Engineering Encyclopedia: Electric Motors

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Electric Motors
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CHE10208 R. A. Al-Husseni on 874-2792
Engineering Encyclopedia Process
Electric Motors
CONTENTS PAGES
MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................................1

Incentives for Using Electric Motors ...................................................................................................... 1
Advantages......................................................................................................................................... 1
Disadvantages .................................................................................................................................... 1
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services ..................................................................................................2
General............................................................................................................................................... 2
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors ......................................................................................................... 2
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d) ................................................................................... 3
Salient Pole Synchronous Motors ...................................................................................................... 3
Induction Versus Synchronous Motors .............................................................................................. 7
Single Phase Motors .......................................................................................................................... 8
Single Phase Motors (Cont’d) ............................................................................................................ 9
Single Phase Motors (Cont’d) .......................................................................................................... 10
Single Phase Motors (Cont'd) .......................................................................................................... 11
Direct Current Motors ...................................................................................................................... 11
Direct Current Motors (Cont'd) ........................................................................................................ 12
Direct Current Motors (Cont'd) ........................................................................................................ 13
Motor Classification ............................................................................................................................. 13
NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors ............................................ 13
NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors (Cont’d) ............................. 14
Hazardous Locations—Enclosure Classifications................................................................................. 14
Drip-Proof Enclosures .......................................................................................................................... 15
Weather-Protected Type I Enclosures (WP-I)....................................................................................... 15
Weather-Protected Type II Enclosures (WP-II)* .................................................................................. 16
Totally Enclosed Forced Ventilated Enclosures (TEFV) ...................................................................... 16
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Enclosures (TEFC)* .............................................................................. 16
Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEFC/CACA)* ........................................................ 17
Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEWAC) ............................................................. 17
Explosion-Proof Enclosures ................................................................................................................. 17
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................................................... 18

Electric Motors
Motor and Plant Power Factor .............................................................................................................. 18

Speed and Slip ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Speed and Slip (Cont’d) ....................................................................................................................... 19
Standard Motor Horsepower Ratings.................................................................................................... 19
Voltage Levels for Motors.................................................................................................................... 20
Motor Efficiency (See Work Aid 10) ...................................................................................................20
Motor Efficiency (Cont’d) .................................................................................................................... 21
Motor Service Factor ............................................................................................................................ 21
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS ................................................................................................................ 21
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS (CONT'D)............................................................................................... 22
MOTOR CONTROL.................................................................................................................................23
Starting AC Induction Motors .............................................................................................................. 24
Voltage Drop ........................................................................................................................................ 25
Unloading Motor-Driven Compressors for Starting ............................................................................. 25
Reduced Voltage Starting Methods for Induction Motors .................................................................... 26
Synchronous Motor Starting Methods..................................................................................................27
Motor Reacceleration............................................................................................................................ 28
MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS .............................................................................................. 29
TYPICAL MOTOR PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................. 30
WORK AID 1: INCENTIVES FOR USING ELECTRIC MOTORS ........................................................ 31
Advantages ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Disadvantages....................................................................................................................................... 31
WORK AID 2: ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS
MOTORS .................................................................................................................................................. 32
Advantages: .......................................................................................................................................... 32
Disadvantages:...................................................................................................................................... 32
Advantages: .......................................................................................................................................... 32
Disadvantages:...................................................................................................................................... 32
WORK AID 3: GUIDELINE FOR THE APPLICATION OF INDUCTION AND
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.................................................................................................................... 33
WORK AID 4: SUMMARY OF POLYPHASE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS.................................... 34
WORK AID 5: SUMMARY OF DC AND SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................................................................... 35
WORK AID 6: AREA ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS ...................................................................36
WORK AID 7: TYPICAL SHAFT SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS MOTORS (RPM) .................................... 37
WORK AID 8: STANDARD MOTOR HORSEPOWER RATINGS ....................................................... 38

Electric Motors
WORK AID 9: VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR MOTORS ............................................................................. 39

WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF SQUIRREL
CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS (1) .......................................................................................................... 40
WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF SQUIRREL
CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS (1) (CONT’D)........................................................................................ 41
NOTES: ................................................................................................................................................ 41
WORK AID 11: SIMPLIFIED MOTOR PROTECTION SCHEMES ...................................................... 42
WORK AID 12: MOTOR PROTECTION CURVES ............................................................................... 44
WORK AID 13: MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS ...................................................................45
WORK AID 14: ELECTRICAL FORMULAS ......................................................................................... 46
GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................................. 47
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................... 49
SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARDS............................................................................................................ 49
SAUDI ARAMCO DESIGN PRACTICES............................................................................................... 49
EXXON BASIC PRACTICES .................................................................................................................. 49

Electric Motors
MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS
Incentives for Using Electric Motors
Advantages
The most attractive feature of electric motor drives for large machinery is the low investment requirement.
Equipment cost is slightly lower for motors than for steam turbines, but the in-plant utility system investment
requirement is much lower.
Other advantages of electric motors over other available drive types are:
• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very long runs.
• Low maintenance costs.
• Marginally higher equipment reliability than other drive types.
• Quick startup, requiring less operator manipulation of the driver than other drive types.
• Simple operation with minimal monitoring. No speed governing system required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of electric motor drivers are:
• Energy costs are usually higher than for other driver types.
• Purchased power rates are subject to increases beyond user control during the economic life of the
process unit.
• Reliability is completely dependent on the continuity of electric power service. Supply continuity,
in turn, depends on weather, power generation/distribution system design, and utility company
management factors that are not within the direct control of the plant operations and management.
• Quick start requires more care in preparing the process for startup than the gradual startup
capability of other driver types.
• Constant speed occasionally limits process flexibility. This is overcome by throttling or recycling
for control, which reduces overall efficiency.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Electric Motors
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services
General
Two types of ac motors are used for nearly all plant pump and compressor services:
• Polyphase squirrel-cage induction motors.
• Polyphase salient pole synchronous (single-speed) motors.
The squirrel-cage induction motor is by far the most common. It is used for most motor drives for pumps and
compressors. The synchronous motor is mainly used to drive low-speed reciprocating machines.
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
The polyphase squirrel-cage motor has a rugged and simple design and is the most common driver used in
industry.
The motor has two main parts, the stator and the rotor. See Figure 1. The stator is a cylindrical iron core with
insulated windings arranged around the inner periphery of the core. The stator is mounted in an enclosure.
The rotor is a cylindrical iron core mounted on a shaft and fitted inside the stator. The rotor windings consist
of a number of copper or aluminum bars fitted lengthwise in the core and connected at each end to a ring: thus
the term "squirrel cage." There is no direct electrical connection to the rotor winding.
A wound rotor induction motor has a rotor winding similar to the stator winding. A variable resistor can be
added to the rotor to give some speed control. See Figure 2.
A source of polyphase (three-phase for all high-power motors) voltage is connected to the stator winding
through the motor starter. Most squirrel-cage motors are single-speed, although the speed varies slightly with
load, but two-speed and three-speed motors are commercially available.
Squirrel cage motors use bearing construction similar to other types of medium-speed rotating machines.
Greased ball bearings are most common in motors under 200 hp. Oil-lubricated sleeve bearings are normally
used for larger motors.

