherwise,
if the color does not change, this means the passivity has been
lost and that the potential for corrosion exists.
Preventive Maintenance
To protect the original investment and the investment in repair
procedures, a program of preventative maintenance must be
planned and implemented as soon as the repairs are
completed. Preventive maintenance often includes regular,
detailed inspections that are combined with changes in
housekeeping practices. To be effective, the maintenance
program should be documented in a diary form. Detailed
inspections should include repair monitoring as described in the
preceding paragraphs.
Housekeeping practices consist of the routine maintenance
practices that affect the concrete, such as cleaning and crack
repair.

Considerable damage is done to concrete when raw water

and/or cleaning solutions are used to clean the concrete.
Chlorides in the raw water can cause corrosion of the
reinforcing steel. Sulfates in the water can result in sulfate
attack. A change from raw water to sweet water can reduce the
rate of deterioration significantly. Early repair of cracks can
prevent the ingress of harmful species and chemicals into the
concrete. Cracks must not be ignored when first noticed.
Rather, cracks should be repaired quickly, before the ingress of
salt-laden water can cause the potential for ongoing and
progressive deterioration.
Repair Failure Analysis

When a repair fails (ceases to perform as anticipated), an
investigation should be conducted to determine why the repair
failed. This investigation should consider the following items:
• Type of failure.
• Repair environment.
• Repair application procedures.
• Properties of the repair materials and the substrate.
After the cause of the failure has been established, the failed
section should be removed and replaced through the use of
procedures and materials that will yield satisfactory
performance.

WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1. HOW TO SELECT APPROPRIATE CONCRETE REPAIR

MATERIALS
Use this checklist of criteria to assist you in selecting the appropriate concrete repair
materials. Answer the following questions which will help you make your selection.
1. What are the user's performance requirements?
2. What will be the service and exposure conditions?
3. What are the load-carrying requirements?
4. What will be the operating conditions while the concrete is placed and cured?
5. Has the original cause of deterioration been addressed?
6. What is the chosen placement technique, and what material characteristics are
required for placement?
7. What material properties are required to meet the requirements and conditions of
Items 1 through 6, above?
A. Bond strength
B. Length change
C. Compressive strength
D. Consistency
E. Working time
F. Thermal coefficient of expansion

G. Durability
H. Modulus of elasticity
I. Permeability
8. What materials or systems will provide the required properties?
9. Does the selected repair material/system have the optimum cost performance
ratio?

WORK AID 2. HOW TO EVALUATE CONCRETE REPAIR

PROCEDURES
Use this checklist to assist you in evaluating the concrete repair procedures. Those
areas marked no should be rejected, if they will interfere with the effectiveness of the
repair materials. The task should be reaccomplished as per the inspector’s satisfaction.
Concrete Removal
Was the area to be repaired marked?
Was the perimeter of the repair area saw cut to provide a straight, vertical butt
joint?
Was all damaged and deteriorated concrete removed?
Was sufficient concrete removed to expose all reinforcement corrosion areas?
Substrate Preparation
Was the substrate cleaned to remove all loose particles, dust, oil and grease?
Was the substrate-saturated surface dry if a cementitious repair material was

used?
Was the substrate dry if organic (polymer) materials were used?
Was a bonding agent or primer used in accordance with the manufacturer's

recommended procedures?
Was the bonding agent or primer still tacky when the repair material was placed?

Reinforcing Steel Preparation
Were all oxides and rust removed from the corroded bars?
If the reinforcing steel had lost more than 25% of its cross-section due to corrosion,
were new bars or supplemental bars installed?
If the reinforcing bars were primed, were the primer manufacturer's recommended
procedures followed?
Crack Repair
Were the cracks classified as active or passive before a repair material was
selected?
Were the cracks thoroughly clean and dry before the crack filling material was
applied?
Was a bond breaker installed at the bottom of the recess of each "active" crack?
Was the correct type (flexible or rigid) sealant used to seal the crack?
Were the sealant manufacturer's recommendations followed when the cracks were
sealed?

