Evaluating Steam Turbine Materials

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Evaluating The Material Requirements

Of Steam Turbine Mechanical Components
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Content Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS: FUNCTION, DESIGN, AND

CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................... 2
Casing ....................................................................................................................... 5
Steam Chests and Valves........................................................................................... 7
Integral Steam Chest...................................................................................... 7
Separable Steam Chest................................................................................... 8
Single Valve .................................................................................................. 9
Multi-Valve ..................................................................................................10
Hand Valve...................................................................................................10
Diaphragm ...............................................................................................................11
Nozzle Ring .............................................................................................................12
Blades ......................................................................................................................16
Blade Natural Frequency and Resonance.......................................................20
Rotor .......................................................................................................................23
Integral .........................................................................................................23
Built-Up .......................................................................................................24
Thrust Balancing ......................................................................................................25
Casing Shaft End Seals.............................................................................................27
Bearings ...................................................................................................................29
Anti-Friction .................................................................................................30
Hydrodynamic ..............................................................................................35
Bearing Housings and Turbine Support Arrangements..............................................45
Steam Inlet End Bearing Housings and Turbine Supports..............................45
Exhaust End Bearing Housings and Turbine Supports...................................47
Steam Inlet Controls.................................................................................................50
Bar Lift Control Valve Arrangements............................................................50
Cam Lift Control Valve Arrangements ..........................................................52
Steam Inlet Control Valve Servomotor .........................................................54

Turning Gear............................................................................................................56
DETERMINING THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE
STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS........................................................59
DETERMINING THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS........................................................62
WORK AID 1: COMPONENT MATERIAL CHARTS FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH API
STANDARD 611 AND SAUDI ARAMCO MATERIAL SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
32-SAMSS-009. ..................................................................................................................65
General-Purpose Steam Turbine Mechanical Component Material Requirements ......65
WORK AID 2: COMPONENT MATERIAL CHART FOR SPECIAL-PURPOSE
STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH API
STANDARD 612 AND SAUDI ARAMCO MATERIAL SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
32-SAMSS-010. ..................................................................................................................75
Special-Purpose Steam Turbine Mechanical Component Material Requirements .......75
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................87

Table of Figure Page
Figure 1. General-Purpose, Single-Valve, Backpressure Steam Turbine .................... 3

Figure 2. Special-Purpose Steam Turbine ................................................................. 5
Figure 3. Integral Steam Chest.................................................................................. 8
Figure 4. Separable Steam Chest .............................................................................. 9
Figure 5. Simple Hand Valve Arrangement ..............................................................11
Figure 6. Turbine Interstage Diaphragm...................................................................12
Figure 7. Convergent Nozzle ...................................................................................14
Figure 8. Convergent-Divergent Nozzle...................................................................15
Figure 9. Partial Arc Admission ...............................................................................16
Figure 10. Turbine Blade and Disc Section ..............................................................17
Figure 11. Types of Blade Root Designs..................................................................18
Figure 12. Campbell Diagram ..................................................................................21
Figure 13. Goodman Diagram .................................................................................23
Figure 14. Integral-Type Rotor Assembly ................................................................23
Figure 15. Built-Up Type of Rotor Assembly...........................................................24
Figure 16. Built-Up Type of Rotor Assembly with Blade Discs Keyed to Shaft........25
Figure 17. Reaction Turbine with a Dummy Piston and Dummy Cylinder.................26
Figure 18. Turbine Gland Seal Assembly .................................................................29
Figure 19. Single-Row Ball Bearing.........................................................................31
Figure 20. Double-Row, Angular-Contact Ball Bearing ...........................................32
Figure 21. Ball Thrust Bearing.................................................................................33
Figure 22. Angular-Contact Bearing ........................................................................34
Figure 23. Spherical Barrel-Shaped Roller Bearing ..................................................35
Figure 24. Shaft/Bearing Dynamics..........................................................................37
Figure 25. Typical Journal Bearing ..........................................................................38
Figure 26. Multi-Lobe Journal Bearing ....................................................................39
Figure 27. Typical Tilting-Pad Bearing ....................................................................41
Figure 28. Tapered Land Thrust Bearing .................................................................42
Figure 29. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing......................................................................43

Figure 30. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing ...............................................................45

Figure 31. Steam Turbine Wobble Feet....................................................................46
Figure 32. Steam Turbine Sliding Pedestal...............................................................47
Figure 33. Exhaust End Turbine Support.................................................................49
Figure 34. Bar Lift Control Valve Arrangement.......................................................51
Figure 35. Cam Lift Control Valve ..........................................................................53
Figure 36. Servomotor ............................................................................................55
Figure 37. Turning Gear Assembly ..........................................................................58
Figure 38. Table for Materials of Construction for Turbine Components..................64
Figure 39. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials ....................................71
Figure 39. Commercial Specifications For Turbine Materials (continued).................72
Figure 40. Minimum Requirements for Auxiliary Piping System Materials................73
Figure 40. Minimum Requirements for Auxiliary Piping System Materials (continued)74
Figure 41. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials ....................................85
Figure 41. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials (continued)..................86

INTRODUCTION
The steam turbine is a very complex piece of mechanical equipment. The Mechanical Engineer
must understand the construction and the requirements of the components that are used in all
steam turbines. In this section, the following information on steam turbine components is
presented:
• Steam Turbine Mechanical Components: Function, Design, and Construction

• Determining the Material Requirements for General-Purpose Steam Turbine
Mechanical Components
• Determining the Material Requirements for Special-Purpose Steam Turbine
Mechanical Components
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS: FUNCTION, DESIGN, AND

CONSTRUCTION
Steam turbines that are used for refinery services are divided into two separate distinct categories:
general-purpose steam turbines and special-purpose steam turbines. General-purpose steam
turbines are defined, in accordance with API 611, as horizontal or vertical turbines that are used
to drive equipment that is usually spared, that is relatively small in size (power), or that is in non-
critical service. General-purpose steam turbines are generally used where steam conditions will
not exceed a pressure of 600 psig (41 bar) and a temperature of 750°F (400°C) or where speed
will not exceed 6000 rpm. In accordance with API 612, special-purpose steam turbines are
defined as horizontal turbines that are used to drive equipment that is usually not spared, that is
relatively large in size (power), or that is in critical service. Special-purpose steam turbines are
not limited by steam conditions or turbine speed.
General-purpose steam turbines are generally classified as low horsepower turbines. General-
purpose steam turbines typically have low efficiency (35% to 40%). General-purpose steam
turbines utilize standard designs that use standardized “off-the-shelf” components. The
equipment and auxiliaries that are used to construct a general-purpose steam turbine must be
designed and constructed for a minimum service life of 20 years with at least 3 years of
uninterrupted operation between overhauls.
Special-purpose steam turbines are highly engineered, high-efficiency (65% to 83%) steam
turbines that have an application-specific design. The equipment and auxiliaries that are used to
construct a special-purpose steam turbine must also be designed and constructed for a minimum
service life of 20 years with at least 3 years of uninterrupted operation between overhauls.
Figure 1 is a cross-sectional illustration of a view of a general-purpose, single-valve,

backpressure, steam turbine in accordance with API 611. Figure 1 calls out the turbine
components that are listed below:
• Turbine casing
• Steam chest (turbine cover)
• Throttle valve
• Blades
• Rotor
• Turbine wheel
• Seals
• Bearings
• Turbine supports

The cross-sectional view shows the relationship between the components of a general-purpose
steam turbine. This diagram should be referenced for the following discussions of general-
purpose steam turbine components.
Figure 1. General-Purpose, Single-Valve, Backpressure Steam Turbine

Figure 2 is a cross-sectional illustration of a view of a special-purpose steam turbine in accordance

with API 612. Figure 2 calls out the turbine components that are listed below:
• Turbine casing
• Steam chest
• Throttle valve
• Blades
• Turbine rotor
• Diaphragm assemblies
• Seals
• Bearings (thrust and journal)
• Turbine supports
• Turbine nozzles
• Nozzles
The cross-sectional view shows the relationship between the components of a special-purpose
steam turbine. This diagram should be referenced for the following discussions of special-purpose
steam turbine components.

Figure 2. Special-Purpose Steam Turbine
Casing
The steam turbine casing is defined in API 611 and API 612 as the composite of all stationary
pressure-containing parts of the steam turbine. Steam turbine casings provide the following
design requirements and functions:
• They contain the steam.

• They support the stationary internals (nozzles and interstage diaphragms).
• They house the gland labyrinths.

• They house the steam admission valves (except on large electric utility steam
units).
• They support the journal and thrust bearing housings.
Steam turbine casings are designed and constructed to meet the requirements of the turbine. The
design requirements of casings for general-purpose steam turbines and for special-purpose steam
turbines are detailed in the respective API standards. Both types of turbines require that all
pressure parts be at least suitable for operation at the most severe conditions of coincident
pressure and temperature expected with the specified steam conditions.
Special-purpose steam turbines require an axially split turbine casing. General-purpose steam
turbines may use casings that are either axially or radially split. Both types of turbines require the
use of a metal-to-metal joint that is tightly maintained through use of a suitable bolting. Gaskets
are not allowed to be used between the two casing halves. However, a suitable, high-
temperature, nonhardening, joint compound, such as R.T.V-Silastic or equal, is acceptable for
sealing the two casing halves.
An axially split casing must be sufficiently rigid to allow removal and replacement of its upper half
without disturbing rotor-to-casing running clearances. These casings and their supports must be
designed to have sufficient strength and rigidity to limit any change of shaft alignment at the
coupling flange to 0.002 inch (50 micrometers).
The use of sliding pedestals, flexible supports, or a combination of sliding pedestals and flexible
supports provides longitudinal and crosswise thermal expansion of the casing. To prevent
excessive strain in the pipe and casing, all pipe attached to the casing must be arranged with
sufficient flexibility or sliding freedom.
Any water that is formed as the case and piping are warmed up is removed through drainage
system connections in the lower half of the casing. These connections also remove the water that
condenses in the turbine as the steam expands to the exhaust pressure. Drain connections on
special-purpose turbine casings must be at least 1-inch (25.4 mm) minimum pipe size to ensure
complete drainage. The minimum pipe size for general-purpose turbine casings’ drain
connections is 3/4 inch (19.05 mm).
To protect the turbine from the entry of water into the turbine casing, extraction turbine casings
with uncontrolled extraction openings have nonreturn valves that are installed in the extraction
openings. Any water that is allowed to enter the turbine will cool the lower portion of the casing,
and it will cause the casing to deflect upward sufficiently to rub the interstage labyrinths or, in
extreme cases, will cause severe damage to the blading. To prevent the entry of water into the
turbine casing, extraction turbines with controlled extraction openings normally have a
hydraulically actuated, swing check valve that is installed in a horizontal run of pipe below the
turbine.

To provide water drainage to the condenser hot well, condensing turbines that have upward-
facing exhausts are provided with a drain connection in the lower half of the casing.
Backpressure turbines that have upward-facing exhausts are provided with a nonreturn-valved line
to a subatmospheric line for drainage during startup.
Steam Chests and Valves
The steam chest section of a turbine is the steam inlet to the turbine. Steam chests are found on
multi-valve turbines. Single-valve turbines use an annular steam chest. Steam chests are
classified as integral steam chests or separable steam chests. The design requirements and
functions of the steam chest are as follows:
• To house the control valves

• To receive the supplied steam
• To direct the steam to the first-stage nozzle assembly
The primary function of the steam turbine valves is to regulate the steam flow while allowing only
a minimum pressure drop, and, thus, to provide the appropriate horsepower and speed.
Throttling that occurs across the valve(s) reduces the thermal performance of the turbine. The
design requirement that is associated with the valve(s) is the minimization of the efficiency loss.
Integral Steam Chest
Saudi Aramco uses only integral steam chests for multi-valve applications. Integral steam chests
are fabricated as part of the upper turbine casing, as shown in Figure 3. Depending on steam flow
requirements, the steam chest can have one or two steam inlets. The steam inlets direct the steam
from the main stop valve into the steam chest. A cover (which is not called out in Figure 3) that
supports the controls valves is bolted to the top of the steam chest in order to form the steam
chest closure. The dual entrance design, which has the entrance at opposite sides of the steam
chest, minimizes turbulent flow of steam through the steam chest.

Figure 3. Integral Steam Chest
Separable Steam Chest
Separable steam chests are fabricated separately from the turbine casing, and they are not directly
mounted on the steam turbine. As shown in Figure 4, the steam is piped to the first-stage nozzle
assembly from the steam chest. The steam turbine that is shown in Figure 4 is constructed with
two steam chests, each of which is a separate fabrication. Each steam chest receives steam
through the main stop valves. The control valves direct the steam through the steam chests to the
inlets of the first-stage nozzles. Separable steam chest designs are used primarily for large, central
power station steam turbines.

Figure 4. Separable Steam Chest
Single Valve
Single-stage and some general-purpose multi-stage steam turbines may have a single inlet control
valve to regulate the inlet steam. The steam turbine that was previously shown in Figure 1 was a
single-valve steam turbine. The turbine inlet is constructed with a single, double-seated throttle
valve that controls the inlet of the steam to the turbine. A balanced-type poppet valve is normally
used for single-valve control systems to minimize the efficiency losses that are caused by
throttling.

Multi-Valve
Multi-stage turbines normally use several control valves to regulate the inlet steam. To minimize
efficiency losses, the steam turbine integral steam chest that was previously shown in Figure 3
uses a multi-valve control arrangement. Typical multi-valve steam turbines are constructed with
three to eight control valves to regulate the inlet steam. The design and construction of multi-
valve control systems allows individual valves to be opened as necessary to control the inlet
steam. The valves are controlled by the steam turbine governor in order to modulate in position
from just barely open at full speed, no load, to nearly 100% open at full loads. The valves are
designed to sequentially open so that the increase in flow area that is produced is directly
proportional to the increase in steam flow. Because only the flow through one of the control
valves incurs a throttling loss, this design minimizes efficiency losses.
Hand Valve
Steam turbines that use the single-valve control system will often employ hand valves to improve
the efficiency of the turbine at reduced loads. Hand valves are also designed to improve the
efficiency of the turbine when operating at full rated load, but at a reduced steam pressure. To
reduce throttling losses and increase efficiency, hand valves can adjust the nozzle area to the
correct area required by the steam flow for a particular load condition.
The general-purpose steam turbine that was previously shown in Figure 1 contained a hand valve.
A simple hand valve arrangement is shown in Figure 5. As the steam enters the inlet, the control
valve opens to admit steam to the nozzles. The hand valves are opened to increase the nozzle
area for the inlet steam and to reduce the throttling loss through the control valve. Both hand
valves would be wide open at or near full load. Hand valves must be either wide open or fully
closed; they should not be used as throttling valves. As the load on the steam turbine is reduced,
one or both of the hand valves are closed to reduce the throttling loss through the control valve.

Figure 5. Simple Hand Valve Arrangement
Diaphragm
A diaphragm, which is illustrated in Figure 6, is a disc-like structure that is located between each
row of rotating blades. The function of the diaphragm is to hold the stationary blades or nozzles
in place. The diaphragm fits into circumferential slots in the turbine casing inside diameter.
Diaphragms are constructed with a horizontal split to allow the upper half of the diaphragm to be
removed with the upper half of the turbine casing. A horizontal joint key that extends from the
interstage labyrinths to the nozzle vanes and, in larger diaphragms, from the nozzle vanes to the
outside diameter ensures proper alignment of the diaphragm halves. The horizontal joint key is
usually extended slightly into the interstage labyrinth to serve as an antirotation device. To obtain
true centerline support of the diaphragm, the lower halves of the diaphragm are supported on
centerline support keys at the horizontal split. A key is also added at the bottom center of the
diaphragm to hold it on centerline crosswise. The labyrinth seal reduces steam leakage between
the rotor and the diaphragm. Labyrinth seals are discussed in detail later in this section. Seal
strips or acceptable high-temperature joint compound along the steam joint face reduces leakage
around the diaphragm.
Each diaphragm half consists of an outer half ring, a nozzle vane half ring, and an inner half ring
that holds the interstage labyrinth. The half rings are welded together to form one integral part.
The inner and outer half rings may be made of stainless steel in high-moisture portions of the
steam path, or they may be made of carbon steel in superheated-steam portions.