Electric Motors
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d)
Salient Pole Synchronous Motors
Salient pole synchronous motors are similar to squirrel-cage motors except for their rotors. The rotor, or field,
consists of a number of iron core pole pieces arranged around a central hub on the shaft. Each pole has an
insulated winding. All pole windings are connected together. They are energized by a direct current source.
Also mounted on the poles is a squirrel-cage-like structure called an amortisseur winding. See Figure 3.
Motor startup is similar to a squirrel-cage motor on the amortisseur winding, and when the motor approaches
synchronous speed, the dc field winding is energized. The motor then runs at a constant speed, equal to
synchronous speed, regardless of load variations, unless the load exceeds the capability of the motor.
Synchronous motors may have slip rings and brushes to connect the dc voltage to the rotating field. Newer
synchronous motors do not require slip rings and brushes and are known as brushless synchronous motors.
Brushless motors are preferred for hazardous locations, because they have no arcing or sparking contacts.
Compared to synchronous motors, squirrel-cage induction motors can be economically built to operate at high
efficiency at lower speed.

Electric Motors
Paste VG 7
With permission from Power Magazine
FIGURE 1. TYPICAL ROTOR, STATOR CONSTRUCTION FOR LARGE SQUIRREL-CAGE

MOTOR

Electric Motors
Paste VG 9
FIGURE 2. WOUND-ROTOR MOTOR

Electric Motors
Paste VG 15
FIGURE 3. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Electric Motors
Induction Versus Synchronous Motors
The relative advantages and disadvantages of induction and synchronous motors may be summarized as
follows:
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Advantages:
• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.

• Lowest installed cost except for high hp ratings at low speed.
• Can usually be reaccelerated after momentary voltage interruption.
Disadvantages:
• Low power factor in low speed ranges.

• High starting current.
• Power factor always lagging, and low at part load.
Synchronous Motor
Advantages:
• More efficient than induction motor, by typically 2% at high speed, more at low speed.
• Suitable for direct connection without gears, for example, for large reciprocating compressors.
• Power factor can be 1.0 or leading.
• Less sensitive to rotor alignment and gap uniformity than induction motors.
• Lower installed cost at speed below approximately 500 rpm (for ratings above 150 bhp).
Disadvantages:
• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.

• More complex construction.
• Higher maintenance.
• Higher installed cost for most applications.
• Difficult to reaccelerate after momentary voltage interruption.
• Requires dc power supply for the field.
The general range speed and power ranges for major motor types are discussed later in this module and in
Work Aid 3.

Electric Motors
Single Phase Motors
Single-phase motors are used mainly for low hp applications. See Figure 4. The starting method is a major
consideration in selecting a single-phase motor, because single-phase squirrel-cage motors are not self-starting
on a single winding. Single-phase motors must have an auxiliary means for developing starting torque.
Basic types of single-phase motors include split-phase, capacitor, and repulsion-start. With the exception of
some forms of the repulsion design, all run as induction motors.
Split-phase design is the simplest. It has a squirrel-cage rotor and two stator windings spaced 90 electrical
degrees apart. Auxiliary or starting winding poles are physically halfway between main winding poles. Split-
phase motors have low starting torque, high starting current. They are used for small fans and unit heaters.
Repulsion-start motors have a rotor winding connected to a commutator. Heavy starting torque diminishes as
the motor comes up to speed. Applications include compressors, pumps, stokers, blowers.
Capacitor-start motors use a modified auxiliary winding and centrifugal switch with a capacitor in series to
give good starting characteristics. They are used interchangeably with the repulsion-start type.
Variations of this design include the capacitor-run motor, which has the capacitor permanently connected in
series with the auxiliary winding. In the same family is the capacitor-start-and-run motor which has an
electrolytic capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding only during the starting period. A liquid-filled
capacitor is permanently in series with the auxiliary winding.
Reversing rotation of many single-phase motors requires interchanging leads on either the auxiliary or running
winding. Repulsion-type motors can be reversed by reconnecting the field winding or brushes.
Performance of single-phase designs varies with the motor. Permanent capacitor motors have very low starting
and pull-in torques; about 50% of full-load torque. They also have a rather low full-load speed. The load's
torque needs must be checked carefully before applying this design, because the torque required to accelerate
the load may exceed that developed by the motor.
Split-phase designs offer starting and pull-in torques from 150 to 230% of the full-load value. Capacitor-start
and capacitor-start-and-run motors have starting torques from 350 to 450% of the full-load torque. Pull-up
value is about 200% of the full-load torque.

Electric Motors
Single Phase Motors (Cont’d)
Paste Figure 4
Diagrams
With permission from Power Magazine.
FIGURE 4. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Electric Motors
Single Phase Motors (Cont’d)
Paste Figure 4
Chart
With Permission from Power Magazine
FIGURE 4 (CONT'D). SINGLE PHASE MOTORS - AUXILIARY STARTING

Electric Motors
Single Phase Motors (Cont'd)
Repulsion-start motors have starting torques in the 350 to 550% range. Their pull-up torque is slightly less
than for capacitor start motors, but their starting currents are less than in any other single-phase design.
Direct Current Motors
The development of highly efficient, low-maintenance rectifiers and the growing need for adjustable speed
have made the direct current motor popular again. Industrial plants seldom generate direct current for their
power needs. Motor/generator sets or rectifying equipment are located alongside production machines. Short
dc leads are run directly to the motor.
The dc motor is used where an ac motor will not perform satisfactorily. Direct current motors cost more,
especially in larger sizes, but they offer adjustable speed and effective and simple control of torque,
acceleration, and deceleration. Even with the limitations of a commutator they can handle tough duty cycles.
The need for critical speed adjustment and continuous processes often finds dc motors operating in tandem,
with speeds of each unit changing proportionally over a wide range.
The maximum economical dc-motor size is usually not exceeded so long as the product of horsepower and
speed is less than 1.5 million; for example, 250 V for units up to 500 hp, 600 V for 600 to 1000 hp, 700 or
900 V above 1000 hp.
Classes - Direct current motors are divided into three classes: series, shunt, and compound. The armature is
similar in all three. The main difference between motors is in field coils and hookup. (See Figure 5).
Series design is the simplest of the three. Because the armature and field are in series, the field is wound with
conductors large enough to carry armature current without big losses. The high ratio of no-load to full-load
speed leads to using the series motor in hoist and traction work where the speed must vary inversely with load.
But this same speed characteristic makes it necessary to positively connect the motor to the load through
couplings or gears. A series motor without load will race at high speed. In larger sizes, the series motor will
be destroyed by centrifugal force on runaway or extremely high speed.
To prevent dangerous changes in field strength, series motors are sometimes modified to include a small shunt
winding that is strong enough to prevent the motor from reaching excessive speeds without changing its
characteristics.