Patching
Was the repair material mixed and placed in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations?
Was the repair material properly consolidated and finished?
Curing
Were the cementitious repair materials properly cured to prevent the evaporation
of the mixing water?
Were the polymer Portland cement repair materials first wet-cured for 24 to 48
hours and then dry-cured for 72 hours?

WORK AID 3. HOW TO SELECT THE CORRECT SURFACE

TREATMENTS
Work Aid 3A: How to Identify Surface Categories

There is a listing in Table 16 (below) to assist you in identifying the class of appropriate
surface treatment.
Hardeners
Chemicals that are applied to concrete floors and slabs to reduce wear and dusting.
Hardeners are usually made of sodium silicates or fluorsilicates.
Advantages Disadvantages
Substrate preparation is easy. Concrete must be dry.
Application is simple. More than one application is required.
Dusting is reduced. Some materials can be toxic.
Wear resistance is improved. Concrete must be 28 days old.
Concrete surface must be of good quality.
Sealers
Materials that are applied to the surface of concrete to restrict the ingress of moisture
and chlorides and to reduce the rate of carbonation.
Reduce moisture penetration. Require good substrate preparation.
Reduce surface permeability. Do not improve chemical or abrasion

resistance.
Permit substrate to "breathe".
Should not be used under constant or
Easy to apply. frequent immersion conditions

Coatings
Materials that are applied to a concrete surface to preserve, decorate, protect, seal or
smooth the substrate. Coatings are generally non-breathable.
Stop water penetration. Require good substrate preparation.
May be aesthetic. Limited chemical resistance.
Able to span cracks up to 3 mm
(1/8 in.). May require skilled applicators.
Membrane is continuous. Different coefficient of thermal expansion
than substrate.
Underlayments
Materials that are applied as very thin self-leveling toppings over irregular or pitted
floors. These materials are usually cement and/or gypsum based. Underlayments are
usually covered by the tiles or carpet.
Applied as very thin toppings. Should not be used in an exposed or
industrial environment.
Highly fluid materials.
Must be covered with a carpet tile or a
Self-leveling. coating.
Will cover a range of profile

irregularities.
Will correct undesirable slopes.

Traffic-bearing membranes
Materials that are applied to the surface of traffic-carrying slabs of bridge decks and
parking garages to prevent the ingress of water and chloride-laden moisture. The
membranes may be liquid-applied or sheet-applied materials.
Impermeable, if applied properly. System is not a structural component of the
deck.
May decrease corrosion activity.
Not suitable for rough deck surfaces.
Bridge cracks.
Proper surface preparation is required.
May increase dead load.
Bonded toppings
Materials that are applied to the surface of a slab at greater thickness than coatings to
prevent the ingress of moisture and chloride-laden moisture. The toppings are bonded
to the substrate. Bonded toppings are usually made with cementitious concretes.
Have a mortar-like consistency. Require a clean substrate.
Are applied and finished like concrete. Joints in the topping must coincide with joints
in the base slab.
Contribute to load-carrying capacity.
Require experienced workmen.
Table 16. Surface Treatment Materials, Their Use, Advantages

and Disadvantages

Work Aid 3B: Checklist for Selecting the Correct Surface Treatment
Use this Work Aid in conjunction with Work Aid 3A to assist you in selecting the
appropriate surface treatment. Answer the following questions. If the answer to any
question is no, further organization of the approach is required. Also, explain your
answer in the blank space provided.
1. Have you defined the service condition?
Write out the service condition.
2. Have you determined the required application priorities?
Write out the required application priorities.
3. Have you determined the equipment required?
Write out the required equipment.
Have you determined the maintenance requirements?
Write out the required maintenance of the repairs.
5. Have you had tests performed on various candidate materials selected through the
use of Work Aid 3?
Write out the test candidates.
6. Have you studied the test reports of the candidates?
Write out the finding of each candidate.