Figure 6. Turbine Interstage Diaphragm
Nozzle Ring
The function of a nozzle is to convert the stored thermal energy of the steam into kinetic energy
or velocity. In the reaction turbine, both the fixed blades and the moving blades serve as nozzles.
In the impulse turbine, the energy conversion takes place only when the steam passes through the
nozzles. Nozzles come in many different shapes, and they are engineered and designed for
various applications. The nozzle is shaped to cause an increase in the velocity of the steam as it
expands from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area. The nozzle also serves to direct the
steam to impinge upon the turbine blades at the desired angle. The angle of the steam entering the
turbine blades is known as the incidence angle and is usually close to zero degrees, that is, it
matches the entrance angle of the blade.

A stage of turbine nozzles is constructed into a nozzle ring as part of the diaphragm. As
previously shown in Figure 6, the diaphragm contains many partitions or nozzle vanes that have
the appearances of airfoils. When the partitions are placed together, they form a nozzle ring. The
partitions increase the velocity of the steam and change the direction of the steam flow to impinge
upon the moving blades. Regardless of steam conditions, the nozzles vanes are usually made of a
stainless steel that contains 12 percent chromium.
A nozzle is basically a smooth-shaped hole in a wall that separates a high-pressure region from a
low-pressure region. The high-pressure steam expands through the nozzle and emerges at the
low-pressure side as a high-speed jet of steam. Nozzles may have many forms, but all nozzles are
similar in principle of operation. All nozzles consist of an inlet section, a throat, and a mouth. In
addition to their primary function of energy conversion (thermal to kinetic), nozzles also serve to
direct the high-speed jet of steam tangentially onto the moving blades where the final energy
conversion takes place (kinetic to mechanical).
The velocity of steam flow through any restricted channel, such as a nozzle, depends upon the
difference between the pressure at the inlet of the nozzle and the pressure at the region around the
outlet of the nozzle. With an equal pressure at the inlet and the outlet of a nozzle, a static
condition exits with no flow. If the pressure at the inlet side is maintained while the pressure at
the outlet side is gradually decreased, the steam will begin to flow. The steam's velocity will
increase as the outlet pressure is decreased. If the outlet pressure continues to decrease, a point is
reached at which the velocity of steam is equal to the velocity of sound in steam. This point is
commonly referred to as the critical flow; a further reduction in the pressure at the outlet region
will not produce any further increase in the velocity.
The ratio of outlet pressure to inlet pressure at which the critical flow is reached is called the
critical pressure ratio. The critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.55 for superheated steam.
The velocity of the flow through a nozzle is a function of the pressure differential across the
nozzle. The steam velocity increases as the outlet pressure decreases in relation to the inlet
pressure until the critical pressure ratio is reached. No further increase in steam velocity will
occur when the outlet pressure is reduced below 55 percent of the inlet pressure.
When the pressure at the outlet of a nozzle is designed to be higher than the critical pressure ratio,
a simple convergent (parallel-wall) nozzle may be used. In a convergent nozzle, which is shown
in Figure 7, the cross-sectional area at the outlet is the same as the cross-sectional area at the
throat. Because no expansion of steam takes place beyond the throat of the nozzle, a convergent
nozzle is often referred to as a nonexpanding nozzle. High-pressure steam enters the inlet section
of the nozzle and expands as it passes through the throat to the low-pressure area.

The operation of a convergent nozzle works in principle, but it is not very practical in most high-
pressure applications. The steam tends to expand in all directions and is very turbulent as the
steam exits the nozzle into the low-pressure area. It is difficult to efficiently direct the flow of the
turbulent steam. Some of the steam will strike the moving blades at inefficient angles and will
cause increased friction losses to occur as the steam flows through the moving blades.
Figure 7. Convergent Nozzle
To allow the steam to expand without the turbulence that occurs in the convergent nozzle, a
section is added after the throat. The cross-sectional area of this additional section gradually
increases from the throat to the mouth of the nozzle. The increase in the cross-sectional area
causes the steam to emerge in a uniform steady flow. This type of nozzle, as shown in Figure 8, is
called a convergent-divergent nozzle. High-pressure steam enters the inlet section of the nozzle,
and it expands as it passes through the throat to the low-pressure area.
Convergent-divergent nozzles are used when the pressure at the outlet area of the nozzle is
required to be lower than the critical pressure ratio. The size of the throat and the length of the
divergent section of every nozzle must be specifically designed for the pressure ratio for which the
nozzle will be used. Operation at any pressure ratio other than the design pressure ratio will
cause a decrease in nozzle efficiency. Because expansion takes place from the throat to the mouth
of the nozzle, this type of nozzle is often called an expanding nozzle.

Figure 8. Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
The steam that is supplied to the first-stage nozzles can be supplied in two ways: full arc
admission or partial arc admission. In full arc admission, the outlet of the steam chest is delivered
to all of the first-stage nozzles all of the time. There is a 360-degree arc of admission to the first-
stage nozzles and blades. Partial arc admission is used to reduce the amount of energy that is
removed from the steam across the first stage of the turbine. In partial arc admission, the outlet
of the steam chest is delivered to sections of the first-stage nozzles. Partial arc admission can be
accomplished through use of several different methods. One method to accomplish partial arc
admission, typically used for single-valve turbines, is to install nozzles only in sections around the
periphery of the turbine blading to supply steam to only a portion of the 360-degree arc. Another
method to accomplish partial arc admission is to construct the steam chest with the outlet
passages or pipes from the control valves to different sections of the first-stage nozzle assembly,
as shown in Figure 9. The partial arc admission method shown in Figure 9 is typically used for
multi-valve turbines. As each control valve is opened, steam is supplied to a different section of
the first-stage nozzle assembly. The steam can be supplied to just the upper half of the turbine
assembly, as shown in Figure 9, or the steam can be supplied to two different sections by one
control valve, one section in the upper half and one section in the lower half. Steam is typically
supplied to opposite sides in each half (top and bottom) of the turbine to equalize the balance of
steam flow to the turbine.

Figure 9. Partial Arc Admission
Blades
The function of turbine blades is to receive the steam from the nozzles and to convert the steam
into useful work. Figure 10 shows a turbine blade and disc section. The blade disc is used to
attach the blades around the circumference of the rotor assembly.
When the blades are assembled on the blade disc, a shroud ring is placed around the outer ends of
the blades. The tips of the blades pass through holes in the shroud ring. The ends are then riveted
or welded to hold the blades securely to the shroud ring. The shroud ring supports the blades at
the outer diameter, dampens vibration, and confines the steam to the blade path.

Modern, high-speed turbines use blades with integral shrouds. The shroud is actually an integral
part of the blade. The blade shrouds interlock when the blade is under the centrifugal force of
operation. The use of integral blade shrouds dampens blade vibration and eliminates riveting
and/or welding. A turbine wheel (blades, shroud, and blade disc) is contoured to approximate the
expansion characteristics of the steam.
The blade disc and the blade root are constructed to have a mated fit at the point at which the
blade attaches to the blade disc. A dovetail channel is designed into the blade disc that matches
the blade root design, as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Turbine Blade and Disc Section
The various types of blade roots designs that are used in steam turbines, as shown in Figure 11,
are as follows:
• Inverted circumferential dovetail

• Pine tree dovetail
• Straddle-tee dovetail

Figure 11. Types of Blade Root Designs
The type of blade root design selected is a function of vendor experience, blade tip speed, and
blade loading (horsepower per stage). Turbine blading is designed to match the conditions in the
section of the turbine in which the blading is located. In the first stage (the control or high-
pressure stage), the blade is subjected to shocks from steam pressures that vary as the blade
passes the inlet nozzle groups. The blades that are used in the high-pressure stages are short and
sturdy. The blade length must be increasingly longer from the high-pressure end of the turbine to
the exhaust end of the turbine to accommodate the increased specific volume of the steam as the
steam approaches the exhaust end of the turbine. The blades at the low-pressure end of the
turbine are long enough to require that the blades be tapered from the base of the blade to the tip
of the blade. This tapering is necessary to meet radial loading requirements that are caused by the
increased centrifugal force in the longer blades. The blades at the low-pressure end are also
normally twisted to accommodate the increase in peripheral velocities from the base of the blade
to the tip of the blade. The low-pressure end blades are commonly reaction-type blades and
contribute a significant increase to thrust loading since there is a pressure drop across the reaction
blade.
The increase in blade length can be explained through the use of the continuity equation:
•
m = ρAv

Where:
•
m = Mass flow rate in lbm/sec
ρ = Density in lbm/ft3
A = Cross-sectional area of the blade in ft2
v = Steam velocity normal to A in ft/sec
•
For any given power level, the mass flow rate ( m ) of the steam through the turbine is constant.
The density of steam decreases from about 1.0 lbm/ft3 at a turbine inlet pressure of 500 psia to
less than 0.01 lbm/ft3 at turbine exhaust pressures (approximately 0 psia). Although the steam
velocity varies considerably within a turbine stage, the steam's velocity from one stage to the next
stage within an entire turbine is relatively constant. Because of the constant mass flow rate, the
large decrease in steam density, and the relatively constant steam velocity, the length of the blade
must be increased to provide the necessary flow area.
Because the pressure drops across the stages of a turbine, a force is exerted along the rotor of the
turbine. A pressure drop across a row of moving reaction blades develops a net force on that
blade row and, hence, the rotor, in the direction of the decreasing pressure. This force is an axial
thrust or axial loading. The axial thrust that is contributed by a single reaction turbine stage is
equal to the product of the pressure decrease across the moving blade row and the surface area
over which the pressure decrease occurs. The steam pressure does not decrease across the
moving blades of an ideal impulse stage. However, in actual turbine operation, a small pressure
decrease does occur due to the friction between the steam and the blades. This pressure decrease
causes a small axial thrust to be developed. To minimize the pressure decrease across the moving
blades and to minimize the axial thrust, small holes are often drilled in the turbine disc that
supports the moving blades of impulse stages to equalize the pressure across the moving blades.
Reaction blading is designed to produce a pressure decrease across the moving blades.
Consequently, the axial thrust on reaction blading is much greater than the axial thrust on impulse
blading. Because drilling holes in the turbine disc (as in an impulse stage) would cause some
steam to bypass the reaction blading and would reduce the stage efficiency, holes are not used to
reduce axial thrust in reaction stages. An older design practice that is used to reduce the axial
thrust in reaction turbines is to use a hollow-type constructed rotor. The rotor is a hollow forged
drum, that is shrank and keyed on forged shaft spindle ends or a flanged drum that is bolted to
flanged shaft spindle ends. The moving blades are mounted on this hollow rotor instead of being
mounted on discs. Use of a hollow-type rotor limits the area that is exposed to the pressure
decrease that occurs across the blades to the blade area, which results in a lower axial thrust.
Another practice that is used to reduce the axial thrust in low-pressure reaction turbines is to
design the turbine so that the steam enters the middle of the turbine and flows in opposite
directions to exhaust chambers at each end. This type of design eliminates the axial thrust
because the thrust on one half of the turbine is balanced by an equal and opposite directed thrust
on the other half of the turbine. A third method that is used to compensate for axial thrust is
through the use of a dummy piston and cylinder, which is discussed in detail later in this section of
the module.

Blade Natural Frequency and Resonance
The blades that are used in constant-speed turbines are tuned to eliminate any natural frequencies
in the blades that may operate in resonance with other frequencies in the turbine. The following
are some of the considerations for resonance that are used to tune the blades:
• The speed of the turbine.

• The passing frequency of the nozzle.
• Any other weak or strong variations of steam pressure around the circumference
of the stage.
• Stimuli from the blade disc.
• Torque variations in the turbine.
For a variable-speed turbine, the considerations that are used for constant-speed turbine blades
must be expanded to cover the speed range over which the turbine may operate. Figure 12 is a
Campbell Diagram for an intermediate stage of a variable-speed turbine. The Campbell diagram is
a graph of speed (RPM x 1000) versus frequency (x 1000, Hz), and it indicates the difficulty that
is encountered to avoid resonance. Fundamental excitations or multiple excitations can produce
excessive alternating stress levels in the blades. The diagram shows the natural frequencies of the
blades and the excitation that could result in a resonant condition. The natural frequencies of the
blades noted in Figure 12 are the first tangential frequency (TI), the second tangential frequency
(TII), and the rotational frequency (Ro). The natural frequencies are based on groups of blades
that are shrouded together. Because of the machining tolerances, these frequencies can vary
slightly from blade to blade. The variance in blade frequency differences is taken into account on
the diagram by expanding the natural frequencies into frequency bands: TI, TII, and Ro. The
natural frequency bands shown in Figure 12 are based on the blade natural frequencies. The blade
disc natural frequencies must also be considered.
For short blades, the nozzle-passing frequencies (NPF) are possible excitation sources. The NPF
excitation is the steam impulse on a blade as the blade passes each nozzle in the diaphragm in one
full revolution. For long blades, low per-revolution (number/REV) excitations are possible. The
low per-revolution excitations are possible as multiples of the running speed or as multiples of
equally spaced discontinuities in the flow path. For example, the horizontal split forms a
discontinuity and provides a 2/REV excitation. The 5/REV indicates five equally spaced
discontinuities in the flow path.
Intersection of the exciting frequency (5/REV, NPF, or 2 x NPF) with the blade natural
frequencies (TI, TII, and Ro) in the speed range of the turbine indicates the existence of a
resonance. The blading must be designed and manufactured to resist the alternating stresses that
result from operation in the resonance. When resonances occur, the vibration amplitude and the
stress increase until they are limited by damping in the structure and material.

Figure 12. Campbell Diagram

Many factors affect the performance and reliability of steam turbine blades. Steam turbine
manufacturers rely on a Goodman Diagram, as shown in Figure 13, for blade stress evaluation. A
Goodman Diagram is a graph of a blade's steady-state stress in psi verses the blade's alternating
stress in psi. The strength of the blade material at the design operating temperature is used for the
blade's steady-state ultimate stress (SULT). Two maximum alternating stress limits are established:
the uncorrected endurance limit (SE1) and the corrected endurance limit (SE2). The uncorrected
endurance limit (SE1) that is used is based on the ultimate stress of the blade. The uncorrected
endurance limit, as shown by the following formula, is equal to one-half the ultimate stress.
SE1 = SULT x .50
Where:
SE1 = Uncorrected Endurance Limit
SULT = Steady-state Ultimate Stress
The corrected endurance limit (SE2) that is used is based on the ultimate stress and a fatigue notch
factor. The fatigue notch factor is equal to 1.50. The corrected endurance limit is calculated
through use of the following formula:
.50
SE2 = SULT x
1.50
Where:
SE2 = Corrected Endurance Limit
SULT = Steady-state Ultimate Stress
1.50 = Fatigue Notch Factor
A straight line is drawn between the steady-state ultimate stress and the corrected endurance limit.
This line represents the blade failure line. Theory states that blade failure will occur when the
total stress in the material is to the right of the blade failure line. The steady-state stress of a blade
is equal to the sum of the centrifugal stress (SC) and steam bending stress (SGB) that is applied to
the blade. The total steady-state stress (SC + SGB) is plotted on the vertical axis of the graph. A
straight horizontal line is drawn from the total steady-state stress point to intersect the failure line.
A vertical line is constructed from the point where the total steady-state stress intersects the
failure line. The point becomes the allowable alternating stress. In theory, the steady-state stress
can equal the ultimate stress without the blade failing when the alternating stress is zero. The
alternating stress can also equal the corrected endurance limit without the blade failing when the
steady-state stress is zero. Blade reliability is a combination of steady-state stresses and
alternating stresses.