Electric Motors
Direct Current Motors (Cont'd)
Shunt motors have their armature and fields in parallel, giving essentially constant field strength and motor
speed. This design is used both for constant speed (little application) and adjustable speed applications. In
constant-
speed applications, variation between no load and full load is 5 to 12%.
Paste Figure 5
Diagrams & Chart
FIGURE 5. DC MOTORS

Electric Motors
Direct Current Motors (Cont'd)
The speed of a shunt motor is adjusted by a rheostat in the field circuit. This adjustment may be as much as 2
to 1 on small units at moderate speeds, but decreases with larger ratings and higher speeds. A final point:
Torque varies directly as armature current.
The compound-wound motor combines series and shunt. The compound design is used for drives needing
fairly high starting torque and reasonably constant running speed. The shunt field, usually predominant, is
parallel with the armature. The series field is in series with the armature. By varying the series-field strength,
speed regulation can be increased to that of a series motor.
Because of the series winding, compound motor speed is not as constant for varying loads as the speed of a
shunt motor. Normal shunt design varies less than 10% from no load to full load. In contrast, compound
motor speed varies about 25%.
Power supplies for dc motors are usually made up of a number of dc conversion points close to load centers.
Local rectifiers with short dc secondaries have replaced central conversion. Motor generator sets and rectifying
equipment follow the "packaged" theme. In large applications, the packages are full unit substations with ac
circuit-breaker equipment, stepdown transformer, dc conversion unit, and dc circuit breakers.
A summary of motor types and applications is given in Work Aids 4 and 5.
Motor Classification
NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors
National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA) standards characterize several design classifications
for induction motors according to their speed-torque characteristics, starting (locked rotor) current level, and
full load slip range. Of the four design classes defined (A, B, C, D), B is preferred and most widely applied to
pumps and compressors. Designs C and D are occasionally applied where high starting torque is required.
The specific speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of each type vary with motor rating, so that
quantitative comparisons are valid only for specific ratings.

Electric Motors
NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors (Cont’d)
Design B motors have "normal" starting torque and a starting current acceptable to most power systems. This
design has a relatively high breakdown torque (about 200% in sizes over 10 HP) and low slip. These motors
are used on fans, machine tools, and centrifugal pumps.
Hazardous Locations—Enclosure Classifications
Hazardous locations are classified by the National Electric Code. Class I usually applies to refinery, chemical,
and gas plants. Within this class are two divisions. Division 1 locations are those in which hazardous
concentrations of flammable gases or vapors exist, either continuously or periodically during normal
conditions. Division 2 locations are those in which flammable gases are handled, processed, or used but are
normally confined within closed systems from which the gas can escape only in the event of accidental
breakdown or abnormal operation. (See Work Aid 6.)
In Division 1 areas, all electrical equipment must be approved as explosion-proof or intrinsically safe. Motors
must be explosion-proof.
In Division 2 locations, motors without sparking contacts need not be explosion-proof and only need
enclosures suitable for protection against weather and other ambient conditions. This permits use of
nonexplosion- proof squirrel-cage or brushless synchronous motors. Conventional synchronous motors, when
collector rings are housed in approved enclosures, are also acceptable.
Within Class I, four groups of hazardous materials are defined. Group D is the most common in refinery and
gas plant compressor and pump applications. The group classifications are:
Group A - Atmospheres containing acetylene.

Group B - Atmospheres containing hydrogen, or gases or vapors of equivalent
hazard, such as manufactured gas.
Group C - Ethyl ether, ethylene, or cyclopropane vapors.
Group D - Gasoline, hexane, naphtha, benzene, butane, propane, alcohol, acetone,
benzol, lacquer solvent vapors, or natural gas.
When a location for a motor application is defined, all three categories must be stated, such as: Class I,
Division 2, Group D.

Electric Motors
MOTOR ENCLOSURES (See ADP-P-113 Page 74)
Choosing a motor enclosure should be based upon the environmental conditions under which the motor
operates and the amount of maintenance required to provide long-term reliability and motor life. In general,
the more open the enclosure is to the atmosphere, the lower the purchase cost of the machine but the higher the
maintenance costs.
Motor enclosures are defined in NEMA MG1-1.25 and 1.26. Enclosures frequently used in ac motors are
listed below. The motor enclosures preferred by Saudi Aramco are marked with an asterisk (*).
Drip-Proof Enclosures
Drip-proof enclosures are generally used only indoors or in enclosed spaces not exposed to the elements.
Maintenance requirements will depend upon the general cleanliness of the location and chemical contaminants
in the area.
Drip-proof enclosures are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas or Division 2 areas unless approved.
Weather-Protected Type I Enclosures (WP-I)
These enclosures are the least costly option for an outdoor motor. They are essentially drip-proof guarded
motors with heaters and outdoor bearing seals and are very susceptible to weather and atmospheric
contamination. Considerable maintenance may be required to ensure satisfactory winding and bearing life.
They are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas or Division 2 areas unless approved.

Electric Motors
Weather-Protected Type II Enclosures (WP-II)*
These are the more commonly used outdoor enclosures. They are more expensive than the WP-I, but minimize
the entrance of water and dirt. Maintenance is less than for WP-I types. Chemicals in gaseous form may be
carried into a WP-II machine with the ventilating air and contaminate vulnerable parts.
Saudi Aramco Design Practice ADP-P-113 states that these enclosures may be acceptable for synchronous
motors above 15,000 hp where the cost advantage over TEFC types is significant and extra cleaning costs are
not too high.
They are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas.
Totally Enclosed Forced Ventilated Enclosures (TEFV)
These can be used indoors or outdoors in dirty or hazardous environments. Since the motor cooling air comes
from a remote source, the influx of dirt and gaseous contaminants is minimized. Maintenance is minimal
depending upon the cleanliness of the cooling air.
They can be used in Division 1 areas only if approved.
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Enclosures (TEFC)*
Totally enclosed fan cooled enclosures offer the highest degree of enclosure for an air-cooled machine.
Internal motor air is recirculated around the outside of the tubes while outside air is driven through the tubes by
a shaft driven fan. These motors are costly in large sizes because of the high volume of cooling air required.
They are used in very dirty or hazardous locations.
The TEFC enclosure minimizes the maintenance required for very dirty applications. However, the machines
will breathe or pull in surrounding air during shutdown, and vapor and gaseous contaminants can be drawn
into them. TEFC motors are noisy because they have a large external fan.
ADP-P-113 states that TEFC enclosures without heat exchangers are not permitted for motors above 15,000
hp.
TEFC enclosures can be used in Division 1 areas only if approved.

Electric Motors
Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEFC/CACA)*
These enclosures use an air-to-air heat exchanger to remove heat generated by motor losses. The machine is
cooled by circulating the internal air through the heat exchanger, which in turn is cooled by circulating external
air. It is provided with an air-to-air exchanger and a fan, integral with the rotor shaft or a separate fan, for
circulating internal air and another fan for circulating the external air.
Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEWAC)
These enclosures use a water to air heat exchanger to remove heat generated by motor losses. It is the quietest
enclosure available and will usually result in the lowest maintenance costs. It will breathe during shutdown,
but often a breather filter is used to remove particulate contaminants. It is more efficient than a TEFC motor
because it does not have to drive the external fan. Its first cost is greater than WP-II but less than TEFC.
Operating costs are higher than the previously described enclosures because of the necessity to continuously
supply it with cooling water.
Explosion-Proof Enclosures
Explosion-proof enclosures are totally enclosed and are designed and constructed to withstand an internal
explosion. They are also designed to prevent the ignition of combustibles surrounding the motor by sparks,
flashes, or explosions within the motor casing.
They are preferred in Division 1 areas.