7. Have you developed a list of qualified contractors/installers who may do the job?
Write out the list of qualified contractors/installers.
8. Have you and other engineers written a job specification or Scope of Work for the
job.
Write out the main specifications for the job. This should be in the form of a report
using all the above answers and written comments. In addition, you should include
the information on how the concrete will be removed and the surface prepared for
the new treatment. You may use another blank paper to write the main
specifications.

WORK AID 4. HOW TO IDENTIFY POST-REPAIR ASSESSMENTS

Use this Work Aid to assist you in identifying the post-repair assessments. Answer the
following questions to see if the assessment program is sufficient. Any question
answered no requires further evaluation.
1. Was a chloride profile (background level) provided for the newly applied surface
using powdered samples or cores?
2. Has a program been established to monitor the chloride ingress through salt water
penetrating into the newly repaired concrete by taking periodic chloride profiles to
match with the original one?
3. Has a program of moisture monitoring been established to determine the moisture

ingress?
4. Are periodic sounding tests made to determine debonding of the repair materials?
5. Has a program of standard half-cell potential testing been established for

monitoring the non-coated rebars and other testing established for coated rebars.
6. Has a program been established for evaluating carbonation of the repaired

concrete? For an alkalinity below pH 9.4, what steps have been taken to deter the
corrosion of reinforcing steel corrosion?

7. Has a preventive maintenance program been established to provide the best

environment possible for the repaired areas to include:
A. Regular detailed inspections documented in a log book.
B. Good housekeeping techniques to include proper cleaning and crack repair.
Caution: Cleaning should never be done with raw “saline” water and harsh
cleaning solutions with chlorides or sulfates.
C. Use clean sweet water to clean the repaired area.
8. Has a failure analysis program been established to investigate why a repair failed
to perform as specified to include the following:
A. Type of failure
B. Repair environment
C. Repair application procedures
D. Properties of the repair material and the substrate.

GLOSSARY
acrylic concrete and A blend of aggregate that is held together in a

acrylic mortar polymerized-acrylic matrix.
admixture A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement,
or fiber reinforcement, that is used as an ingredient of
concrete or mortar, and that is added to the concrete or
mortar batch immediately before the batch is mixed or as it
is mixed.
anodes Positively-charged cathodic protection devices.
aqueous Materials that are related to or resemble water (Also,
materials that are made from, with, or by water).
band-aid fix A short-term repair that is designed to restore a
deteriorated section to its original profile.
bond The adhesion and grip of concrete or mortar to the
reinforcement or other surfaces against which it is placed.
bond strength The resistance to separation of mortar or concrete from
the reinforcing steel and other materials with which it is in
contact (ACI 116R-90, Cement and Concrete
Terminology).
bonded toppings Materials that are applied at greater thickness than
coatings and that are bonded to the substrate.
breaker point A steel point or chisel that is used with a jackhammer or
chipping hammer to break concrete.
bund An embankment that is used to contain the grout as the
cracks are sealed.
capping Applying a surface-sealing compound to a crack.
capping the crack The surface sealing of a crack.
cementitious Materials that have cementing properties.
chase The groove that is formed when a crack is routed.
chloride contamination Chloride admixed or ingress into hardened concrete.
and chloride intrusion