Figure 13. Goodman Diagram
Rotor
A turbine rotor contains the rotating elements of a steam turbine: the shaft, the blade discs, and
the blades. The function of the rotor is to transmit the rotating mechanical energy from the
turbine blades to the load. In accordance with the API Standards for general-purpose and special-
purpose steam turbines, the rotors must be capable of operation without damage at momentary
speeds up to 110 percent of the trip speed for the turbine. The rotors must also be assembled to
prevent relative movement between the discs and the shafts at any startup or operating condition
and at any speed up to 110 percent of the turbine trip speed.
Steam turbine rotors may be constructed in a variety of methods. Two of the most common types
of rotor constructions are the integral type and the built-up type.
Integral
Figure 14 is an illustration of an integral-type rotor assembly. The turbine blade discs are
integrally forged with the shaft to form one integral piece. The turbine blades are mounted on the
integrally forged discs. Saudi Aramco 31-SAMSS-010 requires the integral-type rotor on special-
purpose steam turbines with steam inlet pressures greater than 600 psig.
Figure 14. Integral-Type Rotor Assembly

Built-Up
Figure 15 is an illustration of one type of a built-up type of rotor assembly. The shaft is a
machined forging. The blade discs are separate machined forgings that are mounted on the shaft.
The blade discs may be attached to the shaft with a shrink fit, as shown in Figure 15, or the blade
discs may be keyed to the shaft and assembled with a shrink fit, as shown in Figure 16.
In accordance with the API Standards for general-purpose and special-purpose steam turbines,
the blade discs must be keyed to the shaft and assembled with a shrink fit. The API Standards
also require that the specific approval of the purchaser is required to use rotors that are of the
built-up design when the blade tip velocities at the turbine's maximum continuous speed exceed
825 feet per second or when the first stage inlet steam temperature exceeds 825°F.
Figure 15. Built-Up Type of Rotor Assembly

Figure 16. Built-Up Type of Rotor Assembly with Blade Discs Keyed to Shaft
Thrust Balancing
Thrust balancing is used to eliminate or to counterbalance the axial thrust that is transmitted from
the rotor to the thrust bearing. As previously discussed, thrust in impulse turbines is minimized by
drilling small holes in the turbine disc that supports the moving blades of impulse stages, which
equalizes the pressure across the moving blades. Axial thrust in reaction turbines is minimized by
using a hollow-type rotor that is constructed to limit the area that is exposed to the pressure
decrease that occurs across the blades to the blade area or by designing the turbine so that the
steam enters the middle of the turbine and flows in opposite directions to exhaust chambers at
each end.
A third method that is used to compensate for thrust balancing is through the use of a balance
drum, as shown in Figure 17. A balance drum is also called a “dummy piston” or “balance
piston.” The balance drum compensates for the axial thrust that is imposed on the rotor due the
differential pressure across the rotor. This design uses the differential pressure across the balance
drum to counterbalance the axial thrust. The use of a balance drum to counterbalance the axial
thrust enables the use of a smaller thrust bearing. The use of a smaller thrust bearing results in a
decrease in the horsepower loss that is due to the thrust friction.

The balance drum is an extension of the rotor drum at the high-pressure end of the turbine that
has a step-like cross section. A balance ring surrounds the balance drum. An equalizing pipe
(sometimes called a “balance line”) connects the exhaust end of the turbine with the low-pressure
side of the balance drum. The balance line equalizes the pressure between the exhaust end of the
turbine and the low-pressure side of the balance drum.
The total rotor thrust is equal to the summation of all of the individual blade row thrusts. The
balance drum thrust is equal to the differential pressure across the balance drum times the balance
drum area. The thrust bearing load is equal to the total rotor thrust minus the balance drum
thrust. Turbine vendors design the balance piston area based on experience. The use of a balance
piston does not necessarily mean thrust load is zero, nor does it ensure the direction of “active
thrust.” Active thrust is defined as the normal thrust direction.
Full turbine inlet steam pressure is applied to the high-pressure side of the balance drum, which is
shown as area “A” in Figure 17. Turbine exhaust pressure is applied to the low-pressure side of
the balance drum. The pressure difference across the balance drum and the size difference (area)
between the high-pressure side of the balance drum (area “A”) and the low-pressure side of the
balance drum determine the amount of axial thrust that is applied toward the high-pressure end of
the turbine. The axial thrust from the balance drum counterbalances the axial thrust that is caused
by the pressure decreases across the reaction blade rows. The size of the balance drum, both area
“A” and the low-pressure side, is designed to counterbalance the axial thrust that is caused by the
pressure decreases across the reaction blade rows during operation of the turbine at design
conditions.
Figure 17. Reaction Turbine with a Dummy Piston and Dummy Cylinder

Casing Shaft End Seals
The function of casing shaft end seals is to minimize the leakage of steam from the steam space of
each turbine section to the atmosphere at the point at which the shaft passes through the casing.
When the turbine is first started or when the turbine is at low load conditions, casing shaft end
seals also prevent leakage of air into the turbine. When a high-pressure turbine and an
intermediate-pressure turbine are within one casing, casing shaft end seals are used between the
turbines to minimize the internal steam leakage from one turbine to the other turbine. Leakage of
steam to the atmosphere is minimized through the use two types of seals: labyrinth-type shaft
seals and carbon ring-type shaft seals.
The design requirements for general-purpose steam turbines, in accordance with API 611, state
that the outer glands must be sealed at the shaft by carbon-ring or replaceable labyrinth seals or
both. The design requirements for special-purpose steam turbines, in accordance with API 612,
states that the outer glands must be sealed at the shaft by replaceable labyrinth seals unless
carbon-ring seals are specifically requested. If carbon-ring packing is specified, it can only be
used when the rubbing speed at the shaft-sealing surface is less than 160 feet per second (49
meters per second). The number of carbon rings must be determined by the service and venting
requirements, with a maximum average differential pressure per active sealing ring of 25 psi (1.72
bar) for special-purpose turbines and 35 psi (2.41 bar) for general-purpose steam turbines.
Springs for carbon packing must be nickel-chromium-iron alloy (heat-treated after cold coiling) or
equivalent material.
Figure 18 is an illustration of a turbine gland seal assembly that shows the use of labyrinth-type
shaft seals and carbon ring seals. On small mechanical-drive turbines, carbon packing ring seals
are often used alone to form the shaft seal. Four carbon packing rings will effectively seal the
turbine against a differential pressure of 30 to 35 psig. Whenever a greater pressure must be
contained, labyrinth-type seals are used in conjunction with carbon packing ring seals.
Carbon packing ring seals provide a contact seal between the shaft and the carbon ring, and
between the carbon ring and the gland housing. Carbon packing ring seals consist of a ring of
carbon that is positioned to ride on a polished surface of the shaft. The axial position of the
carbon ring is maintained by a spring. The spring forces the carbon ring against a sealing surface
in the gland housing. Any steam that leaks past the carbon ring will be removed to the gland
exhaust condenser by a slight vacuum that is placed in the cavity above the carbon seals. Any air
that leaks into the seal cavity will also be removed to the gland exhaust condenser.
A labyrinth-type seal arrangement provides a tortuous path with many restrictions between the
moving and stationary components to effectively reduce the steam flow and to limit the steam
leakage along the rotating shaft.

In a labyrinth-type seal, a small amount of steam leaks through very close clearances between the
labyrinth and the shaft. Each point of the labyrinth acts like a nozzle. As the steam flows across
each point, the pressure of steam decreases, the steam expands, and the velocity increases from
one seal ring to the next. As the steam enters and fills the space between the seal rings, the
velocity of the steam decreases to almost zero velocity. This process continues as the steam
passes through each point of the labyrinth. The pressure is reduced across each point, and less
leakage takes place. The number of points in a labyrinth gland depends on the steam pressure on
the turbine side of the labyrinth (high-pressure end or low-pressure end).
As shown in Figure 18, a turbine gland seal assembly can include several leakoff connections.
These connections provide a path from the gland seal assembly to a lower pressure area of the
turbine. For example, the connection that is labeled “first leakoff” is piped from the area between
the second and third labyrinth rings to the eighth stage of the turbine. The pressure at the eighth
stage of the turbine is lower than the pressure between the second and third labyrinth rings. The
steam would flow from between the two labyrinth rings back to the turbine. The connection that
is labeled “second leakoff” is piped to a stage of the turbine that is at a lower pressure than the
eighth stage, the twelfth stage, or the fifteenth stage. The gland sealing steam connection is used
to supply sealing steam to prevent leakage of air into the turbine when the turbine is first started
or when the turbine is at low load conditions. The gland exhaust condenser connection is used to
remove any steam, air, and noncondensible gases from that section of the gland seal assembly.
The gland exhaust condenser connection is maintained at a slight vacuum (5 to 10 inches water
vacuum). Any steam and condensable gases from the labyrinth side of the connection and any air
from the atmospheric side are drawn into the gland exhaust condenser connection.

Figure 18. Turbine Gland Seal Assembly
Bearings
The functions of bearings in a steam turbine are to support the rotor, to minimize friction losses,
and to position the rotor with respect to the stationary turbine components. Because of the close
clearances between the blades and the casing, the position of the rotor is extremely important in a
steam turbine.
Two types of bearings are used on steam turbines: anti-friction bearings and hydrodynamic
bearings. Anti-friction bearings are not allowed to be used on special-purpose steam turbines. In
accordance with API Standard 611 for General-Purpose Steam Turbines, anti-friction type
bearings may be used on steam turbines with a dN factor of less than 300,000. The dN factor is
the product of the bearing bore size in millimeters and the rated speed in revolutions per minute.
The Saudi Aramco standards state that anti-friction bearings are allowed to be used only on
general-purpose steam turbines with horsepower ratings that are less than 50 kW (67 hp). This
section briefly discusses the common types of anti-friction and hydrodynamic bearings that are
used on steam turbines.

Anti-Friction
Anti-friction bearings, so called because they are designed to overcome friction, are of two types:
ball bearings and roller bearings. In a plain bearing, the frictional resistance to sliding motion is
overcome by separating the surfaces with a fluid film. The anti-friction bearing substitutes rolling
motion for sliding motion through the use of rolling elements between the rotating and stationary
surfaces, which reduces friction to a fraction of that in plain bearings.
Basically, all anti-friction bearings consist of two hardened rings that are called the inner and the
outer rings or races, the hardened rolling elements that may be either balls or rollers, and a
separator or cage. Bearing size is usually given in terms of boundary dimensions. Boundary
dimensions are the outside diameter, the bore, and the width. The inner and outer rings provide
continuous tracks or races in which the rollers or balls roll. The separator or retainer properly
spaces the rolling elements around the track and guides the rolling elements through the load
zone. Other words and terms that are used in describing anti-friction ball bearings are the face,
the shoulders, or the corners. The terms that are used to describe taper-roller bearings are a little
different in that the outer ring is called the cup, and the inner ring is called the cone. The word
“cage” is standard for taper-roller bearings rather than separator or retainer.
Classified by function, ball bearings may be divided into three main groups: radial, thrust, and
angular-contact bearings. Angular-contact bearings can support combined radial and thrust loads.
Radial - Radial bearings are designed primarily to carry a load in a direction that is perpendicular
to the axis of rotation. There are several different types of radial anti-friction bearings, including
single-row ball bearings, double-row ball bearings, and cylindrical-roller bearings.
Single-row ball bearings are the most widely used of all ball bearings and probably of all anti-
friction bearings. Single-row ball bearings can sustain combined radial and thrust loads, or thrust
loads alone if they are angular-contact type bearings, in either direction, even at extremely high
speeds. Single-row ball bearings are also termed Type S or Conrad type bearings. A cross-
section of the single-row ball bearing is illustrated in Figure 19. This type of anti-friction bearing
is characterized by the absence of filling slots cut into the inner race for ease of assembly. The
ball element is positioned between an inner race and an outer race. Single-row, angular-contact
ball bearings can have equal load-carrying capabilities in either direction or one direction only,
depending on design. They are recommended for moderate to heavy radial loads, for thrust loads
in either direction, or for combination loads.

Figure 19. Single-Row Ball Bearing
Another type of ball bearing that is used for high radial load is the double-row, angular-contact
ball bearing shown in Figure 20. The double-row ball bearing uses the same principle of design as
the single-row bearing. However, the grooves for the two rows of balls are positioned so the load
through the balls tends to push outward on the outer ring races. The use of two rows of balls
increases the radial load capacity of the bearing and provides an increase in the amount of thrust
capacity.

Figure 20. Double-Row, Angular-Contact Ball Bearing
The cylindrical-roller bearing is a third type of radial anti-friction bearing. The cylindrical-roller
bearing is characterized by straight cylindrical-shaped rolling elements instead of ball elements.
These rolling elements are approximately equal in length and diameter. Cylindrical roller bearings
are used primarily for applications in which heavy radial loads must be supported or in which
radial loads are beyond the capacities of radial ball bearings of comparable sizes. Cylindrical
roller bearings are ideally suited for heavy loads in the moderate speed ranges because there is a
line contact between the rolling elements and the races. The line contact results in less
deformation of the rolling elements under heavy load conditions than the point contact
deformation of ball bearings of comparable size.
Thrust - Thrust bearings are designed to carry only axial or thrust loads. A thrust load is a force
that is parallel to the axis of rotation, which tends to cause axial motion of the shaft. The ball
thrust bearing that is shown in Figure 21 is the only type of anti-friction bearing that is a thrust
bearing. The ball thrust bearing cannot support radial loading. The ball thrust bearing consists of
a ball element, a separator ring, an inner race, and an outer race. The thrust load is transmitted
through the balls parallel to the axes of the shaft. Ball thrust bearings have a high thrust load
capacity. Ball thrust bearings must be at least moderately thrust-loaded at all times, and they must
not be operated at high speeds since centrifugal force will cause excessive loading of the outer
edges of the races.

Figure 21. Ball Thrust Bearing
Although the ball thrust bearing is the only true type of anti-friction thrust bearing, it is not
commonly used for steam turbines. Combination-type anti-friction bearings, which are bearings
that have the capacity to support radial and thrust loads, are more commonly used. Combination-
type thrust bearings include angular-contact bearings and double-row spherical-roller bearings.
Angular-contact bearings, as shown in Figure 22, can support radial loads when combined with
thrust loads in one direction. The inner and outer races are made with an extra high shoulder on
the thrust side. Angular contact bearings are designed for combination loads in which the thrust
component is greater than the capacity of single-row ball bearings.

Figure 22. Angular-Contact Bearing
The double row spherical roller bearing, which is shown in Figure 23, is a self-aligning bearing
that utilizes rolling elements that are shaped like barrels. The outer race has a single spherical
raceway. The inner race has two spherical raceways that are separated by a center flange. The
double row spherical roller bearing will support a heavy radial load and a heavy thrust load in both
directions. Double row spherical roller bearings are inherently self-aligning because the assembly
of the inner race, the center flange, and the rollers is free to swivel within the outer race.

Figure 23. Spherical Barrel-Shaped Roller Bearing
Hydrodynamic
The design of hydrodynamic bearings is principally concerned with the behavior of the liquid film
that separates the relatively moving components. Hydrodynamic bearings are frequently used in
turbine applications.
The basic requirements of a hydrodynamic bearing are that the bearing has a finite area, that the
bearing surface be presented to the fluid at a slight attack (or wedge) angle, and that there is a
relative sliding motion occurs between the components. If these conditions are met, then a
hydrodynamic pressure is generated along the bearing surface by compression of the fluid along
the converging wedge. This integrated film pressure can be sufficient to support the applied
bearing load on the fluid film. The film pressure at the maximum load point of hydrodynamic
bearings must be less than 500 psi to avoid a breakdown of the oil film.