Electric Motors
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Motor and Plant Power Factor
In alternating current distribution systems, amplitudes of voltage and current vary in separate sine waves.
Power factor, in its simplest terms, describes the load-caused relationship of these waves to one another. This
relationship determines the efficiency of the distribution system and thus the unit cost of useful power
transmitted. When these waves are in phase, power factor is unity and the distribution system is at peak
efficiency. When these waves are displaced or out of phase (the current wave may either lead or lag the
voltage wave), power factor is less than unity. The larger the wave displacement, the lower the power factor
and the less efficient the distribution system becomes, with the penalty usually being increased unit power
costs.
Squirrel-cage motors always operate at a lagging power factor that varies with load. Power factor is highest at
full load and reduces as load is decreased. Typical full-load power factors range from 80 to 85% for small
motors (10 hp and smaller) and 90 to 95% for large motors (200 hp and larger).
Synchronous motors are available that operate at a power factor of one or at 80% leading power factor. With
constant field excitation, power factor will vary with load. Most synchronous motors operate at a power factor
of one.
Occasionally, synchronous motors are selected instead of induction motors because they can raise the overall
plant power factor and may therefore reduce the cost of purchased power. Raising plant power factor also
releases existing generator and transformer capacity for additional load. Without such improvement, most
plants would run with a lagging power factor of about 85 to 90%.
However, many things must be considered in any effort to improve plant power factor, and an electrical
specialist should be consulted before a synchronous motor is selected for this purpose.
Speed and Slip
An induction motor does not run at a constant speed. Its speed varies from very close to synchronous speed at
no load to a speed as much as 5% less than synchronous speed (or 5% slip) at full load. Slip is usually
expressed in percent of synchronous speed. Synchronous motors operate at synchronous speed, from no load
to full load, with no slip.

Electric Motors
Speed and Slip (Cont’d)
TYPICAL SHAFT SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS MOTORS (rpm)
Synchronous Motors Induction Motors*
Poles 60 Hertz 60 Hertz
2 3600 3545
4 1800 1772
6 1200 1182
8 900 886
10 720 709
12 600 591
14 514.3 506
16 450 443
18 400
20 360
22 327.2
24 300**
* Slip varies inversely with motor size and speed and ranges from 0.5% and 5.0%; 1.5% slip is
typical.
** Still lower speeds for unusual applications.
Standard Motor Horsepower Ratings
The standard NEMA horsepower ratings for induction motors are:
Standard NEMA Frame Sizes - 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 3, 5, 7-1/2, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 100, 125,
150, 200.
Larger Frame Sizes - 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900,
1000, 1250, 1500, 1750, 2000, 2250, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000.
Manufacturers typically stock motors to 100 hp and build larger ones to order.
Some vendors have standard ratings in 5,000-to 10,000-hp range. Other vendors design to match the required
size. Above 10,000 hp, most vendors design to the required size.

Electric Motors
Voltage Levels for Motors
Standard voltages for motors that are used for Saudi Aramco plant pump and compressor drive service are
115, 230, 460, 2300, 4000, 6600, and 13,200 V. Voltages most commonly selected (others are available) for
various motor sizes are as follows:
Motor Sizes, hp Voltage Type
up to 1/3 115 Induction

(Single Phase)
1/4 to 10 230 Induction
200 to 4000 4000 Induction
670 to 4000 4000 Synchronous
Above 1340 13,200 Induction
Above 15,000 13,200 Synchronous
The voltage selected is usually established by the system voltage available at the motor location. When more
than one suitable voltage is available, selection is based on economics. For voltage levels above 600 V and
other factors equal, motors built for lower voltage levels are considered more reliable.
For a guide to application of induction and synchronous motors, see Work Aid 3.
Motor Efficiency (See Work Aid 10)
Some general characteristics of motor efficiency are:
• A motor's highest efficiency is at some point between 3/4 and full load. Efficiency falls off at part
load and at overload.
• Efficiency of a synchronous motor is generally 1 to 2% higher than for a squirrel-cage induction

motor.
• Larger motors have higher efficiency than small motors.
• Motor efficiency cannot be measure directly in the field.

Electric Motors
Motor Efficiency (Cont’d)
If vendor data on motor losses are available, a close estimate of motor efficiency can be made in the field using
the following equation.
Efficiency = Input Power - Losses

Input Power
Work Aid 10 gives motor efficiencies and power factors of squirrel-cage induction motors for a wide range of
motor sizes.
Motor Service Factor
Motor service factor, or continuous overload capability, expresses the horsepower at which a motor can
operate continuously, above its rated horsepower, without exceeding its rated temperature rise by more than
10°C. Most motors have a service factor of either 1.0 (no overload permitted) or 1.15 (15% overload
permitted).
Regardless of their service factor rating, motors should not be applied above their rated horsepower without
consulting electrical specialists.
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS
Direct current (dc) can provide variable speed operation over a wide range, but they are costly.
Series motors have the widest speed range, varying from zero to maximum depending upon control and load.
They are used where high starting torque is required and speed change with load change is not critical.
Shunt and compound wound motors are more limited in speed range, usually about 2 to 1 in larger sizes.
Shunt motors are used where constant or adjustable speed is required and starting conditions are not severe.
Compound motors are used where high starting torque and fairly constant speeds are required.
Single-phase ac repulsion motors can give some speed control by varying the position of the brushes on the
repulsion rotor.

Electric Motors
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS (CONT'D)
Three-phase ac wound rotor motors can provide 50 to 100% speed control by varying rotor resistance.
Multiple-speed ac motors (two to four constant speeds) are available that can control speed by changing the
winding connections, which effectively changes the number of poles. Pole amplitude modulation, which
changes the coil grouping around the stator, is another method used in multiple-speed ac motors.
Adjustable speed can also be obtained by varying frequency. Synchronous speed of a four-pole induction
motor at 60 Hz is 1800 rpm; at 50 Hz, it is 1500 rpm; at 70 Hz, 2100 rpm. Infinite speed adjustment above and
below a base value can be obtained by adjusting the frequency above and below the corresponding base
frequency. It is necessary to adjust voltage along with frequency because the reactance of the motor varies
with its speed. As frequency goes up, voltage must go up; as frequency goes down, voltage must go down
proportionally.
The source of adjustable frequency is usually solid-state equipment, although motor generator sets could be
used and sometimes are. Two approaches are possible: the rectifier-inverter and the cycloconverter. The
rectifier- inverter takes the line frequency (usually 60 Hz), rectifies it to dc, then inverts the dc to ac of the
desired frequency. With this approach, any desired frequency may be obtained. With the cycloconverter, the
original 60-Hz sine wave is cut up into segments. Summation of these segments constitutes a roughly defined
sine wave of a slower frequency. Cycloconverters can be used only where desired frequency is lower than
original frequency, but it is adjustable within its range. Rectifier-inverter units have been built for motors up
to 30 MW and for speeds from 0 to 10,000 rpm.
In addition to the methods of achieving variable speed described above, load speed control can be achieved by
magnetic or Eddy current clutches, which allow the driven equipment speed to change while motor speed
remains constant.
Typical applications of variable speed drives are for compressors and pumps, fans, and mixers or masticators.
Other applications include cranes and hoists, elevators, conveyors, and wood- and metal-working machines.