coatings Materials that are applied to a concrete surface by brush,

mop, spray, and trowel to preserve, decorate, protect,
seal, or smooth the substrate. Coatings are generally non-
breathable.
coefficient of linear The change in linear dimension per unit length (also
thermal expansion change in volume per unit volume) per degree of
(thermal coefficient of temperature change.
expansion)
cohesion failure The failure of objects to bond or stick together.
compression zone The area in a structural member that is in a state of
compression.
concrete mobile A mobile concrete batch plant that is used to batch and
equipment mix concrete materials.
consistency The relative mobility of a material or the ability of a freshly-
mixed material to flow.
copolymer Large molecules that are formed from the simultaneous
polymerization of different monomers.
creep Time-dependent deformation that is caused by sustained
load.
cube compressive The compressive strength of a concrete or mortar cube.
strength
cylinder strength The compressive strength of a concrete or mortar cylinder.
dry pack, drypacking Placing a zero-slump, or near zero-slump, concrete,
mortar or grout by ramming the material into a confined
space.
drying shrinkage Shrinkage that results from the loss of moisture after the
material (i.e. concrete) has hardened.
dynamic Active as in a crack increasing in size.
elastomeric Having the properties of rubber.
electrolytic conditions The conditions that pertain when an electric current is
carried by the movement of ions through a nonmetallic
conductor.
exothermic A chemical reaction that occurs with the evolution of heat.
expansive agent A material that causes expansion of grout, mortar, or

concrete.

extensibility The ability to be extended.

feather-edge The edge of a concrete or mortar patch or topping that is
beveled at an acute angle.
flexural strength The resistance of a material or structural member to failure
in bending.
flow cone A device for the measurement of grout consistency.
flow tables Tables in the testing standards that specify the flow rate of
various grout consistencies.
grout A mixture of cementitious material and water, with or
without aggregate.
hardeners Chemicals (including certain fluorsilicates or sodium
silicates) that are applied to concrete floors and slabs to
reduce wear and dusting.
holiday Openings or pinholes in the coatings caused by the
painters missing some spots, indicating that the painters
took a holiday at this particular spot.
latex-modified A mixture of water and Portland cement, aggregate, and
concretes, latex- latex.
modified mortars
linear shrinkage (length The decrease in length that usually results from the loss of
change) moisture.
modulus of elasticity (E) For tensile or compressive stress below the proportional
limit of the material, the ratio of normal stress to
corresponding strain.
moil points A conical-shaped point on a tool that is used to make
holes in concrete.
monomer A small, simple molecule that can be chemically linked to
other monomers to form a long, repeated, chain-like
structure with high molecular weight.
no-slump consistency A wet but non-flowing consistency.
nonshrink Cementitious products that do not shrink while they
harden.
nozzleman The operator who manipulates the nozzle and controls the
placement of the shotcrete.

passivating Acting as a neutral coating so that the reinforcing steel

remains neutral and does not corrode.
patch A repair material that is placed in the parent concrete,
unlike toppings.
plastic shrinkage Shrinkage that takes place before cement paste, mortar,
grout, or concrete sets.
polymer The molecular chain that is formed from monomers. If
more than one monomer is used, the resulting material is a
copolymer.
polymer concrete Concrete that consists of aggregate and a polymer binder
(no Portland cement or water).
polymer Portland Portland cement concrete to which a monomer or polymer
cement concrete (including latex) is added. Polymer Portland cement
(mortar) concrete is sometimes called polymer-modified concrete.
polymerization The chemical process of linking molecules together. This
process is sometimes called "curing". If more than one
monomer is used, the process is called "copolymerization."
popout The breaking-away of small portions of a concrete surface
due to localized-internal pressure (Popouts leave shallow,
typically conical depressions).
pot life The duration after a liquid material has been mixed in
which the material remains usable with no difficulty.
scabber A machine that removes concrete by a rotary cutting
action.
sealers Materials that are applied to the surface of the concrete to
restrict the ingress of moisture and chlorides and to reduce
the rate of carbonation.
site-batched Grout, mortar, or concrete that is mixed on site.
slump cone A mold in the form of a cone (frustum) that is used to
fabricate a specimen of freshly-mixed concrete for the
slump test.
slurry A mixture of water and any finely divided, insoluble
material, such as Portland cement, slag, or clay in
suspension.
static Immovable, staying in one place as in a crack not getting
any larger.