A converging wedge fluid film is automatically generated in a lubricated journal bearing by the
running clearance between the journal and the bearing bore, combined with the effect of load and
rotation, which produces a displaced, eccentric disposition of the journal. The thickness of the oil
wedge at the maximum load point is usually 15 to 25 microns.
Typically, hydrodynamic bearings are fitted to accurately locate the rotating system within the
machine. Two radial bearings are normally required for radial location of the shaft; a thrust
bearing is mounted at one end of the shaft to locate the rotating system axially.
The major reasons for the use of hydrodynamic bearings are to optimize load-carrying capacity, to
minimize film thickness, to reduce power loss, and to lower heat generation for a given shaft
speed and diameter. Although the bearing diameter is usually set by the rotor diameter of the
turbine, the length can be adjusted at the design stage to provide additional surface area for load
support and to maintain the film pressure below 500 psi. The frictional resistance of a typical
liquid film is extremely low. When the film thickness is of sufficient magnitude to completely
separate the moving surfaces, the rate of wear of the bearing/shaft surfaces is effectively zero, and
a long service life is ensured.
Hydrodynamic flow is controlled by the bearing dimensions, the geometry, the clearance, the
journal's eccentricity, and the shaft running speed. The heat generation or power consumption in
a bearing film is produced by the work that is done in shearing the film. The bearing material
must be of adequate hardness and strength to support the load. Conversely the material must soft
enough to embed particulate debris to prevent damage to the turbine shaft. Good contact
compatibility is important. If lubrication becomes marginal, the material must be able to withstand
momentary contact with the shaft. Corrosion resistance is necessary to prevent the acidic
products of oxidation in the lubricating oil from corroding the bearing surfaces. The bearing
material must satisfy all of these requirements.
In general, the softer bearing materials (e.g., the whitemetals or babbitt) are best for high-speed
lightly loaded applications, such as turbine bearings, and they will withstand occasional contact
without serious damage. Babbitt or whitemetal thicknesses vary from 0.20” to 0.125” based on
bearing application. For highly loaded applications, a thin coating of a heat-conductive material
(copper or bronze) is placed between the whitemetal and steel layers. These bearings are typically
called “tri-metal” bearings.
When classified by function, hydrodynamic bearings may be divided into two main groups: radial
and thrust.
Radial - Radial hydrodynamic bearings depend on the relative motion of the journal (the portion
of the shaft supported that is supported by the bearing) to produce a fluid film pressure for load
support. The term “hydrodynamic” refers to the relative motion of the journal in relation to the
bearing that produces the fluid film pressure. A hydrodynamic bearing is different from a
hydrostatic bearing. Hydrostatic bearings (also known as “externally pressurized” bearings)
achieve load support by the supply of fluid from an external high-pressure source and require no
relative motion of the journal.

Radial hydrodynamic bearings are generally very simple in construction and operation. The
bearings are efficient, and they can support extremely heavy rotating loads. The ability to carry
the heavy loads is due to an oil wedge that is developed between the journal and the bearing
surface. The surface of the shaft journal slides over the surface of the bearing. A small space
between the bearing and the shaft allows oil to separate the surfaces. Figure 24 shows the
formation of the oil wedge during shaft rotation. When the shaft rotates, the fluid tangential force
and the fluid radial force act against the bearing load to lift the journal up and push the journal to
the side. Radial hydrodynamic bearings offer great rigidity and stability under extreme load
conditions. Radial hydrodynamic bearings are much less sensitive than roller bearings to vibration,
poor fits, corrosion, and contaminants. The fluid film with a radial hydrodynamic bearing absorbs
(viscously dampens) much of the force exerted by radial vibration of the journal within the
clearance between the shaft and the bearing babbitt lining
Figure 24. Shaft/Bearing Dynamics

A typical plain journal bearing is shown in Figure 25. The bearing is made in two halves that are
split at the horizontal centerline. The bearing is commonly called a split sleeve bearing. It is made
in two halves, that are split at the horizontal centerline. The split halves are bolted and doweled
together to ensure proper alignment and support for both halves. The bearing liner has a babbitt
bore that acts as the bearing surface. Babbitt is a tin-lead material that serves as a soft sacrificial
lining and that has a melting temperature of approximately 300°F. The outer diameter of the
bearing liner is either a flat or spherical shape (self-aligning) that mates with a similar shape in the
supporting pedestal. The spherical shape assists to lock the bearing liner in place and
accommodates minor internal misalignment between a set of radial bearings. Oil passages are
drilled through the pedestal and bearing liner to provide an oil inlet to the oil grooves of the
bearing.
An oil film separates the shaft journal from the bearing babbitt surface. Oil films may vary from
.0006 to about .001 inch (15 to 25 microns) in thickness at the point of minimum thickness. The
oil film thickness generally depends upon the load, the viscosity of the oil, the shaft speed and, to
some extent, the bearing clearance.
Figure 25. Typical Journal Bearing
Another type of journal bearing that is used in steam turbines is the multi-lobe journal bearing,
which is shown in Figure 26. The multi-lobe bearing has a series of slight depressions that run the
length of the bearing parallel to the axis of the shaft. The depressions provide the bearing with the
appearance of a series of lobes. The number of lobes varies from two to four over the
circumference of the bearing.

The multi-lobe bearing that is shown in Figure 26 has equal spacing between the depressions. The
spacing is off centered from the bottom of the bearing to prevent the journal from resting in a
depression. The equal spacing produces an equal lobe pattern around the bearing that breaks up
the hydraulic film and produces better stability during operation. At shaft speeds above
approximately 6,000 rpm, failure to break up the hydraulic film will cause the fluid to develop a
circumferential velocity. The force associated with this velocity will cause the journal to vibrate in
a circular or elliptical orbit and at a frequency that is 49 to 53% (.49x to .53x) shaft rotative
speed. Referred to as oil whirl, this pattern of vibration can cause damage to the bearing. An
aggravation of oil whirl is referred to as oil whip. Here, the vibration frequency induced by oil
whirl is the same as the natural vibration frequency of the rotor system. Therefore, the vibration
is resonant. The vibration is frequency and the consequently high displacement amplitude continue
regardless of changes in the rotative speed. Turbine failure will occur within minutes or hours of
inception of oil whip.
Figure 26. Multi-Lobe Journal Bearing
A third type of radial journal bearing that is used on steam turbines is called the pressure dam
bearing or pressure bearing. Its construction is essentially the same as the split sleeve radial
journal bearing with the exception that a shrouded step or dam is cut into the upper half of the
bearing. The viscous and inertia effects combine to build up pressure over the top half of the
bearing which, in effect places an artificial load on the lower half of the bearing. The artificial
load results in an increase in the eccentricity ratio which increases the bearings stability and the
bearing anti-whirl properties. It is important to note that the pressure dam must be in the upper
half of the bearing. Installation of the pressure dam in the lower half of the bearing will cause
bearing instability. Most pressure dam bearings are indexed to prevent misassembly, however,
older pressure dam bearing designs may not be indexed.

A common type of radial hydrodynamic bearing that is used in steam turbines is called the tilting-
pad bearing, which is shown in Figure 27. The tilting-pad bearing is more stable than the standard
journal bearing. Because of their excellent stability, tilting-pad bearings are usually used where
shaft stability is a problem. The increased stability helps to provide a greater degree of damping
of the turbine rotor, which avoids erratic vibration patterns. Tilting-pad bearings are used to
prevent oil whirl.
The tilting-pad bearing is made up of a series of identical babbitted pads or shoes. The shaft
journal rides on an oil film (0.0006” to 0.001”) and is supported by the pads. The number of pads
that are used in a tilting-pad bearing can vary. The more common designs use four, five, or six
pads. The bearing pads are made from a high-grade steel forging that is lined with a high-quality,
tin-base babbitt.
The pads usually have projections that fit under protection lips that are machined in the bearing
casing to prevent radial movement of the pads. Circumferential movement is prevented by pins
that pass through the bearing housing into holes in the pads.
To allow the pads to tilt freely without seizing or binding, the holes in the pads into which the pins
fit are larger than the diameter of the pins. The tilting action of each pad takes place because the
back half of the pad is machined to a radius that is less than the radius of the housing.
Oil enters the housing through oil inlets that are located between the pad segments. The oil
discharges through drain orifices that are provided in the housing. The tilting-pad helps to form
the oil wedge between the bearing surfaces and the shaft journal. Despite the relatively short span
of the pads, the load capacity of tilting-pad bearings is similar to the load capacity of conventional
bearings.

Figure 27. Typical Tilting-Pad Bearing
Thrust - Thrust bearings prevent axial (back and forth) movement of a turbine rotor, which can
cause the turbine blades to make contact with the turbine casing. Such contact can cause
extensive damage. Plain thrust bearings and tapered land thrust bearings are used in low-
horsepower, single-stage turbines. The load capacity of a plain thrust bearing is relatively low.
Radial grooves are cut into the thrust face as a passage for oil to cool and to lubricate the bearing
surface. Tapered land thrust bearings resemble plain thrust bearings. Figure 28 shows a tapered
land thrust bearing. The surface of the tapered land thrust bearing is divided into a number of
pads. Each pad is separated by an oil feed groove. Each pad is tapered in a circumferential
direction and radial direction. The taper allows the rotary motion to wipe oil into the contacting,
wedge-shaped area, which builds up a load-carrying oil wedge. The exact form of the pad surface
profile is not especially important. However, a flat land at the end of the tapered section is
necessary to avoid excessive local contact stress under start-up conditions. The land should
extend across the entire radial width of the pad, and it should occupy about 20 percent of the pad
circumferential length.

Figure 28. Tapered Land Thrust Bearing

The tilting-pad thrust bearing, as shown in Figure 29, is the most satisfactory thrust bearing for
heavy axial thrust, regardless of whether the shaft speed is high or low, or whether the shaft is
horizontally mounted or vertically mounted. Because the pads are pivotally supported and are
able to assume a small angle relative to the moving collar surface, the tilting-pad bearing is able to
accommodate a large range of speed, load, and viscosity conditions. The pivotal movement and
the small angle enable a full hydrodynamic fluid film to be maintained between the surfaces of the
pad and the collar. The tilting-pad thrust bearing has the inherent advantage of being able to
absorb significant amounts of thrust without excessive horsepower losses.
Figure 29. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing
The self-equalizing thrust bearing shown in Figure 30 is an alternative design of the tilting-pad
thrust bearing. The self-equalizing thrust bearing is one of the most common types of tilting-pad
thrust bearings that are used on rotating machinery.

The self-equalizing thrust bearing consists of a thrust collar, stationary shoes, leveling plates, and
a base ring. The thrust collar can be either a separate component that is mounted on the turbine
shaft, or it can be machined as an integral part of the turbine shaft. The stationary shoes lie with
their surfaces parallel to the thrust collar when the shaft is stationary. As the thrust collar starts to
rotate, an oil film is created between the stationary shoes and the thrust collar. As the oil film
builds up, each stationary shoe tilts to an angle that generates the proper distribution of the oil
film pressure. The tilt of each shoes creates an oil wedge under each shoe. The oil wedge film
can carry a heavier load than the flat film of oil for any given size.
Any axial movement that is generated by the turbine shaft is transmitted through the stationary
shoes to the leveling plates. The leveling plates uniformly distribute the thrust load around the
bearing to equalize the axial thrust that is generated by the shaft. A misaligned load will force the
leveling plates at the heaviest load point to tilt, which pushes the remaining stationary pads
outward to equalize the load over all of the stationary pads. The leveling plates transmit the axial
thrust to the base ring.
Similar to the load bearing section of a radial hydrodynamic bearing, thrust bearing shoe surfaces
may use the tri-metal design for high load applications.
Self-equalizing thrust bearings are used as both double-acting thrust bearings and single-acting
thrust bearings. Double-acting thrust bearings have stationary shoes and leveling plates on both
sides of the thrust collar. Double-acting thrust bearings are used in applications in which axial
thrust can be exerted in both directions, such as a reversing turbine. Single-acting thrust bearings
have stationary shoes and leveling plates only on one side. Single-acting thrust bearings are used
in applications in which axial thrust can be exerted in only one direction. In accordance with the
API Standards 611 and 612 for general-purpose and special-purpose steam turbines, all
hydrodynamic thrust bearings must be of the double-acting, load-self equalizing design.

Figure 30. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing
Bearing Housings and Turbine Support Arrangements
Foundations for steam turbines are built from strength members to provide a rigid support base.
Bearing housings and turbine support arrangements are carefully designed to provide free but
symmetrical movements as a result of thermal changes. The steam inlet end bearing housing and
turbine support is designed and constructed differently than the exhaust end bearing housing and
turbine support.
Steam Inlet End Bearing Housings and Turbine Supports
Steam inlet end bearing housings and turbine supports are designed to allow axial movement of
the turbine to allow for thermal growth of the turbine casing. The freedom of movement is
accomplished by two methods: wobble feet and sliding pedestals. The steam inlet end bearing
housing also normally houses the overspeed trip mechanism. The details concerning the trip
mechanism are discussed in Module MEX 213.04 of this course.

Figure 31 shows a steam turbine with the wobble feet steam end bearing housing and turbine
support. The wobble feet support design is basically a flexible support beam, I-beam, or channel
iron, that is installed with its longitudinal axis perpendicular to the turbine centerline. When the
turbine is cold, the turbine support is deflected slightly toward the exhaust end of the turbine. As
the steam turbine heats up, the casing undergoes thermal growth, with the entire turbine moving
slightly toward the steam end when the turbine is hot because the turbine casing is fixed on the
coupling or exhaust end.
Figure 31. Steam Turbine Wobble Feet

Figure 32 shows a front view and a side view of a typical steam turbine sliding pedestal steam end
bearing housing and turbine support. The sliding pedestal design is basically a set of grooved
sliding seats, a sliding pedestal, and keys. The sliding seats that are cut into the pedestal soleplate
allow the steam end of the turbine to slide slightly fore-and-aft as expansion and contraction
occur. The keys positively locate the turbine in a transverse direction while they permit free
expansion in an axial direction. The sliding pedestal provides the rigid foundation for the steam
turbine. The bearing housing and, therefore, the turbine casing are attached to the sliding pedestal
by an “H” beam that maintains the correct axial and transverse position of the turbine casing with
respect to the sliding pedestal. Lugs or support arms are attached to the pedestal soleplate to
provide a point of support and to hold the sliding pedestal as close to the horizontal centerline as
possible. When the turbine is cold, the turbine support slides slightly toward the exhaust end of
the turbine because the turbine casing is fixed on the coupling or exhaust end. As the steam
turbine heats up, the casing undergoes thermal growth, with the entire turbine moving slightly
toward the steam end when the turbine is hot.
Figure 32. Steam Turbine Sliding Pedestal
Exhaust End Bearing Housings and Turbine Supports
Exhaust end bearing housings and turbine supports are designed to hold the exhaust end of the
steam turbine rigid. The exhaust end bearing housing and turbine support normally house the
turning gear mechanism (when a turning gear is required).

Figure 33 shows a steam turbine with the exhaust end bearing housing and turbine support called
out. The support is of rigid beam construction that prevents any axial or transverse movement of
the exhaust end of the turbine. The exhaust end support is solidly bolted to the foundation and
the exhaust end bearing housing. A wobble foot turbine support on the steam end of the turbine
is also shown. Condensing turbine exhaust ends have a limited operating temperature and must be
monitored during low-load (startup) conditions. Since a small amount of energy is extracted from
the steam during low-load condition, exhaust end temperature will rise, causing excessive vertical
growth and possible damage to the exhaust end expansion joint connected to the turbine. A high-
temperature alarm is typically provided and set to alarm at approximately 225° to 250°F.