Electric Motors
MOTOR CONTROL
(See Work Aids 11 and 12)
The functions of a motor control system are (a) to start and stop the motor; (b) to reaccelerate the motor after a
voltage dip or outage; (c) to protect the motor and its supply feeder from overload, overheating, locked rotor,
short circuits, and other abnormal conditions; (d) to control motor speed for variable or multiple-speed motors;
(e) to vary motor operations based on process conditions; and (f) to maintain proper sequencing of motors,
equipment, processes, and operations.
The "motor-protection" function protects the motor from overcurrent conditions during starting or running that
could cause overheating and damage to the windings. The controller starts and stops the motor and also
provides the desired operating characteristics of the drive (combination of controller and motor). Usually, the
motor protection and controller are combined in one unit.
The "branch-circuit protection" protects the branch circuit to the motor, the motor, and associated controls from
short circuits. The "disconnect means" permits the entire branch circuit to be de-energized and disconnected
from the power supply. It can be a separate unit or can be combined with the branch- circuit protection.
Selection of a motor controller depends on: (a) the nature of the job, (b) characteristics of the motor, (c)
characteristics of the power supply, (d) type of environment, and (e) laws, codes, regulations, and standards.
Controllers are classified by to the type of motor they control: single- or multiple-speed squirrel-cage, wound-
rotor, or synchronous motors.
Plant motors are normally arranged for across-the-line (full voltage) starting and employ magnetic contactor or
circuit breaker starters. Magnetic starters contain a mechanism for opening and closing a set of contacts in the
motor circuit and a thermal-overload protective device. Unlike a manual starter, a magnetic starter depends on
an electrical signal to open and close the contacts.
Magnetic starters are frequently controlled by such pilot devices as pushbuttons, limit switches, relays, timers,
pressure switches, and float switches. These are designed for a high frequency of open/close (start-stop)
cycles.
Circuit breaker starters are used for larger motors. They are latched-in switches that are opened by a powerful
spring when the latch is released. Circuit breakers are opened and closed by an electrical signal. Circuit
breakers are often equipped with relays that can protect the motor and its feeder circuit. They also may be
controlled by pilot devices. They are not suitable for a high frequency of open/close cycles.

Electric Motors
Starting AC Induction Motors
When power is first applied to an electric motor at rest for starting, the current flows instantly at 5.5 to 6.5
times the full load current. This is termed "in-rush" or "locked rotor" current. The current level remains very
high until the speed reaches 80 to 85% of normal (typically 8 to 15 seconds for a centrifugal compressor and 2
to 4 seconds for a centrifugal pump) and then drops rapidly toward normal as the speed approaches the
synchronous speed. The torque developed by the in-rush current rotates the load machine and accelerates the
rotors of the train to full speed, overcoming rotor inertia.
The motor-locked rotor torque must exceed the load breakaway torque for the motor to be able to accelerate.
The amount by which the motor torque exceeds the driven machine load torque is the net torque available for
accelerating the rotor system.
Both the load torque required and the motor torque developed vary continuously between zero speed and full
speed, so that the net accelerating torque varies throughout the acceleration period. If the "average" net
accelerating torque is low, the starting time, and therefore the time during which in-rush current occurs, is high
and may cause overheating of the motor. If the net accelerating torque reaches zero at any point during the
acceleration, acceleration ceases and the motor will stall and may overheat if the motor starter fails to quickly
disconnect the motor.
Many factors influence the starting performance of a motor-compressor system, all of which require careful
engineering.
The speed-torque capability characteristics of large motors vary. Basic designs can be modified by varying the
shape of the rotor bars and slots and by changing the magnetic field strength of the stator windings. Motors
designed for high starting torque employ higher resistance in the rotor bars and short circuit rings and are
slightly less efficient at normal speed.
The speed-torque requirement of load machines varies among the several machine types and the unloading
means provided.
The inertia values of compressor, gear, and motor rotors vary considerably. Axial compressors, for instance,
have higher inertia (WK2) than centrifugal compressors of the same flow and heat capability. The complete
trains must be evaluated to determine motor starting requirements.

Electric Motors
Voltage Drop
The level to which the supply voltage drops during the in-rush period is a function of the distribution system
design and the relationship of each motor size to system capacity. The voltage drop is critical because the
starting torque developed by a motor reduces roughly in proportion to the square of the voltage at the motor
terminals. That is, a 20% voltage drop will reduce starting torque to 64% of rated voltage.
The heat capacity of motors varies according to insulation type, construction, and other factors. Because of the
many variables involved, computer analysis may be required to engineer the starting characteristics of large
motors.
Unloading Motor-Driven Compressors for Starting
Provisions should be made in the piping system and control systems to unload all types of motor-driven
compressors before the motor is energized. Reducing the load on the compressor during acceleration lowers
the torque requirements of the compressor. This shortens the time for the motor to reach full speed and reduces
the motor heating due to in-rush current, thus prolonging the useful service life of the motor insulation.
Startup unloading of the common compressor types may be accomplished as follows:
Reciprocating compressors - Valve unloaders or recycle line (atmospheric vents at each stage discharge for air
compressors).
Rotary compressors - Recycle line or atmospheric vents.
Centrifugal compressors - Nearly closed position for inlet block valve (or guide vanes or butterfly throttling
valve) and open recycle line. For air compressors lacking inlet valve or guide vanes, nearly closed discharge
valve position.
Axial compressors - Closed position of variable stator vanes or nearly closed inlet throttle valve.

Electric Motors
Reduced Voltage Starting Methods for Induction Motors
Full voltage starting should not be used in applications where the driven machine, or method of coupling, may
be damaged by the resulting high shock load. In these cases, one of the following methods of reduced voltage
starting should be considered.
Part-winding starting may be used with motors with a multiple winding primary circuit. This is a full-voltage
starting method, except that voltage is applied to only one winding during startup. As the motor accelerates,
more windings are energized until the full winding is in use. The starting current and torque are low, and full-
load torque is built up in steps, depending on the motor design. Control is accomplished through simple
switching.
Autotransformer starting is a reduced-voltage starting method in which a voltage less than line voltage is
supplied to the motor. This method is often used with high-speed synchronous motors started at 65% of line
voltage. Reduced-voltage starting limits motor starting current in direct proportion to the reduction in starting
voltage.
Autotransformer starting is generally limited to two steps. One tap on the winding proves the reduced voltage,
and the entire winding is bypassed when full voltage is applied.
When the voltage is changed from the reduced starting voltage to the full running voltage, high line surges may
occur, resulting from transients generated by the difference in voltage and phase angle between the motor and
the power supply.
Reactor starting is a reduced-voltage starting method obtained by placing a series reactor in each phase of the
power supply. This is usually a two-step method in which the reactors are shorted out after the motor
accelerates. During acceleration, the motor current decreases, and voltage drop across the reactor decreases,
thus increasing the voltage at the motor terminals. Reactor starting is simple, but gives low starting torque per
kilovolt-ampere (kVA) drawn from the line.
Resistor starting is occasionally used for smaller motors in low-voltage networks where several steps of
starting are required. Tapped resistors are inserted in each phase of the power supply to obtain reduced
voltage. Sections of the resistors are successively shorted out until full voltage is applied to the motor
terminals. This is a voltage-drop method, and the starting torque is reduced by the ratio of motor terminal
voltage squared to line voltage squared. It is used where several steps of starting are required without opening
the motor circuit between steps.