stitching dog A metallic rod or bar that is bent in the shape of a staple
and used to prevent the expansion of a crack in concrete.
toppings A repair material that is placed on the surface of concrete,
unlike a patch.
traffic-bearing Materials that are designed to prevent the ingress of water
and chloride-laden moisture into traffic-carrying slabs of
membranes parking garages and bridge decks. They may be liquid-
applied or sheet-applied materials.
underlayments Materials that are cement and/or gypsum-based and that
are applied as very thin, self-leveling toppings over
irregular or pitted floors. Underlayments are usually
covered by tile or carpet.
UV resistance Resistance to ultra-violet rays (UV).
workability The property of freshly-mixed concrete or mortar that
determines the ease and homogeneity with which the
material can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished.
working time The length of time in which the repair material maintains its
ability to be placed and consolidated.
absorption The process by which a liquid is drawn into and tends to fill
the permeable pores in a porous solid.
active crack A crack that undergoes changes in width and/or length
with time.
alkali-aggregate reaction The reaction between the alkalis (sodium and potassium)
that are in Portland cement and certain siliceous rocks and
minerals (such as opaline, chert, strained quartz, and
acidic volcanic glass) that are present in some aggregates.
The products of the reaction may cause concrete in service
to crack or expand abnormally.
carbonation The reaction between atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
and a hydroxide or oxide to form a carbonate, especially in
cement paste, mortar, or concrete. Carbonation of
concrete is the reaction of CO2 with calcium compounds
produced by the cement hydration to produce calcium
carbonate.
chloride content The amount of chloride ion in a powdered concrete
sample, usually expressed as a percentage by weight of
concrete or of cement.

Compressive The measured maximum resistance of a concrete or

strength mortar specimen to axial compressive loads, expressed as
force per unit cross-sectional area. It is the specified
resistance used in design calculations.
delamination A separation along a plane parallel to a surface, as in the
separation of a coating from a substrate or as in the
separation of the layers of a coating from each other. In the
case of a concrete slab, a horizontal splitting, cracking, or
separation of a slab in a plane roughly parallel to and
generally near the upper surface.
density Mass per unit volume, usually expressed in kilograms per
cubic meter or pounds per cubic foot.
map cracking Cracks that intersect and extend below the surface of
hardened concrete. Map cracking is caused by shrinkage
of the drying surface concrete, which is restrained by
concrete at greater depths at which little or no shrinkage
occurs. Map cracks vary in width from fine and barely
visible to open and well defined.
oven-dry The condition that results when a sample has been dried
to essentially constant mass in an oven at a temperature
that has been fixed, usually between 105ºC and 115ºC
(221ºF and 239ºF).
passive crack A crack that does not change in width and/or length.
Passive cracks are sometimes called "dormant" or
"inactive" cracks.
passivity The ability of steel to remain neutral and not to react with
outside influences such as chemicals, water or gases.
Petrographic A detailed microscopic examination of hardened concrete
analysis to determine the formation and composition of the concrete
and to classify the type, condition, and serviceability of the
concrete.
scaling Local flaking or peeling away of the near-surface portion of
hardened concrete or mortar. It is the flaking or peeling of
a layer from metal.
shrinkage A decrease in either length or volume that may be
restricted to effects of moisture content or chemical
changes.
siliceous A material that contains silica or a silicate.

sounding A test for delamination in which the surface of the concrete

is struck by a hammer or steel bar and in which the change
in sound emitted from the concrete is noted.
soundness The freedom of a solid from cracks, flaws, fissures, or
variations from an accepted standard. In the case of
cement, soundness is the freedom from excessive volume
change after the cement is set. In the case of aggregate,
soundness is the ability to withstand the aggressive action
(particularly the action due to weather conditions) to which
the concrete that contains the aggregate is exposed to.
spall A fragment, usually in the shape of a flake, that has been
detached from a larger mass by a blow, the action of the
weather, pressure, or expansion within the larger mass.
sulfate attack Either a chemical reaction or a physical reaction (or both)
that occurs between sulfates (usually in soil or ground
water) and concrete or mortar.
tell-tale Any device that is used to indicate the movement of a
crack.