Figure 33. Exhaust End Turbine Support

Steam Inlet Controls
The steam turbine steam inlet controls must be designed to control the steam that is supplied to
the turbine. To meet this design requirement, the functions of the steam inlet controls include
isolating the turbine from the steam, regulating or throttling the amount of steam to the turbine,
and controlling the position of the turbine control valves. Two of the types of steam inlet controls
that are used to regulate or throttle the proper amount of steam to the steam turbine are the bar
lift control arrangement and the cam lift control arrangement. The steam inlet control that is used
to isolate the turbine from the steam supply is usually one common steam isolation valve, which is
called a trip and throttle valve, and will be discussed in MEX 213.04. The trip and throttle valve
is also used to gradually admit steam to the turbine after the steam stop valve or isolation valve
has been opened. Servomotors are normally used to control the position of the turbine control
valves. This section of the module describes the following steam inlet controls for multi-valve
steam turbines:
• Bar Lift Control Valve Arrangements

• Cam Lift Control Valve Arrangements
• Steam Inlet Control Servomotor
Bar Lift Control Valve Arrangements
The steam inlet control valves are located at the turbine inlet, which is downstream of the main
steam stop valve(s). The number of control valves normally varies from at least three to as many
as eight individual control valves per valve arrangement. The turbine control valves serve the
following purposes:
• To regulate the flow of steam into the turbine to control the turbine's speed before
the turbine is loaded.
• To regulate the flow of steam into the turbine to control the load after the turbine
is loaded.

The bar lift control valve arrangement, as shown in Figure 34, is one of the simplest designs that is
used to control a series of valves. All of the valve discs are connected to one crossbar. As the
crossbar is lifted, the valve discs are lifted off of their seats. The sequence in which the valves
open is controlled by the free valve stem length of the individual valve stems. The free valve stem
length is determined by adjusting the stop nut on each valve stem. After adjustment, the stop nuts
are secured in place. Steam from the main stop valve is supplied to the steam chest. As the
crossbar is raised, the valve with the shortest valve stem makes contact with the crossbar. As the
crossbar continues to be raised, the valve will open to admit steam to a specific nozzle section of
the first-stage nozzle. As the amount of steam that is required by the turbine increases, the height
that the crossbar is raised and the number of control valves that will open also increase. As the
crossbar continues to raise and before the first valve is fully open, the second valve stem will
make contact with the crossbar and start to open. A situation that is known as valve overlap
occurs when a second valve opens before the first valve is fully opened. The valve with the
longest valve stem will make contact with the crossbar last, and it will not start to open until all of
the other valves are opened. The adjustment of the valve stem to control the sequence of valve
opening is called valve timing. The setting of which valve opens in which order is called valve
sequencing.
Figure 34. Bar Lift Control Valve Arrangement

Cam Lift Control Valve Arrangements
Another method in use to control the position of the steam control valves is called the cam lift
control valve arrangement, as shown in Figure 35. The cam lift control valve arrangement is
typically used on large steam turbines (high steam flow and pressure, greater than 20,000 hp).
Each of the control valves is operated by a lever and cam mechanism. The cam is rotated by the
governor output control signal. As the cam rotates, the lever raises to lift the control valve stem
and disc from the seat to admit steam to the turbine. Cam lift control valves are used when a
large mechanical advantage is needed to open the control valves. The large mechanical advantage
provided by the cam lift type control arrangement is used for turbines that have larger steam flow
rates and a small number of control valves.
The control valves that are normally used with the cam lift control arrangement are balanced-type
control valves. Balanced-type control valves require less force to open the valve. A balanced-
type of valve has a small internal poppet valve that is attached to the valve stem. When the valve
stem starts to lift, the internal poppet valve opens to equalize some of the large pressure drop
across the main valve. As the stem continues to rise, the valve disc is lifted off the valve seat.
The valve is shut through use of closing springs that are mounted on top of the valve mechanism.
The closing springs force the disc to seat against the valve seat. The valve is held closed by the
spring force and the differential pressure across the valve.

Figure 35. Cam Lift Control Valve

Steam Inlet Control Valve Servomotor
Servomotors are hydraulic piston assemblies that are used to lift the steam admission valves
against the force of the steam pressure differential across the valve and the force of the valve
closing springs. Under ideal conditions, these forces can amount to several thousand pounds.
Figure 36 is an illustration of a single-acting hydraulic servomotor. A single-acting servomotor

uses hydraulic force to open the steam admission valves, and spring force is used to close the
steam admission valves. The illustrated servomotor uses 120 psig hydraulic control oil to
overcome the forces that hold the steam admission valves closed. The main servo piston is moved
in the direction to open (down) as the main pilot valve is raised to admit control oil above the
main servo piston. The main servo piston is moved in the direction to close (up) as the main pilot
valve is lowered to drain control oil from above the main servo piston as the valve-closing springs
pull upward on the main servo piston.
The main pilot valve is positioned by its own servo piston. Hydraulic pressure is applied to the
main pilot valve servo piston from a small pilot valve. The small pilot valve is positioned by the
action of the speed governor.

Figure 36. Servomotor

Turning Gear
The function of a turning gear is to rotate the turbine rotor slowly, typically less than 60 rpm, to
ensure that the rotor is evenly heated or cooled. The following are the turbine conditions when
the turning gear is engaged and operated:
• After the turbine is shut down and until the rotor has cooled to the final shutdown
temperature (normally ambient temperature).
• Prior to the startup of the turbine and until the turbine has warmed up to normal
operational temperature.
• When the turbine is hot in a standby condition for a short enough period of time
that the rotor does not cool to the final shutdown temperature.
If the turbine rotor is not rotated during these conditions, the rotor will absorb heat from hotter
sections of the turbine, such as the casing, and it will reject heat to the cooler locations, such as
the condenser tubes. If the rotor was allowed to remain at rest, the uneven heat absorption and
uneven heat rejection would cause the rotor to bow (expand in the hotter areas and contract in the
cooler areas) and be out of balance. A bowed rotor may take many hours of slow rotation with
warming steam applied to eliminate the bow. If the bow is not eliminated and the turbine is
accelerated through a rotor system natural frequency (critical speed), severe turbine damage can
result.
In accordance with 32-SAMSS-010 and API 612, a turning gear must be provided for special-
purpose turbines when any of the following conditions are met:
• Bearing span is 3 meters (118 in) or greater.

• Bearing span is 2.5 meters (98 in) or greater and normal steam inlet temperature is
400°C (752°F) or greater.
• Normal steam inlet temperature is 440°C (825°F) or greater.
• The turbine is a multistage, multi-valve design with a bearing span of 2 meters (79
in) and will be operated as a hot standby unit, ready for rapid start.

The need for a turning gear is typically determined by the bearing span and shaft diameter and the
rotor’s vulnerability to temporary bow during shutdown. Engagement of a turning gear that is
used on special-purpose turbines must be manual and possible only after lube-oil pressure has
been established. Disengagement must be automatic when the rotor accelerates during startup.
Engagement on shutdown before the rotor has come to a stop must be positively prevented if this
could damage the turning device or the steam turbine. Determination of the rotational speed must
take into consideration the duration of use, the minimum speed that is required for the formation
of bearing oil films, and the type of lube oil supply. The turning gear speed must prevent
disengagement due to acceleration of the rotor(s) when the turning gear is first engaged. A
turning gear operating station must be located adjacent to the turning gear engaging mechanism.
The station must have a jog, a start, and a stop push button to activate the turning gear driver.
The station must also have a light to indicate that the turning gear driver is operating. The turning
gear must use a driving mechanism that permits easy engagement and starting, and prevents
disengagement when the rotor first accelerates from rest.
Figure 37 shows a typical turning gear that is used on a large mechanical-drive turbine. An
electric motor is mounted on top of the turning gear case. The electric motor drives a rotor-
mounted gear through the first spur-gear reduction, a worm-gear reduction, and the second spur-
gear reduction. The second spur-gear reduction contains an idler gear that is mounted in a swing
cradle. The swing cradle moves the idler gear into engagement and out of engagement. With the
turning gearing engaged and in operation, the idler gear is held in engagement with the rotor-
mounted gear through use of the gear teeth reactions. If the turbine rotor increases in speed
above the speed of the idler gear, the idler gear will disengage from the rotor-mounted gear, and
the swing cradle will move the idler gear away from the rotor-mounted gear. This automatic
disconnect protects the turning gear assembly against unintended steam admission to the turbine.
If the turning gear did not have an automatic disconnect feature, an unintended steam admission
to the turbine with the turning gear engaged would backdrive the turning gear and electric motor
to destruction.

Figure 37. Turning Gear Assembly

DETERMINING THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
In accordance with the API Standards for General-Purpose Steam Turbines (API 611) and
Special-Purpose Steam Turbines (API 612), the material requirements for construction of a steam
turbine must be identified with the material's applicable ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAES number.
These identifications must include the material grade. This section of the module discusses the
material requirements that are associated with general-purpose steam turbines and that are in
accordance with API 611 and Saudi Aramco Material Systems Specification 32-SAMSS-009. It
also discusses the material requirements that are associated with special-purpose steam turbines
and that are in accordance with API 612 and Saudi Aramco Material Systems Specification 32-
SAMSS-010. The material requirements that are associated with the API standard will be
described in detail, and any exceptions and special requirements that are associated with the Saudi
Aramco Material Specifications will be emphasized.
The materials of construction that are used for general-purpose steam turbines can be the
manufacturer's standard materials for the specified operating conditions of the turbines, except as
required by Saudi Aramco data sheets or by API 611. When a vendor proposes to supply a
general-purpose steam turbine, all of the materials of construction must be identified, in the
proposal, with their applicable ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE numbers. The material grade must
also be included in the proposal. If the vendor does not supply the ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE
designation, the vendor's material specification must provide the physical properties, the chemical
composition, and the test requirements of all of the materials of construction.
In accordance with API 611 and 32-SAMSS-009, all pressure parts must be manufactured of steel
if the maximum steam conditions to which the parts may be subjected exceed either 250 psig (17
bar) or 500°F (260°C) or if the normal steam temperature exceeds 450°F (232°C). The exhaust
casings of noncondensing turbines must be manufactured of steel if the maximum exhaust
pressure may exceed 75 psig (5.2 bar), if the normal steam inlet temperature exceeds 550°F
(290°C), or if the no-load exhaust temperature may exceed 500°F (260°C). Alloy steel that is of
a suitable composition must be used when the maximum steam temperatures could exceed 750°F
(400°C). The use of ductile iron for the manufacture of steam turbine pressure parts is not
allowed except as specifically approved by Saudi Aramco Engineering. Any connection that is
welded to the casing must meet the material requirements of the casing rather than the
requirements of connected piping.

The materials that are used for the shaft and the wheels may be the manufacturer's standard
material. API 611 requires that the materials that are used for the blading and nozzles (rotating
and stationary) must be 11-13 chromium steel. The Saudi Aramco Materials Specification, 32-
SAMSS-009, states that cast blades are not acceptable, and that all mating surfaces must be
dissimilar in composition or hardness. 11-13 chromium steel or a nickel-copper alloy may be used
for the shrouding and steam strainer. The Saudi Aramco Materials Specification, 32-SAMSS-
009, requires that the steam strainer has a screen that is manufactured from Monel 400, Incoloy
800, or AISI Type 410 Stainless Steel, and, if an additional integral strainer is provided, it must
also have a screen that is manufactured from Monel 400, Incoloy 800, or AISI Type 410 Stainless
Steel.
In accordance with API 611, any external turbine parts that are subject to rotary or sliding
motions (such as control linkage joints and adjusting mechanisms) must be made of corrosion-
resistant materials. Because of corrosion from environmental conditions, 32-SAMSS-009
prohibits the use of copper or copper alloys for any components that will be exposed to the
atmosphere. Because corrosive agents that can cause stress corrosion cracking may be present in
the steam (such as chlorides), 32-SAMSS-009 prohibits the use of austenitic stainless steel for
internal turbine components or for any component in contact with the steam.
In accordance with API 611 and because low-carbon steels can be notch-sensitive as well as
susceptible to brittle fracture at ambient or low temperatures, only fully killed, normalized steels
that are made to fine-grain practice are acceptable for use on steam turbines. The use of ASTM
A515 steel is prohibited.
In accordance with API 611, castings that are used for the construction of steam turbines must be
sound and free from porosity, hot tears, shrink holes, blow holes, cracks, scale, blisters, and
similar injurious defects. API Standard 611 does not allow ferrous castings to be repaired by
welding, peening, plugging, burning in, or impregnating, except that weldable grades of steel
castings may be repaired by welding and that cast gray iron or nodular iron may be repaired by
plugging. The Saudi Aramco Materials Specifications (32-SAMSS-009) does not allow castings
to be repaired by peening, plugging, burning-in, impregnating, or by use of plastic or cement
compounds; however, if the weld repair is in accordance with the ASTM specifications for similar
material, the SAMSS allows castings other than cast iron or Ni-resist (austenitic and ferritic) to be
repaired by welding.
In accordance with API 611, all pressure-containing castings that are made of wrought materials
or combinations of wrought and cast materials and that are under internal pressure that is greater
than 300 psig (20 bar) must have all accessible weld surfaces inspected by magnetic particle or
liquid penetrant examination after back chipping or gouging and after stress relieving.

Saudi Aramco Standard 32-SAMSS-009 requires that all weld repairs of pressure-containing
castings be considered major repairs if the castings leak on hydrostatic test or when the depth of a
cavity prepared for welding exceeds 20% of the wall thickness or 1 in. (25 mm), whichever is
smaller, or when the extent of the cavity exceeds approximately 10 in2 (65 cm2). When a major
repair is required on a casting, the vendor must obtain approval by Saudi Aramco's Engineer prior
to starting the repair work. If the repair work is approved, all major repairs must be documented
pertaining to the extent of the repair, the location and size of the defect, and the procedure to be
followed to correct the defect. The documentation must include detailed photographs of the
defect before any preparatory work has been done as well as detailed photographs of the defect
after preparation work but before the actual repair. If the location of the repair is not clearly
shown in the photographs, it must be indicated on a sketch or a drawing of the affected part. The
repaired casting must be presented for inspection by Saudi Aramco within five days after
completion of the repair.
All weld repairs must conform to the same quality standards that apply to the castings. In order
to verify the adequacy of the repair, Saudi Aramco's Engineer may require additional
nondestructive examination, such as radiography, magnetic particle testing or liquid penetrant
test.

DETERMINING THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
The materials of construction that are used for special-purpose steam turbines can be the
manufacturer's standard materials for the specified operating conditions of the turbines, except as
required by Saudi Aramco’s data sheets or by API 612. When a vendor proposes to supply a
special-purpose steam turbine, all of the materials of construction must be identified, in the
proposal, with their applicable ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE numbers. The material grade must
also be included in the proposal. If the vendor does not supply the ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE
designation, the vendor's material specification must provide the physical properties, the chemical
composition, and the test requirements of all of the materials of construction.
In accordance with API 612 and 32-SAMSS-010, all pressure parts must be manufactured of steel
if the maximum steam conditions to which the parts may be subjected exceed either 250 psig (17
bar) or 500°F (260°C) or if the normal steam temperature exceeds 450°F (232°C). The exhaust
casings of noncondensing turbines must be manufactured of steel if the maximum exhaust
pressure may exceed 75 psig (5.2 bar), or if the no-load exhaust temperature may exceed 500°F
(260°C). Alloy steel that is of a suitable composition must be used when the maximum steam
temperatures could exceed 775°F (413°C).
In accordance with API 612, turbine wheels and shafts of special-purpose turbines must be made
of forged steel. The nozzles, the rotating blades, the stationary blades, the shrouding, and the
steam strainers must be manufactured from either 11-13 chromium steel, titanium, or a nickel-
copper alloy that is similar to ASTM B127.
API 612 requires that external turbine parts that are subject to rotary or sliding motions (such as
control linkage joints and adjusting mechanisms) must be made of corrosion-resistant materials.
Because of corrosion caused by environmental conditions, 32-SAMSS-010 prohibits the use of
copper or copper alloys for any component that will be exposed to the atmosphere. Because
corrosive agents that can cause stress corrosion cracking may be present in the steam (such as
chlorides), 32-SAMSS-010 prohibits the use of austenitic stainless steel for internal turbine
components or for any component in contact with the steam.
In accordance with API 612, if parts are to be exposed to conditions that promote intergranular
corrosion and are to be fabricated, hard faced, overlaid, or repaired by welding, they must be
manufactured from low-carbon or stabilized grades of austenitic stainless steel. ASTM A515
steel can be notch-sensitive as well as prone to brittle fracture at ambient temperatures; therefore,
the use of ASTM A515 steel is prohibited.