Electric Motors
Synchronous Motor Starting Methods
A synchronous motor, either single-phase or polyphase, cannot start itself without being driven, or having its
rotor connected in the form of a self-starting motor. Since the field is rotating at synchronous speed, the motor
must be accelerated before it can pull into synchronism. The pull-in torque depends not only on the torque of
the load, but also on the inertia of the entire system. Accelerating from zero speed will require slip until
synchronism is reached. Therefore, a separate starting means must be employed.
In the fractional horsepower sizes, self-starting designs common to induction motors are used. These include
split-phase, capacitor-start, repulsion-start, and shaded pole. Motors employing these starting methods
automatically switch to synchronous operation.
Although the excited synchronous motor has a squirrel cage for starting, the inherent low starting torque and
the need for a dc power source for excitation require a starting system that will: 1) provide full motor
protection while starting, 2) apply dc field excitation at the proper time, 3) remove field excitation upon rotor
pull-out, 4) protect the squirrel-cage winding against thermal damage under out-of-step conditions. Several
methods that meet these requirements are used for starting excited synchronous motors.
Full-voltage starting, because of its simplicity, is used wherever possible. On some applications that require
high starting torque, increment starting by means of part-windings, reactors, or resistors is used. The motor
need not start on the first step, and additional torque increments are applied until the motor starts and
accelerates. The motor will pull into synchronism when excitation is applied to the rotor field winding.
Application of excitation at the proper speed and phase angle is governed by the type of starting method. Most
low-speed synchronous motors can be started by direct connection across the line. High-speed motors may
require a reduced-voltage starting method.
Full-voltage starting is the simplest starting method and requires the least time to accelerate the motor to
operating speed. No complex control equipment is needed; thus, it is an economical method. However, full-
voltage starting produces high mechanical stresses due to the sudden application of maximum starting torque.
This method should not be used when the driven machine or method of coupling may be damaged by the
resultant high shock load.
In such applications, the methods discussed under induction motor starting should be considered.

Electric Motors
Motor Reacceleration
Critical process and utility services that are motor-driven usually have motor starters arranged to permit the
motors to reaccelerate automatically after short voltage dips or interruptions in the power source. Automatic
reacceleration minimizes shutdown or upset of process and utility plants from power source disturbances.
The need for reacceleration is determined by designers. Standard squirrel-cage induction motors normally
have adequate torque capability to permit automatic reacceleration of centrifugal pumps and compressors.
Reacceleration can take place immediately after voltage is restored or in steps after preset times.
Automatic reacceleration of synchronous motors and motors driving reciprocating compressors requires close
coordination between machinery and electrical specialists. Automatic unloading devices are required on
reciprocating compressors that will be reaccelerated.

Electric Motors
MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS
The motor size selected for a given service is typically equal to the driven equipment maximum break
horsepower (bhp) multiplied by a load factor, usually. 1.05 or 1.10. The following table lists frequently used
load factors:
Type of Load Load Factor
Air compressor 1.05

Gas compressor 1.10
Centrifugal pump 1.05
Positive displacement pump 1.10
Centrifugal fan
- Forward curved blades 1.10
- Backward curved blades 1.05
Axial Fan 1.05
To calculate the required motor rating, use the following equations:
Required motor KW = Driven load bhp x Load Factor x 0.746
Required motor hp = Driven load bhp x Load Factor
To calculate motor current, use the following equations:
Three-phase maximum motor current (amperes) =
Driven load max bhp x load factor x 746

1.732 x volts x % eff x % power factor
100
where % eff. and % power factor are at 100% load.
Three phase motor running current (amperes) =
Driven load operating HP x 746

1.732 x volts x % eff x % power factor
100
where % eff. and % power factor are at operating load.
For additional electrical equations see Work Aid 14.

Electric Motors
TYPICAL MOTOR PROBLEMS
The initial alignment of motors frequently is a problem. The electrical or magnetic center of a motor when it is
running is not the same as the center of gravity when the motor is idle. Alignment and coupling should be
based upon the electrical center.
Motors require a high starting current. If special controls are not used, the starting current of an induction
motor is typically six times normal full load current or more, until the motor reaches operating speed.
Starting times can also be quite long for high-inertia loads. This must be considered in setting the motor
protective relay.
When a motor is idle in a humid atmosphere, the windings can absorb moisture, which will lower the winding
insulation resistance. In some areas, heaters must be installed in or near motors during long idle periods.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 1: INCENTIVES FOR USING ELECTRIC MOTORS
Advantages
By far the most attractive feature of electric-motor drivers for large machinery is the low investment
requirement when electric power can be purchased from a local utility system. Equipment costs are slightly
lower for motors than for steam turbines, but the in-plant utility system investment requirement is much lower.
Other advantages of electric motors over the other available driver types are:
• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very long runs.
• Low maintenance costs.
• Marginally higher equipment reliability than other driver types, although not sufficiently higher
than steam and gas turbines to warrant economic credits for this feature.
• Quick startup, requiring less operator manipulation of the driver than for other driver types.
• Simple operation with minimum monitoring speeds. No speed governing system required.
Disadvantages
• Usually higher drive energy cost than for other type drivers.
• Purchased power rates subject to increases beyond user control during the economic life of the
process unit.
• Reliability completely dependent on the continuity of electric power service. Supply continuity, in
turn, depends on weather, power generation/distribution system design, and utility company
management factors that are not within the direct control of the plant operations and management.
• Quick start requires more care in preparing the process for startup than the gradual startup
capability of other driver types.
• Constant speed occasionally limits process flexibility. This is overcome by throttling or recycle
for control, which reduces overall efficiency.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 2: ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Advantages:
• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.

• Lowest installed cost except for high hp ratings at low speed.
• Can usually be reaccelerated after momentary voltage interruption.
Disadvantages:
• Low power factor in low speed ranges.

• High starting current.
• Power factor always lagging, and low at part load.
Synchronous Motor
Advantages:
• More efficient than induction motor, by typically 2% at high speed, more at low speed.
• Suitable for direct connection without gears, for example, for large reciprocating compressors.
• Power factor can be 1.0 or leading.
• Less sensitive to rotor alignment and gap uniformity than induction motors.
• Lower installed cost at speed below approximately 500 rpm (for ratings above 150 bhp).
Disadvantages:
• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.