REFERENCES
ACI 305R, Hot Weather Concreting.
ACI 308-92, Standard Practice for Curing Concrete.
ACI 318-93, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.
ACI 503-92, Standard Specification for Bonding Plastic Concrete to Hardened Concrete
with a Multi-Component Epoxy Adhesive.
ACI 504-82, Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures.
ACI 515.1R-79, A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and
Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete.
ACI 548.1-89, Guide for the Use of Polymers in Concrete.
ACI 548.3R-95, State-of-the-Art Report on Polymer-Modified Concrete.
ACI 548.4-93, Standard Specification for Latex-Modified Concrete (LMC) Overlays.
ASTM C 109, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars.
ASTM C 157, Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Cement Mortar and
Concrete.
ASTM C 469, Standard Test Method of Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio
of Concrete in Compression.
ASTM C 531, Test Method for Linear Shrinkage and Coefficient of Chemical-Resistant
Mortars, Grouts and Monolithic Surfacings.
ASTM C 827, Standard Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical
Specimens from Cementitious Mixtures.
ASTM C 881, Epoxy-Resin Based Bonding Systems for Concrete.
ASTM C 882, Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of Epoxy-Resin Systems Used
With Concrete By Slant Shear.
ASTM C 883, Standard Test Method for Effective Shrinkage of Epoxy-Resin Systems
Used with Concrete.
ASTM C 939, Standard Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate
Concrete (Flow Cone Method).
CRD-C48, Method of Test for Water Permeability of Concrete. (US Corp of Engineers,
No date available, not available in the Technical Library).

CRD-C163, Test Method for Water Permeability of Concrete Using Triaxial Cell. (US
Corp of Engineers, No date available, not available in the Technical Library).
CSA A23.2-94, Method of Testing Concrete (Canadian Standards Association).
SAES-H-102, Safety in the Application of Coatings.

CSE 202.05 Repair of Concrete Structures

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CSE 202.05 Repair of Concrete Structures

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

REPAIR OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Repair of Concrete Structures

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Repair of Concrete Structures

Blasting Method ....................................................................................... 43

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Repair of Concrete Structures

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Repair of Concrete Structures

Prefabricated Sheet Membrane Systems ................................................ 89

Figure 1. Load Distribution in Structurally-Repaired Columns...................................... 16

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

Repair of Concrete Structures

Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Epoxy Patching Compounds................... 22

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

Repair of Concrete Structures

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Repair of Concrete Structures

To guarantee predictable performance, an engineer must have

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Repair of Concrete Structures

IDENTIFYING CONCRETE REPAIR MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES

A cost-effective and successful repair program must address

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Repair of Concrete Structures

Unqualified personnel should only do repairs of a cosmetic

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Repair of Concrete Structures

Frequently, the most difficult and important step in the repair

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Repair of Concrete Structures

If the extent of deterioration warrants repairs, a qualified civil

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Repair of Concrete Structures

Deterioration sometimes results from the corrosion of rebar

Though deterioration may have reduced the original strength of

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Repair of Concrete Structures

Present Code and

A difficult situation may arise when some code changes occur

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Repair of Concrete Structures

A cosmetic repair improves the appearance of the deteriorated

Short-term corrective actions are sometimes referred to as

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Repair of Concrete Structures

A structural repair must accomplish the following objectives:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Repair of Concrete Structures

microstrains in the column before the repaired area begins to

Stress level is Overstressed

Figure 1. Load Distribution in Structurally-Repaired Columns

General Categories of Repair Materials

It is difficult to select materials that have all the properties

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Repair of Concrete Structures

materials contain Portland cement as an ingredient and may be

Portland cement concrete and mortar offer the following

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Repair of Concrete Structures

Prepackaged repair products (concrete and mortars) are readily