API 612 and 32-SAMSS-010 require that castings used for the construction of steam turbines be
sound and free from porosity, hot tears, shrink holes, blow holes, cracks, scale, blisters, and
similar injurious defects. API Standard 612 does not allow ferrous castings to be repaired by
welding, peening, plugging, burning in, or impregnating, except that weldable grades of steel
castings may be repaired by welding and that cast gray iron or nodular iron may be repaired by
plugging. The Saudi Aramco Materials Specification 32-SAMSS-010 does not allow castings to
be repaired by peening, plugging, burning-in, impregnating, or by use of plastic or cement
compounds. However, 32-SAMSS-010 allows castings other than cast iron or Ni-resist
(austenitic and ferritic) to be repaired by welding if the weld repair is in accordance with the
ASTM specifications for similar material.
Saudi Aramco 32-SAMSS-010 requires that all weld repairs of pressure-containing castings be
considered major repairs if the castings leak on hydrostatic test or when the depth of cavity
prepared for welding exceeds either 20% of the wall thickness or 1 in. (25 mm), whichever is
smaller, or when the extent of the cavity exceeds approximately 10 in2 (65 cm2). When a major
repair is required on a casting, the vendor must obtain approval by Saudi Aramco's Engineer prior
to starting the repair work. If the repair work is approved, all major repairs must be documented
pertaining to the extent, or the repair, the location and size of the defect, and the procedure to be
followed to correct the defect. The documentation must include detailed photographs of the
defect before any preparatory work has been done as well as detailed photographs after prepatory
work has been done but before the actual repair. If the location of the repair is not clearly shown
in the photographs, it must be indicated on a sketch or a drawing of the affected part. The
repaired casting must be presented for inspection by Saudi Aramco within five days after
completion of the repair.
All weld repairs must conform to the same quality standards that apply to the castings. In order
to verify the adequacy of the repair, Saudi Aramco's Engineer may require additional
nondestructive examination, such as radiography or magnetic particle testing.
Figure 38 is a table of materials that is used in the construction of various components of steam
turbines. The table provides a list of turbine components, the material(s) from which the
component may be manufactured, the ASTM specification for the material, and the temperature
limit in degrees Fahrenheit for the application in which the material may be used.

ASTM Specification Temp.

Component Material
Limit °F
Steam Chests Cast Carbon Steel A216, Grade WCB To 750
Cast Steel Plate A283, Grade D To 750
Cast Carbon-Molybdenum A217, Grade WC1 751-825
Cast 1¼ Chromium, ½ Molybdenum A217, Grade WC6 826-950
Cast 2¼ Chromium, 1 Molybdenum A217, Grade WC9 951-1000
Intermediate Cast Carbon Steel A216, Grade WCB To 750
Case Carbon Steel Plate A283, Grade D To 750
Cast Carbon-Molybdenum A217, Grade WC1 751-825
Exhaust Case Cast Carbon Steel A216, Grade WCB To 750
Carbon Steel Plate A283, Grade D To 750
Turbine Rotor Forged Alloy Steel A470, Class 7 To 750
Forged Alloy Steel A470, Class 8 To 1000
Turbine Blades Stainless Steel A276, Type 403 To 900
(Stellited as Stainless Steel AISI, Type 422 To 1000
Required)
Blade Shroud Stainless Steel AISI, Type 422 To 1000
Inlet-Nozzle Ring Carbon Steel Plate A283, Grade D To 750
and Diaphragms Carbon-Molybdenum Steel Plate A204, Grade B 751-875
1¼ Chromium, ½ Molybdenum Steel Forging A182, Grade 11 876-950
2¼ Chromium, 1 Molybdenum Steel Forging A182, Grade F22 951-1000
Inlet-Nozzle Ring Stainless Steel A276, Type 405 To 900
and Diaphragm
Vanes
Labyrinth Packing Leaded Nickel Bronze B271 or B584, Alloy To 850
No. 976
Labyrinth Packing Inconel X-750 AMS-5698 To 1050
Springs
Journal Bearings Steel, Tin-Based Babbitt B23, Grade 2
Governor Valves Stainless Steel with Stellited Surface AISI, Type 422 To 1000
Governor Valve 2¼ Chromium, 1 Molybdenum with a Stellited A182, Grade F22 To 1000
Seats Surface
Figure 38. Table for Materials of Construction for Turbine Components

WORK AID 1: COMPONENT MATERIAL CHARTS FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS IN
ACCORDANCE WITH API STANDARD 611 AND SAUDI
ARAMCO MATERIAL SYSTEM SPECIFICATION 32-SAMSS-009.
General-Purpose Steam Turbine Mechanical Component Material Requirements
API 611 32-SAMSS-009
General General
The equipment (including auxiliaries) covered by this

standard shall be designed and constructed for a
minimum service life of 20 years and at least 3 years
of uninterrupted operation. It is recognized that this is
a design criterion.
Pressure Casings Pressure Casings
The minimum material quality of bolting for pressure

joints shall be carbon steel (ASTM A 307, Grade B)
for cast iron parts and a high-temperature alloy steel;
(ASTM A 193, Grade B-7) for steel and alloy parts.
Carbon steel (ASTM A 325) may be used for parts
where the temperature is below 500°F (260°C). Nuts
shall conform to ASTM A 194, Grade 2H (or, where
space is limited, to ASTM A 307, Grade B, case-
hardened).
Casing Appurtenances Casing Appurtenances
All nozzles or nozzle blocks shall be replaceable. All

other stationary blading shall be mounted in
replaceable diaphragms or segments.
Casing Connections Casing Connections
Connections welded to the casing shall meet the

material requirements of the casing, including impact
values, rather than the requirements of connected
piping.
Pipe nipples shall be a minimum of Sch 160 seamless

for sizes 1 inch and smaller and a minimum of
Schedule 80 seamless for a size of 1 1/2 inches.
Casing Connections (continued) Casing Connections (continued)
Tapped openings not connected to piping shall be

plugged with solid round-head steel plugs furnished in


accordance with ANSI B 16.11. As a minimum, these
plugs shall meet the material requirements of the
casing. Plugs that may later require removal shall be
of corrosion-resistant material. Plastic plugs are not
permitted.
Cast iron flanges shall be flat faced and shall have a

minimum thickness of Class 250 in accordance with
ANSI B 16.1 for sizes 8 inches and smaller. Exhaust
flanges 10 inches and larger may be Class 125.
Mounting flanges for vertical turbines shall be made of

cast iron or steel.
Rotating Elements Rotating Elements
Rotors (other than integrally forged shafts and discs) Chrome plating of the wheel bore is not allowed.
shall be assembled to prevent movement of the disc
relative to the shaft when operating at any specified Shafts shall not be plated under wheels.
start-up or operating condition and any speed up to
110 percent of trip speed. The wheels shall be keyed
to the shaft and assembled with a shrink fit.
Shafts shall be accurately finished throughout their

entire length and shall be ground to a finish of 32
micro-inches (0.8 micrometer) Ra or better at the
coupling and bearing locations and sealing areas for
carbon ring packing.
All shaft sensing areas (both radial vibration and axial

position) shall be free from stencil and scribe marks or
any other surface discontinuity, such as an oil hole or a
keyway.
Shafts shall be protected by corrosion-resistant

material under carbon ring packing for casing end
glands. The manufacturer's application method, the
coating material used, and the finished coating
thickness shall be stated on the data sheets.
Blading Blading
Cast blades are not acceptable. Materials of mating

surfaces shall be dissimilar in composition or
hardness.
Copper or copper alloys shall not be used for any

components of steam turbines exposed to the
atmosphere. Austenitic stainless steel materials shall


not be used for turbine internal parts or any part in
contact with steam.
Lubrication Lubrication
Turbines that have pressure lubrication systems shall

an oil reservoir fabricated from AISI Standard Type
300 stainless steel.
Main and standby oil pumps shall have steel cases

unless they are enclosed in a reservoir; however,
casings of shaft-driven oil pumps may be made of iron.
All other oil-containing pressure components shall be
made of steel.
If a thermostatically controlled electric immersion

heater is specified, it must have a sheath of AISI
Standard Type 300 stainless steel.
Materials Materials
Materials of construction shall be the manufacturer's

standard for the specified operating conditions, except
as required by the data sheets or this standard.
Materials shall be identified in the proposal with their

applicable ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE numbers,
including the material grade. When no such
designation is available, the vendor's material
specification, giving physical properties, chemical
composition, and test requirements, shall be included
in the proposal.
Materials (continued) Materials (continued)
Pressure parts shall be made of steel if the maximum

steam conditions to which they may be subjected
exceed 250 psig (17 bar) or 500°F (260°C), or if the
normal steam temperature exceeds 450°F (232°C).
Exhaust casings of noncondensing turbines shall be
made of steel if' the maximum exhaust pressure may
exceed 75 psig (5.2 bar) or if the no-load exhaust
temperature may exceed 500°F (260°C). Suitable
alloy steel shall be used where the maximum steam
temperatures may exceed 750°F (400°C). Ductile iron
may be used only with the approval of the purchaser.
Material for other turbine parts shall be the The steam strainer shall have a screen of Monel 400,
manufacturer's standard for the shaft and wheels, 11- Incoloy 800 or AISI Type 410 Stainless Steel with


13 Cr. for blading and nozzles (rotating and openings of approximately 3 mm (1/8 in). No
stationary), and 11-13 Cr or nickel-copper alloy for the additional integral strainer is required, but if provided
shrouding and steam strainer. it shall have a Monel 400, Incoloy 800, or AISI Type
410 Stainless Steel screen.
External parts subject to rotary or sliding motions
(such as control linkage joints and adjusting Unless otherwise specified, equipment will be installed
mechanisms) shall be made of corrosion-resistant outdoors in a desert area, with dry bulb temperatures
materials suitable for site environment. from 0ºC (32ºF) to 50ºC (122ºF) and relative
humidities from zero to 100 percent (condensing).
Minor parts that are not identified (such as nuts,
Metal temperatures when exposed to direct sun
springs, washers, gaskets, and keys) shall have
radiation can reach 70ºC (158ºF).
corrosion resistance at least equal to that of specified
parts in the same environment.
The normal air-borne dust concentration for onshore
The purchaser will specify any corrosive agents that environments shall be considered as 1 mg/meter3.
are present in the steam and the environment, During sand storm conditions, dust concentrations
including constituents that may cause stress corrosion reaching 500 mg/meter3. are encountered and winds
cracking. may gust to 112 km/hr. Ninety five percent of all dust
particles are less than 20 micrometers, and fifty
For the pressure casing; materials, casting factors, and percent (50%) of all particles are less than 1.5
the quality of any welding shall be equal to those micrometers in size. Compounds present in the dust
required by Section VIII, Division 1, of the ASME include those of sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon
Code. and aluminum. When wetted (100 percent humidity
condition), these compounds function as electrolytes
Low-carbon steels can be notch sensitive and and can result in severe corrosion of materials. Other
susceptible to brittle fracture at ambient or low pollutants present (ppm in vol/vol in atmosphere worst
temperatures ; therefore, only fully killed, normalized case) are H2S - 20 ppm, SO2 - 10 ppm, CO 75 ppm,
steels made to fine-grain practice are acceptable. The NO(x) - 5 ppm, and hydrocarbons - 100 ppm. All
use of ASTM A 515 is prohibited. equipment shall be protected from these contaminants
to prevent corrosion and operation failure.
Castings shall be sound and free from porosity, hot
tears, shrink holes, blow holes, cracks, scale, blisters,
and similar injurious defects.
The use of chaplets in pressure castings shall be held In addition, equipment that is situated offshore or
to a minimum. The chaplets shall be clean and nearshore (i.e., within 1/2 km from shoreline) shall be
corrosion free (plating permitted) and of a composition protected against failure due to wind-borne sea water
that is compatible with the casting. spray and the accumulation of wetted salt (NaCl).
Weldable grades of steel castings may be repaired by

welding, using a qualified welding procedure based on
the requirements of Section VIII, Division 1, and
Section IX of the ASME Code.
Cast gray iron or nodular iron may be repaired by

plugging within the limits specified in ASTM A 278,
A 395, or A 53
Fully enclosed cored voids, including voids closed by

plugging, are prohibited.

Nodular iron castings shall be produced and tested for

physical and chemical properties in accordance with
ASTM A 395.
Welding of piping and pressure-containing parts, as

well as any dissimilar-metal welds and weld repairs,
shall be performed and inspected by personnel and
procedures qualified in accordance with Section VIII,
Division 1, and Section IX of the ASME Code,
Nameplates and Rotation Arrows Nameplates and Rotation Arrows
Nameplates and rotation arrows shall be made of AISI

Standard Type 300 stainless steel or nickel-copper
alloy (Monel or its equivalent).
Control Systems Control Systems
Turbines shall be equipped with a corrosion resistant The steam strainer shall have a screen of Monel 400,
removable steam strainer located ahead of the Incoloy 800 or AISI Type 410 Stainless Steel with
governor and trip valves. openings of approximately 3 mm (1/8 in). No
additional integral strainer is required, but if provided
it shall have a Monel 400, Incoloy 800, or AISI Type
410 Stainless Steel screen.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
Dial-type temperature gauges shall be heavy duty and The tachometer shall be digital type made by Bentley
corrosion resistant. Nevada or equivalent.
Temperature gauges that are located in pressurized or

flooded lines shall be furnished with 3/4 NPT
separable solid-bar thermowells made of AISI
Standard Type 300 stainless steel.
Pressure gauges (not including built-in instrument air

gauges) shall be furnished with AISI Standard Type
316 stainless steel bourdon tubes and stainless steel
movements and 1/2-inch NPT male alloy steel
connections.
Alarms and Shutdowns Alarms and Shutdowns
Mercury switches shall not be used.
Pressure-sensing elements shall be of AISI Standard

Type 300 stainless steel.
Piping and Appurtenances Piping and Appurtenances

Piping design, joint fabrication, examination, and Metallic disc-pack or diaphragm type couplings shall
inspection shall be in accordance with ASME B31.3. be supplied on all turbines. Lubricated couplings are
not allowed.
Auxiliary systems shall comply with the requirements
of Table 1 (attached). Oil piping downstream of the filters shall be Type
316L Stainless Steel for offshore installations and
onshore installations within 1/2 km of the sea. Type
304L S.S. shall be used for other onshore
installations.