• More complex construction.
• Higher maintenance.
• Higher installed cost for most applications.
• Difficult to reaccelerate after momentary voltage interruption.
• Requires dc power supply for the field.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 3: GUIDELINE FOR THE APPLICATION OF INDUCTION AND

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Paste Figure 6
FIGURE 6

Electric Motors
WORK AID 4: SUMMARY OF POLYPHASE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Speed Speed Starting Breakdown Applications

Regulation Control Torque Torque
General-Purpose Squirrel-Cage (Design B)

Drops About 3% Adjustable 100% for 200 hp, 200% of Full Load Constant-Speed Service Where
for Large to 5% for Frequency, 300% for 1-hp 4- Starting Torque is Not Excessive.
Small Sizes Adjustable Pole Unit Fans, Blowers, Rotary
Voltage, Compressors, and Centrifugal
Multispeed (2 to 4 Pumps.
Constant Speeds)
High-Torque Squirrel-Cage (Design C)
Drops About 3% Adjustable 250% of Full Load 200% of Full Load Constant-Speed Where Fairly
for Large to 6% for Frequency, for High-Speed to High-Starting Torque is Required
Small Sizes Adjustable 200% for Low- Infrequently With Starting About
Voltage, Speed Designs 550% of Full Load. Reciprocating
Multispeed (2 to 4 Pumps and Compressors, Crushers,
Constant Speeds) etc.
High-Slip Squirrel-Cage (Design D)
Drops About 10 to Adjustable 225% to 300% of 200%. Will Constant-Speed and High-Starting
15% From No Load Frequency, Full Load Usually Not Stall Torque. If Starting is Not Too
to Full Load Adjustable Depending on Until Loaded to Frequent, and for High-Peak Loads
Voltage, Speed With Rotor Max-torque, With or Without Flywheels, Punch
Multispeed (2 to 4 Resistance Which Occurs at Presses, Shears, Elevators, etc.
Constant Speeds) Standstill
Wound Rotor
With Rotor Rings Speed Can be Up to 300% 300% When Rotor Where High-Starting Torque with
Short Circuited, Reduced to 50% Depending on Slip Rings Are Low-Starting Current or Where
Drops About 3% By Rotor External Short Circuited. Limited Speed Control is Required.
for Large to 5% for Resistance. Speed Resistance in Fans, Centri-fugal and Plunger
Small Sizes Varies Inversely Rotor Circuit and Pumps, Compressors, Conveyors,
As Load How Distributed. Hoists, Cranes, etc.
Synchronous
Constant None 40% for Slow to Unity-PF Motors For Constant-Speed Service, Direct
160% for 170%; 80%-PF Connection to Slow-Speed
Medium-Speed Motors 225%. Machines and Where Power-Factor
80% PF. Specials Specials Up to Correction is Required
Higher. 300%

Electric Motors
WORK AID 5: SUMMARY OF DC AND SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Speed Speed Starting Breakdown Applications

Regulation Control Torque Torque
Series
Varies Inversely As Zero to Maximum High. Varies as High. Limited by Where High-Starting Torque is
Load. Races on Depending on Square of Voltage. Commuta-tion, Required and Speed Can be
Light Loads and Control and Load Limited by Heating Line Regulated. Traction, Bridges,
Full Voltage Commutation, Capacity Hoists, Gates, Car Dumpers, Car
Heating Line Retarders.
Capacity
Shunt
Drops 3% to 5% Any Desired Good. With High. Limited by Where Constant or Adjustable
from No Load to Range Depending Constant Field, Commuta-tion, Speed is Required and Starting
Full Load on Design, Type Varies Directly as Heating Line Conditions Are Not Severe. Fans,
of System Voltage Applied Capacity Blowers, Centrifugal Pumps,
to Armature Conveyors, Wood and Metal-
Working Machines, Elevators
Compound
Drops 7 to 20% Any Desired Higher than for High. Limited by Where High-Starting Torque and
From No Load to Range Depending Shunt, Depending Commuta-tion, Fairly Constant Speed is Required.
Full Load on Design, Type on Amount of Heating Line Plunger Pumps, Punch Presses,
Depending on of System Compounding Capacity Shears, Bending Rolls, Geared
Amount of Elevators, Conveyors, Hoists
Compounding
Single-Phase Motors
Split-Phase
Drops About 10% None 75% for Large to 150% for Large to Constant-Speed Service Where
from No Load to 175% for Small 200% for Small Starting is Easy. Small Fans,
Full Load Sizes Sizes Centrifugal Pumps and Light-
Running Machines, Where
Polyphase is Not Available
Capacitor
Drops About 5% None 150 to 350% of 150% for Large to Constant-Speed Service for Any
for Large to 10% Full Load 200% for Small Starting Duty and Quiet Operation,
for Small Sizes Depending on Sizes Where Polyphase Current Cannot
Type, Size be Used

Electric Motors
WORK AID 6: AREA ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Paste Figure 7
FIGURE 7

Electric Motors
WORK AID 7: TYPICAL SHAFT SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS MOTORS (RPM)
Synchronous Motors Induction Motors*
Poles 60 Hertz 60 Hertz
2 3600 3545
4 1800 1772
6 1200 1182
8 900 886
10 720 709
12 600 591
14 514.3 506
16 450 443
18 400
20 360
22 327.2
24 300**
* Slip varies inversely with motor size and speed and ranges from 0.5% and 5.0%; 1.5% slip is
typical.
** Still lower speeds for unusual applications.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 8: STANDARD MOTOR HORSEPOWER RATINGS
The standard NEMA horsepower ratings for induction motors are:
Standard NEMA Frame Sizes - 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 3, 5, 7-1/2, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 100, 125,
150, 200.
Larger Frame Sizes - 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900,
1000, 1250, 1500, 1750, 2000, 2250, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000.
Manufacturers typically stock motors to 100 HP and build larger ones to order.
Some vendors have standard ratings in 5,000- to 10,000-hp range. Other vendors design to match the required
size. Above 10,000 hp, most vendors design to the required size.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 9: VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR MOTORS
Standard voltages to which induction motors are applied for plant pump and compressor drive service are:
115, 230, 460, 2300, 4000, 6600, and 13,200 V. Voltages most commonly selected (others are available) for
various motor sizes are as follows:
Motor Sizes, hp Voltage Type
up to 1/3 115 Induction

(Single Phase)
670 to 4000 4000 Synchronous
Above 1340 13,200 Induction
Above 15,000 13,200 Synchronous

Electric Motors
WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF SQUIRREL CAGE
INDUCTION MOTORS (1)
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR EFFICIENCY (%) (3) AT POWER FACTOR (%) AT

RATING CONNECTED % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY
hp LOAD (2) kW 50 75 100 (4) 50 75 100 (5)
1 0.98 67.0 72.5 74.0 53.5 65.5 75.4

1-1/2 1.42 72.0 76.0 77.0 54.0 73.5 80.5
2 1.86 73.0 78.0 79.5 54.5 68.0 77.0
3 2.76 74.5 79.0 80.5 55.5 68.0 75.5
5 4.39 81.0 83.5 84.0 60.0 71.0 78.0
7-1/2 6.65 78.0 82.0 83.0 58.0 70.0 77.0

10 8.78 83.0 85.0 85.0 87.5 65.5 75.5 80.5
15 13.0 85.0 86.0 86.0 87.5 76.0 84.0 87.0
20 17.05 86.5 87.5 87.5 88.5 79.0 84.5 87.0
25 21.00 87.5 88.5 88.5 89.5 79.0 84.5 87.0
30 25.10 88.0 89.0 89.0 89.5 80.0 85.0 88.0 88