Component Material Commercial Specifications

Steam Chest and Casing
600psi/750°F Cast Carbon Steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
600psi/825°F Carbon-Molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC1
900psi/900°F Chromium-Molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC6
2000psi/950°F Chromium-Molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC9
Exhaust Casing
Condensing and Noncondensing High-Strength Cast Iron ASTM A-278 Class 40
(Cast)
Noncondensing (Cast) Cast Steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
Fabricated Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60 & 70
12% Chromium AISI-405
Nozzles
Cast Iron ASTM A-278 Class 40
Nozzle Rings
Carbon Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
12% Chromium-Stainless Steel AISI 405
Diaphragm Centers
Fabricated Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60 or A514-F
Cast Ductile Iron ASTM A-536 Grade 60-45-12
Discs (Built-Up Rotors)
Forged Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum AISI 4340 ASTM A471
Steel
Cross-Rolled Plate High-Strength Alloy Steel ASTM A517 Grade F
12% Chromium-Stainless Steel AISI Type 403 or ASTM A565
Blades
12% Chromium-Stainless Steel AISI Type 410
Shroud Bands
15% Chromium Steel Inconel X750
Damping Wire
Rotor (Shaft) Nickel Chromium-Molybdenum AISI 4340
Steel
Built-Up Chromium-Molybdenum Steel AISI 4140
Integral Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum- ASTM A-470 Class 4, 7, or 8
Vanadium Steel
Figure 39. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials


Bearing Liners Bonded Tin-Base Babbitt ASTM B-23 Alloy #2
Bearing Housings Cast Steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
Bearing Retainers Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
Shaft End Labyrinth Seals

Sealing strips High Lead Bronze ASTM B584
12% Chromium-Stainless Steel AISI 410
Stationary baffles Nickel Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
Chromium-Molybdenum-Steel AISI 4340
Forgings
Governor Valves
Governor Valve Stems and 12% Chromium-Stainless Steel, AISI Type 416
Nitrided
Seals
Governor Valve Seats
12% Chromium-Stainless Steel, AISI Type 416
Bar Lift Rods and Bushings
Nitrided
Stainless Steel AISI Type 321
Steam Strainer Screen
Figure 39. Commercial Specifications For Turbine Materials (continued)

Steam
System Less than or equal to 75 psig Greater than 75 psig
Pipe Seamlessa Seamlessa
Tubing ASTM A 269, seamless Type 304 or 316
stainless steel
All Valves Carbon steel, Class 800 Carbon steel, Class 800
Gate and Globe Valves Bolted bonnet and gland Bolted bonnet and gland
Pipe Fittings and Unions Forged, Class 3000 Forged, Class 3000
Tube Fittings Carbon steel, compression,
manufacturer's standard
Fabricated Joints - Less than or Threaded Socket welded
equal to 1½ Inches
Fabricated Joints - Greater than Slip-on flange Socket-weld or weld-neck flange
or equal to 2 Inches
Gaskets Type 304 or 316 stainless steel, spiral Type 304 or 316 stainless steel,
wound, or iron or soft steel spiral wound, or iron or soft
steel
Flange Bolting ASTM A 193, Grade B7, ASTM A 193, Grade B7
ASTM A 194, Grade 2H ASTM A 194, Grade 2H
Cooling Water
System Standard (less than or equal to 1 inch) Optional
Pipe ASTM A 120, Schedule 40,
galvanized to ASTM A 153
stainless steel
All Valves Bronze, Class 200 Bronze, Class 200
Gate and Globe Valves
Pipe Fittings and Unions ASTM A 338 and A 197, Class 150 ASTM A 338 and A 197, Class
malleable iron, galvanized to ASTM A 150 malleable iron, galvanized
153 to ASTM A 153
Tube Fittings Manufacturer's standard
Fabricated Joints - Less than or Threaded Threaded
equal to 1½ Inches
Fabricated Joints - Greater than Purchaser to specify Purchaser to specify
Gaskets
Figure 40. Minimum Requirements for Auxiliary Piping System Materials

Lube Oil
System Less than or equal to 1 inch Greater than or equal to 1½ inch
Pipe ASTM A 312, Type 304 or 316
stainless steel
stainless steel
All Valves Carbon steel Class 800 Carbon steel Class 800
Gate and Globe Valves Bolted bonnet and gland Bolted bonnet and gland
Pipe Fittings and Unions Stainless steel Stainless steel
Tube Fittings Carbon steel, compression,
manufacturer's standard
Fabricated Joints - Less than or Carbon steel slip-on flange
equal to 1½ Inches
Fabricated Joints - Greater than Carbon steel slip-on flange
Gaskets Type 304 or 316 stainless steel,
spiral wound
Flange Bolting ASTM A 193, Grade B7
ASTM A 194, Grade 2H
Note: Carbon steel piping shall conform to ASTM A 53, Grade B; ASTM A 106, Grade B; or API Specification
5L, Grade A or B. Carbon steel fittings, valves, and flanged components shall conform to ASTM A 105
and A 181. Stainless steel piping shall conform to ASTM A 312.
a
Schedule 80 for diameters from 1/2 inch to 1 1/2 inches; Schedule 40 for diameters 2 inches and larger.
b
Schedule 40 for a diameter of 1 1/2 inches; Schedule 10 for diameters of 2 inches and larger.
c
l/2-inch diameter x 0.065-inch wall, 3/4-inch diameter x 0.095-inch wall, or l-inch diameter x 0.109-inch wall.
Figure 40. Minimum Requirements for Auxiliary Piping System Materials (continued)

WORK AID 2: COMPONENT MATERIAL CHART FOR SPECIAL-PURPOSE

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS IN
ACCORDANCE WITH API STANDARD 612 AND SAUDI
ARAMCO MATERIAL SYSTEM SPECIFICATION 32-SAMSS-010.
Special-Purpose Steam Turbine Mechanical Component Material Requirements

General General
The equipment (including auxiliaries) covered by this Provision shall be made for hot alignment of the
standard shall be designed and constructed for a machinery train during operation using the Acculign
minimum service life of 20 years and at least 3 years System.
of uninterrupted operation. It is recognized that this is
a design criterion. Provisions for boroscope inspection shall be installed if
specified.
Pressure Casings Pressure Casings
ANSI B31.3, Paragraph 309, shall govern the material

limits for pressure bolting based upon the actual
bolting temperature. Nuts shall conform to ASTM A
194, Grade 2H (or, where space is limited, to ASTM A
307, Grade B, case-hardened).
Casing Appurtenances Casing Appurtenances
All nozzles or nozzle blocks shall be replaceable. Bladed nozzle blocks shall be replaceable. Welded-in
Nozzle rings welded to the case are acceptable only design is acceptable with prior approval by Aramco's
when approved in advance by the purchaser. All other Engineer. Individual nozzle attachment to the blocks
stationary blading shall be mounted in replaceable shall be made with full penetration welds.
diaphragms or blade carriers. Nozzles or blading
welded to the diaphragm is preferred. Diaphragms horizontal joints shall have a rabbet fit.
Casing Connections Casing Connections
Connections welded to the casing shall meet the

material requirements of the casing, including impact
values, rather than the requirements of connected
piping.
Pipe nipples shall be a minimum of Sch 160 seamless

for sizes 1 inch and smaller and a minimum of
Schedule 80 seamless for a size of 1 1/2 inches.
Casing Connections (continued) Casing Connections (continued)
Tapped openings not connected to piping shall be Steel flanges Class 600 and below shall be raised
plugged with solid steel plugs furnished in face.
accordance with ANSI B16.11. Plugs that may


later require removal shall be of corrosion- Flanges greater than 24 inches not covered by
resistant material. Plastic plugs are not ANSI shall be in accordance with Standard
permitted. Drawing AE-036991.
Flanges shall conform to ANSI B16.1, B16.5, or

B16.42 as applicable. Cast iron flanges shall be
flat faced and shall have a minimum thickness of
Class 250 in accordance with ANSI B 16.1 for
sizes 8 inches and smaller. Flat-faced flanges
with full raised-face thickness are acceptable on
cases other than cast iron. Flanges that are
thicker or have a larger outside diameter than
that required by ANSI are acceptable.
Rotating Elements Rotating Elements
Rotors (other than integrally forged shafts and discs) Chrome plating of the wheel bore is not allowed.
shall be assembled to prevent movement of the disc
relative to the shaft when operating any speed up to Shafts shall not be plated under vibration probes or
110 percent of trip speed at normal temperature. under wheels.
The purchaser's approval is required for built-up rotors

when blade tip velocities exceed 825 feet per second
(250 meters per second) at maximum continuous speed
or when stage inlet steam temperatures exceed 825°F
(441°C).
Each rotor shall be clearly marked with a unique

identification number.
Shafts shall be accurately finished throughout their

entire length and shall be ground to a finish of 32
micro-inches (0.8 micrometer) Ra or better at the
coupling and bearing locations and sealing areas for
carbon ring packing.
The rotor shaft sensing areas to be observed by radial

vibration probes shall be concentric with the bearing
journals. All shaft sensing areas (both radial vibration
and axial position) shall be free from stencil and scribe
marks or any other surface discontinuity, such as an
oil hole or a keyway. These areas shall not be
metallized, sleeved, or plated. Keyways shall have
fillet radii conforming to ANSI B17.1.
Rotating Elements (continued) Rotating Elements (continued)
Shafts shall be protected by corrosion-resistant

material under carbon-ring packing for casing end
glands, the manufacturer's application method, the
coating materials used, and the finished coating


thickness shall be stated on the data sheets.
Blading Blading
Bearings and Bearing Housings Bearings and Bearing Housings
Radial bearings shall be of the hydrodynamic design

and shall be split for ease of assembly, precision bored,
and of the sleeve or pad type, with steel-backed
babbitted replaceable liners, pads, or shells. The
liners, pads, or shells shall be in horizontally split
housings and shall be replaceable.
Thrust bearings shall be of the hydrodynamic, steel-

backed , babbitted multiple-segment type, designed for Tilting-pad thrust bearings shall have two temperature
equal thrust capacity in both directions and arranged sensors in each of the active and inactive sides.
for continuous pressurized lubrication to each side.
Both sides shall be of the tilting-pad type,
incorporating a self-leveling feature which assures that
each pad carries an equal share of the thrust load with
minor variations in pad thickness.
Bearing housings shall be equipped with replaceable

labyrinth-type end seals and deflectors where the shaft Bearing housings, including bearing support members
passes through the housing; lip-type seals shall not be and oil retaining parts shall be steel.
used. The seals and deflectors shall be made of non-
sparking materials. Purge air connections shall be provided in the
labyrinth seals of bearing housings to prevent entrance
Cantilevered shaft support structures bolted to steel of steam and foreign material into the bearings and to
cases shall also be steel. prevent lube oil leakage into the turbine insulation.
Connections shall be provided with solid steel plugs.
Bearing housings shall be designed to accommodate

non-contacting radial vibration probes and axial
displacement probes in accordance with 34-SMASS-
625.
Lubrication and Control Oil System Lubrication and Control Oil System
Pressurized oil systems shall conform to the Lube and control oil systems shall be in accordance
requirements of API Standard 614. with 32-SAMSS-013.
Permissive starting features for lube oil pressure shall

be furnished.
Materials Materials
Materials of construction shall be the manufacturer's Copper or copper alloys shall not be used for any
standard for the specified operating conditions, except components of steam turbines exposed to the
as required by the data sheets or this standard. atmosphere. Austenitic stainless steel materials shall


not be used for turbine internal parts or any part in
Materials shall be identified in the proposal with their contact with steam.
applicable ASTM, AISI, ASME, or SAE numbers,
including the material grade. When no such
designation is available, the vendor's material
specification, giving physical properties, chemical
composition, and test requirements, shall be included
in the proposal.
Materials with a yield strength of more than 90,000

psi (6200 bar) or a hardness of more than Rockwell
C22 shall not be used for components exposed to wet
H2S service, including trace quantities. When
specified, the vendor shall list in the proposal all
steam path components (valves, seats, blades, shrouds,
closing pieces and pins, damping wires, wheels,
bolting, and so forth) that will be above Rockwell C22
in hardness. The vendor shall also indicate the
hardness range of each component.
Pressure parts shall be made of steel if the maximum

steam conditions to which they may be subjected
exceed 250 psig (17 bar) or 500°F (260°C), or if the
normal steam temperature exceeds 450°F (232°C).
Exhaust casings of noncondensing turbines shall be
made of steel if' the maximum exhaust pressure may
exceed 75 psig (5.2 bar) or if the no-load exhaust
temperature may exceed 500°F (260°C). Suitable
alloy steel shall be used where the maximum steam
temperatures may exceed 775°F (413°C).
Material for turbine parts shall be forged steel for Unless otherwise specified, equipment will be installed
wheels and shaft and 11-13 percent chromium steel , outdoors in a desert area, with dry bulb temperatures
titanium, or nickel-copper alloy (similar to ASTM B from 0ºC (32ºF) to 50ºC (122ºF) and relative
127) for nozzles, closing pieces, blading (rotating and humidities from zero to 100 percent (condensing).
stationary) , shrouding, and steam strainers. Metal temperatures when exposed to direct sun
radiation can reach 70ºC (158ºF).
External parts subject to rotary or sliding motions
(such as control linkage joints and adjusting The normal air-borne dust concentration for onshore
mechanisms) shall be made of corrosion-resistant environments shall be considered as 1 mg/m3. During
materials suitable for site environment. sand storm conditions, dust concentrations reaching
500 mg/ m3. are encountered and winds may gust to
Minor parts that are not identified (such as nuts, 112 km/hr. Ninety five percent of all dust particles are
springs, washers, gaskets, and keys) shall have less than 20 micrometers, and fifty percent (50%) of
corrosion resistance at least equal to that of specified all particles are less than 1.5 micrometers in size.
parts in the same environment. Compounds present in the dust include those of
sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon and aluminum.
The purchaser will specify any corrosive agents that When wetted (100 percent humidity condition), these
are present in the steam and the environment, compounds function as electrolytes and can result in


including constituents that may cause stress corrosion severe corrosion of materials. Other pollutants present
cracking. (ppm in vol/vol in atmosphere worst case) are H2S - 20
ppm, SO2 - 10 ppm, CO 75 ppm, NO(x) - 5 ppm, and
For the pressure casing; materials, casting factors, and hydrocarbons - 100 ppm. All equipment shall be
the quality of any welding shall be equal to those protected from these contaminants to prevent
required by Section VIII, Division 1, of the ASME corrosion and operation failure.
Code.
In addition, equipment that is situated offshore or
Low-carbon steels can be notch sensitive and nearshore (i.e., within 1/2 km from shoreline) shall be
susceptible to brittle fracture at ambient or low protected against failure due to wind-borne sea water
temperatures. The use of ASTM A 515 is therefore spray and the accumulation of wetted salt (NaCl).
prohibited.
For operating temperatures below -20°F (-29°C), steels

shall have, at the lowest specified temperature, an
impact strength sufficient to qualify under the
minimum Charpy V-notch impact energy
requirements of Section VIII, Division 1, UG-84, of
the ASME Code.
Castings Castings
Castings shall be sound and free from porosity, hot Castings shall not be repaired by peening, plugging,
tears, shrink holes, blow holes, cracks, scale, blisters, burning-in, impregnating or by use of plastic or
and similar injurious defects. cement compounds.
The use of chaplets in pressure castings shall be held Castings other than cast iron or Ni-resist alloys may be
to a minimum. The chaplets shall be clean and weld repaired if allowed by the ASTM specification
corrosion free (plating permitted) and of a composition for that material.
that is compatible with the casting.
Castings (continued) Castings (continued)
Weldable grades of steel castings may be repaired by Weld repairs of pressure containing castings shall be
welding, using a qualified welding procedure based on considered major when the castings leak on
the requirements of Section VIII, Division 1, or hydrostatic test or when the depth of cavity prepared
Section IX of the ASME Code. for weld repair exceeds 20 percent of the wall
thickness or 25 mm (1 in), whichever is smaller, or
Cast gray iron or nodular iron may be repaired by when the extent of the cavity exceeds approximately
plugging within the limits specified in ASTM A 278, 65 cm2 (10 in2). When major repairs are required on a
A 395, or A 536. casting, the vendor shall obtain approval by Aramco's
Engineer prior to starting the repair work. All major
Fully enclosed cored voids, including voids closed by repairs shall be documented as to extent, location, size
plugging, are prohibited. and procedure to be followed to correct the defect.
The documentation shall include detail photographs of
Nodular iron castings shall be produced and tested for the defect before any preparatory work has been done
physical and chemical properties in accordance with and after preparation but before the actual repair. If
ASTM A 395. the location of the repair is not clearly shown in the
photographs, it shall be indicated on a sketch or
Welding of piping and pressure-containing parts, as drawing of the affected part.
well as any dissimilar-metal welds and weld repairs,


shall be performed and inspected by personnel and The repaired casting shall be presented for inspection
procedures qualified in accordance with Section IX of by buyer's representative within five days after
the ASME Code, completion of the repair.
Pressure-containing casings made of wrought All weld repairs shall conform to the same quality
materials or combinations of wrought and cast standards that apply to the castings.
materials shall have the plate edges inspected by
magnetic particle or liquid penetrant examination as
required by Section VIII, Division 1, UG-93(d)(3), of
the ASME Code and all accessible surfaces of welds
inspected by magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
examination after back chipping or gouging and again
after stress relieving.
Pressure-containing welds shall be full penetration

welds. Auxiliary piping welded to chromium-
molybdenum alloy steel or 12-percent chrome steel
components shall be the same material, except that
chromium-molybdenum alloy steel pipe may be
substituted for 12-percent chrome steel pipe.
When subsoleplates are specified, they shall be steel

plates a minimum of 1 inch thick having a mating
surface finish matching the soleplates.
Nameplates and Rotation Arrows Nameplates and Rotation Arrows
Nameplates and rotation arrows shall be made of AISI

Standard Type 300 stainless steel or nickel-copper
alloy and securely fastened by pins of similar material.
Controls Controls
Unless otherwise specified, the speed governor for

mechanical drive applications shall conform to NEMA
SM 23, Class D.
Unless otherwise specified, the speed governor for

generator drive applications shall conform to NEMA
SM 23, Class C, with an adjustable droop.
Unless otherwise specified on the data sheets, a

minimum of two hand valves shall be provided on all
single inlet-valve turbines.
Protective Devices Protective Devices
A separate, mechanically operated trip and throttle The trip and throttle valve shall be of the double seated
valve shall be furnished. The valve and trip balanced type. The stems, bushings, valves, and valve
mechanism shall have stem and seating surfaces of seat shall be renewable.


corrosion-resistant material, and be equipped with a
corrosion-resistant steam strainer.
Turbines shall be equipped with a corrosion resistant

removable steam strainer located ahead of the
governor and trip valves.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
Unless otherwise specified, two electronic digital speed Tachometers shall be digital type such as Bentley
indicators shall be furnished with a minimum Nevada or equal. The number and location of
tachometer range from 0 to 125 percent of the tachometer indicators shall permit observation by the
maximum continuous speed. operator while setting the trip device or making speed
adjustments.
Dial-type temperature gauges shall be heavy duty and
corrosion resistant. Instrumentation shall comply with 34-SAMSS-831.
Electrical installation shall comply with 17-SAMSS-
Temperature gauges that are in contact with 515. Outdoor control panels shall be in accordance
flammable or toxic fluids, or that are located in with 34-SAMSS-821. Indoor control panels shall be
pressurized or flooded lines shall be furnished with in accordance with 17-SAMSS-820.
AISI Standard Type 300 stainless steel separable-
flange-type solid-bar thermowells at least 3/4 inch (19 Bearing temperature monitoring shall comply with 34-
millimeters) in diameter. SAMSS-415 and 34-SAMSS-416. Bearing
temperature monitoring system shall be in accordance
Pressure gauges (not including built-in instrument air with 34-SAMSS-625. Temperature indicators in the
gauges) shall be furnished with AISI Standard Type bearing lube oil discharge lines shall be retained when
316 stainless steel bourdon tubes and stainless steel bearing RTDs are specified.
movements.
Connections for process pressure instruments shall
Solenoid valves shall not be used in continuously comply with Standard Drawing AC-036476.
energized service but shall have a continuous service
rating with Class F insulation. The make and type of approved instruments are listed
in Standard Drawing AE-036444.
Relay systems shall be according to Standard Drawing

AB-036533. Solid state systems shall perform the
same functions as shown on Standard Drawing AB-
036533 and shall be in accordance with 34-SAMSS-
621.
Alarms and Shutdowns Alarms and Shutdowns
Mercury switches shall not be used. Alarm and shutdown systems shall be of the “fail safe”
design so that the affected output(s) fail safe for any
Pressure-sensing elements shall be of AISI Standard one failure (single risk concept).
Type 300 stainless steel.
Electrical Systems Electrical Systems
Electrical equipment located on the unit or on any Electrical installation shall comply with 17-SAMSS-


separate panel shall be suitable for the hazard 515.
classification specified. Electrical starting and
supervisory controls may be either AC or DC,
Electrical materials including insulation shall be

corrosion-resistant and non-hygroscopic in so far as
possible. When specified for tropical location, parts
(such as coils and windings) shall be protected from
fungus attack and unpainted surfaces shall be
protected from corrosion by plating or other suitable
coating.
Vibration, Position, And Bearing Temperature Vibration, Position, And Bearing Temperature
Detectors Detectors
Unless otherwise specified, vibration and axial Vibration detectors, key phasors and shaft axial
position transducers and monitors shall be supplied, position monitors shall comply with 34-SAMSS-625.
installed, and calibrated in accordance with API
Standard 670 and/or 678. If seismic vibration detection is specified, it shall
conform to 34-SAMSS-632.
When bearing-temperature sensors and monitors are
specified, they shall be furnished and installed in
accordance with API Standard 670.
Gland Vacuum System Gland Vacuum System
Gland Vacuum System condensers shall have a steel Ejector systems shall be single stage, supplied
shell, admiralty tubes with a nominal wall thickness of complete with motive steam strainer and hand
18 Birmingham wire gauge (BWG) [0.049 inch (1.24 controlled globe valve, pressure gauges for motive
millimeters)] and a diameter of at least 5/8 inch (15.2 steam and exhaust pressure, vacuum gauge in inlet
millimeters), and fixed tube sheets with water on the from the seals, and all valves and interconnecting
tube side. The steam ejector shall have a steel body piping. Ejectors shall be provided with a bypass to
and a replaceable stainless steel steam nozzle. allow blow-off to atmosphere.
Piping and Appurtenances Piping and Appurtenances
Couplings and guards shall conform to API Standard Metallic disc-pack or diaphragm type couplings shall
671. be supplied on all turbines. Lubricated couplings are
not allowed.
Piping design, joint fabrication, examination, and
inspection shall be in accordance with ASME B31.3. Coupling guards shall be totally enclosed that permit
sufficient heat dissipation to prevent overheating
Pipe threads shall be taper threads in accordance with without ancillary cooling. Coupling guards shall be
ASME B1.20.1. Flanges shall be in accordance with fabricated of steel and include a breather with
ANSI B16. 5. Slip-on flanges are permitted only with gooseneck and oil drain line.
the purchaser's specific approval.
Auxiliary piping shall be in accordance with 01-
Auxiliary systems shall comply with the requirements SAMSS-017. Lube oil piping shall be in accordance
of Table 1 (attached). with 32-SAMSS-013.

Threaded joints for flammable or toxic fluids and at

steam pressures above 75 psig (5.2 bar) shall be seal
welded; however, seal welding is not permitted on cast
iron equipment, on instruments, or where disassembly
is required for maintenance. Seal-welded joints shall
be made in accordance with ASME B 31.3.
Connections, piping, valves, and fittings that are 1 1/4

, 2 1/2 , 31/2, 5, 7, or 9 inches in size shall not be
used.
Piping systems that contain steam at pressures above

75 psig (5.2 bar gauge) or flammable or toxic fluids
shall be of seamless carbon steel manufactured in
accordance with ASTM A 106, Grade B; ASTM A 53,
Grade B; or a purchaser-approved equivalent. Carbon
steel piping that is 3/4 inch or smaller must be meet a
minimum piping schedule of 160. Carbon steel piping
that is 1 to 1 1/2 inches must be meet a minimum
piping schedule of 80. Carbon steel piping that is 2
inches or larger must be meet a minimum piping
schedule of 40.
Stainless steel shall be seamless in accordance with

ASTM A 312 or shall be electric-fusion welded in
accordance with ASTM A 358. Stainless steel piping
that is 1 1/2 inches or smaller must be meet a
minimum piping schedule of 40S. Stainless steel
piping that is 2 inches or larger must be meet a
minimum piping schedule of 10S.
Piping and Appurtenances (continued) Piping and Appurtenances (continued)
Where space does not permit the use of 1/2-, 3/4-, or l-

inch pipe, seamless steel tubing conforming to ASTM
A 192 or stainless steel tubing conforming to ASTM A
269 may be furnished. Steel fittings may be furnished
with ASTM A 269 tubing. Tubing minimum wall
thickness shall be 0.065 for 1/2 inch tubing, 0.095 for
3/4 tubing, and 0.109 inch for 1 inch tubing.
Valves shall have bolted bonnets and glands. For

primary ANSI service pressure ratings above 900 psig
(62 bar), block valves may be of welded-bonnet or no-
bonnet construction with a bolted gland.
Oil-supply piping and tubing, including fittings, shall

be stainless steel, except that lube-oil stub-out piping
from bolted-on steel bearing housings may be carbon
steel.

Instrument- and control-air tubing shall be ANSI

Standard Type 300 stainless steel. Tubing minimum
wall thickness for instrument- and control air tubing
shall be 0.035 for 1/4 inch tubing, 0.035 for 3/8
tubing, and 0.069 inch for 1/2 inch tubing.


Steam Chest and Casing
600psi/750°F Cast Carbon Steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
600psi/825°F Carbon-molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC1
900psi/900°F Chromium-molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC6
2000psi/950°F Chromium-molybdenum Steel ASTM A-217 Grade WC9
Exhaust Casing
Condensing and Noncondensing High-strength cast iron ASTM A-278 Class 40
(Cast)
Noncondensing (Cast) Cast steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
Fabricated Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60 & 70
Nozzles 12% Chromium AISI-405
Nozzle Rings Cast iron ASTM A-278 Class 40

Carbon steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI 405
Diaphragm Centers
Fabricated Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60 or A514-F
Cast Ductile iron ASTM A-536 Grade 60-45-12
Discs (Built-Up Rotors)
Forged Chromium-nickel-molybdenum AISI 4340 ASTM A471
steel
Cross-Rolled Plate High-strength alloy steel ASTM A517 Grade F
Blades 12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI Type 403 or ASTM A565
Shroud Bands 12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI Type 410
Damping Wire 15% Chromium steel Inconel X750
Rotor (Shaft) Nickel chromium-molybdenum AISI 4340

steel
Built-Up Chromium-molybdenum steel AISI 4140
Integral Chromium-nickel-molybdenum- ASTM A-470 Class 4, 7, or 8
vanadium steel
Bearing Liners Bonded tin-base babbitt ASTM B-23 Alloy #2
Bearing Housings Cast steel ASTM A-216 Grade WCB
Bearing Retainers Steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
Figure 41. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials


Shaft End Labyrinth Seals
Sealing Strips High lead bronze ASTM B584
12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI 410
Stationary Baffles Nickel steel ASME SA-516 Grade 60
Chromium-molybdenum-steel
forgings AISI 4340
Governor Valves 12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI Type 410
Governor Valve Stems and 12% Chromium-stainless steel, AISI Type 416
Seals nitrided
Governor Valve Seats 12% Chromium-stainless steel AISI Type 416
Bar Lift Rods and Bushings 12% Chromium-stainless steel, AISI Type 416
nitrided
Steam Strainer Screen Stainless steel AISI Type 321
Figure 41. Commercial Specifications for Turbine Materials (continued)

GLOSSARY
balance piston A balance piston is an extension of the turbine rotor drum at the high-
pressure end of the turbine that has a step-like cross section. A balance
piston is used to compensate for the axial thrust that is imposed on the
rotor due the differential pressure across the rotor.
balance ring The balance ring is part of the turbine casing that surrounds the dummy
piston.
bearing A bearing supports the turbine rotor, minimizes friction losses, and
positions the turbine rotor with respect to the stationary turbine
components.
blade root The lower portion of a turbine blade that is machined to fit the wheel
groove in which the blade is assembled.
Campbell diagram A graph of turbine speed in revolutions per minute plotted on the
horizontal axis and frequency, in cycles per second, plotted on the vertical
axis. A Campbell diagram is used to indicate whether there is resonance
in a given stage.
casing A casing is the housing of the turbine that contains the steam, supports
the stationary internals (nozzles and interstage diaphragms) of the turbine,
and houses the gland labyrinths, the steam admission valves (except on
large electric utility steam units), and the journal and thrust bearings.
diaphragm A diaphragm is a disk-like structure that is located between each row of

rotating blades. The diaphragm fits into circumferential flow slots in the
turbine shell inside diameter, and it holds the stationary blades in place.
general-purpose Horizontal or vertical steam turbines used to drive equipment that is

steam turbine either spared or in noncritical service and that is rated for less than 2,250
kW (3,000 hp).
Goodman diagram A graph that has the ultimate strength of a material plotted on the vertical
axis and the endurance limit of the material plotted on the horizontal axis.
These two points are connected by a straight line called the failure line.
The purpose of a Goodman diagram is to serve as a stress analysis
criterion of static and fatigue failure.
hand valve A manually operated steam admission valve on a single-valve turbine.
nozzle A nozzle is a device that converts the stored thermal energy of the steam

into kinetic energy or velocity. The nozzle also serves to direct the steam
in the correct direction to impinge upon the turbine blades.
rotor A turbine rotor consists of the rotating elements of a steam turbine: the
shaft, the blade disks, and the blades. The rotor transmits the rotating
mechanical energy from the turbine blades to the load.
seal A seal is a device or material that prevents excessive leakage of fluids

(gases or liquids) by creating and/or maintaining a fluid-pressure
differential across the gap that exists between two relatively movable
and/or separable components of a fluid system.
shaft A shaft is a machined forging that supports the discs and blades and that
transmits the useful work of the turbine to the driven load.
special-purpose Horizontal steam turbines used to drive equipment that is either not
steam turbine spared or is in critical service and that is rated for more than 2,250 kW
(3,000 hp).
steam chest The steam chest section of a turbine is the steam inlet to the turbine. The
steam chest houses the control valves, receives the supplied steam, and
directs the steam to the first stage nozzle assembly.
steam inlet control Steam inlet controls isolate the turbine from the steam, regulate or throttle
the amount of steam to the turbine, and control the position of the turbine
control valves.
turning gear Turning gears are a motor and gear arrangement that is used to slowly
rotate the turbine rotor, typically at less than 60 rpm. This rotation
ensures that the rotor is evenly heated or cooled.

Evaluating Steam Turbine Materials

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Evaluating Steam Turbine Materials

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Evaluating The Material Requirements

Chapter : Rotating Equipment For additional information on this subject, contact

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS: FUNCTION, DESIGN, AND

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIAL-PURPOSE

WORK AID 1: COMPONENT MATERIAL CHARTS FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figure Page

Figure 1. General-Purpose, Single-Valve, Backpressure Steam Turbine .................... 3

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 30. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing ...............................................................45

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

• Steam Turbine Mechanical Components: Function, Design, and Construction

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

STEAM TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS: FUNCTION, DESIGN, AND

Figure 1 is a cross-sectional illustration of a view of a general-purpose, single-valve,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Figure 1. General-Purpose, Single-Valve, Backpressure Steam Turbine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Figure 2 is a cross-sectional illustration of a view of a special-purpose steam turbine in accordance

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Figure 2. Special-Purpose Steam Turbine

• They contain the steam.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Steam Chests and Valves

• To house the control valves

Integral Steam Chest

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Figure 3. Integral Steam Chest

Separable Steam Chest

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Figure 4. Separable Steam Chest

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Figure 5. Simple Hand Valve Arrangement

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Figure 6. Turbine Interstage Diaphragm

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Figure 7. Convergent Nozzle

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Figure 8. Convergent-Divergent Nozzle

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Figure 9. Partial Arc Admission

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Figure 10. Turbine Blade and Disc Section

• Inverted circumferential dovetail

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Figure 11. Types of Blade Root Designs

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 18

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 19

Blade Natural Frequency and Resonance

• The speed of the turbine.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 20

Figure 12. Campbell Diagram

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 21

SE1 = SULT x .50

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 22

Figure 13. Goodman Diagram

Figure 14. Integral-Type Rotor Assembly