40 33.5 88.0 89.0 89.0 90.2 81.0 86.0 88.5
50 41.7 88.0 89.5 89.5 90.2 82.0 87.0 89.0
60 49.7 89.5 90.0 90.0 91.7 82.0 87.0 89.0
75 62.1 89.0 90.0 90.0 92.4 82.0 87.0 89.0
100 82.0 84.0 89.0 91.0 93.0 85.0 89.0 91.0

125 102.0 85.0 89.5 91.5 93.0 85.0 90.0 92.0
150 123.0 86.0 89.0 91.0 93.0 85.0 90.0 92.0
200 161.0 88.0 91.0 92.5 94.1 87.5 91.0 92.0
250 201.0 90.5 92.5 92.5 94.1 84.0 87.7 90.5
300 241.0 90.8 92.5 92.8 84.4 88.2 90.9

350 281.0 90.9 92.6 92.9 84.8 88.5 91.1
400 320 91.1 92.8 93.1 85.0 89.0 91.3
450 360 91.2 93.0 93.2 85.1 89.0 91.6
500 399 91.4 93.1 93.4 85.3 89.2 91.6
600 478 91.6 93.3 93.6 85.5 89.5 91.8

700 557 91.7 93.4 93.7 85.7 89.7 91.9
800 636 91.9 93.6 93.9 85.8 89.8 92.0
900 715 92.0 93.7 94.0 85.9 89.9 92.0
1000 793 92.1 93.8 94.1 85.9 89.9 92.1

Electric Motors
WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF SQUIRREL CAGE
INDUCTION MOTORS (1) (CONT’D)
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR EFFICIENCY (%) (3) AT POWER FACTOR (%) AT

RATING CONNECTED % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY
hp LOAD (2) kW 50 75 100 (4) 50 75 100 (5)
1250 988 92.3 94.0 94.3 86.0 90.0 92.2

1500 1185 92.4 94.1 94.4 86.1 90.1 92.3
1750 1380 92.6 94.3 94.6 86.2 90.2 92.4
2000 1575 92.7 94.4 94.7 86.3 90.4 92.5
2250 1770 92.8 94.5 94.8 86.4 90.5 92.6

2500 1965 92.9 94.6 94.9 86.5 90.6 92.8
3000 2355 93.0 94.7 95.0 86.6 90.7 93.0
3500 2750 93.0 94.7 95.0 86.6 90.7 93.0
4000 3140 93.1 94.8 95.1 86.6 90.7 93.0
4500 3580 93.1 94.8 95.1 86.6 90.7 93.0

5000 3920 93.2 94.9 95.2 86.6 90.7 93.0
5500 4310 93.8 95.0 95.2 86.3 90.7 92.6
6000 4700 93.8 95.0 95.2 86.3 90.7 92.6
7000 5480 94.0 95.2 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6

8000 6260 93.7 95.1 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6
9000 7050 93.8 95.2 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6
10000 (6) 7820 93.9 95.3 95.4 84.3 88.7 90.6
NOTES:
1. Applies to open and enclosed motors rated at 1800 rpm, 3-phase, 60 hertz. At 7000 hp and above,
speed is 1200 rpm, instead of 1800.
2. Connected Load = (hp) (0.746 kW/hp)
Efficiency @ 100% of Full Load
3. For totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors, efficiency should be reduced 1% at full load, 1-1/2% at
3/4 load and 2-1/2% at half load.
4. Saudi Aramco design practices require minimum full load efficiencies as listed in this column.
5. Saudi Aramco design practices require minimum full load power factor of 88 %.
6. Above 10,000 hp, use the 10,000 hp values until specific vendor estimates are obtained.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 11: SIMPLIFIED MOTOR PROTECTION SCHEMES
Paste Figure 8
FIGURE 8

Electric Motors
Paste Figure 9
FIGURE 9

Electric Motors
WORK AID 12: MOTOR PROTECTION CURVES
FIGURE 10

Electric Motors
WORK AID 13: MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS
The motor size selected for a given service is typically equal to the driven equipment maximum break
horsepower (bhp) multiplied by a load factor, usually 1.05 and 1.10. The following table summarizes
frequently used load factors:
Type of Load Load Factor
Air compressor 1.05

Gas compressor 1.10
Centrifugal pump 1.05
Positive displacement pump 1.10
Centrifugal fan
- Forward curved blades 1.10
- Backward curved blades 1.05
Axial Fan 1.05
To calculate the required motor rating, use the following equations:
Required motor KW = Driven load bhp x Load Factor x 0.746
Required motor hp = Driven load bhp x Load Factor

Electric Motors
WORK AID 14: ELECTRICAL FORMULAS
DESIRED DATA ALTERNATING CURRENT DIRECT CURRENT

Single Phase Three Phase
kilowatts V*I*PF 1.73*V*I*PF V*I

1000 1000 1000
kVA V*I 1.73*V*I

1000 1000
1/2 1/2
Reactive kVA V*I* (1-PF2) 1.73*V*I* (1-PF2)
__________ ______________
1000 1000
Horsepower V*I*eff*PF 1.73*V*I*eff*PF V*I*eff

(Output) (746)(100) (746)(100) (746)(100)
Amperes (when hp(746)(100) hp(746)(100) hp(746)(100)

horsepower is V*eff*PF 1.73*V*eff*PF V*eff
known)
Amperes (when kW*1000 kW*1000 kW*1000

kilowatts are V*PF 1.73*V*PF V
known)
Amperes (when kVA*1000 kVA*1000

kVA is known) V 1.73*V
__________________________________________________________________
PF = kW Motor kilowatts = hp(0.746)(100)

kVA Eff
PF = kW (for 3 phase) Motor kVA = hp(0.746)(100)

1.73*V*I Eff * PF
PF = Power Factor, per unit Motor full load = 5252*full load hp

eff = Efficiency, percent torque in ft. lbs. Full load speed
in RPM
Synchronous = 120*frequency
speed in rpm Number of poles

Electric Motors
GLOSSARY
Ambient Temperature The temperature of the surrounding cooling medium, such as gas or liquid,
that comes into contact with the heated parts of the apparatus.
Breakaway Torque The maximum torque required to accelerate the load (e.g., a compressor
train) from zero speed.
Breakdown Torque The maximum sustained torque that a motor will develop with rated voltage
applied at rated frequency, without an abrupt drop in speed.
Connected Load The load connected to a motor.
Efficiency The ratio of the power output at the shaft to the total electrical power input.
It is expressed in percent.
Full-Load Torque The torque of a motor is the torque necessary to produce the motor's rated
horsepower at full-load speed. In pounds at a 1-ft radius, it is equal to the
horsepower times 5252 divided by the full-load speed in rpm.
Locked-Rotor Current The steady-state current taken from the line with the rotor locked and with
rated voltage (and rated frequency in the case of alternating-current motors)
applied to the motor.
Locked-Rotor Torque The minimum torque which a motor will develop

(Static Torque) at rest for all angular positions of the rotor, with rated voltage applied at rated
frequency. This condition must be allowed to persist only momentarily, to
prevent damage to the rotor or stator windings. The locked-rotor torque must
exceed the breakaway torque for the motor to be able to accelerate the load
from zero speed. Locked-rotor torque is often called "starting torque."
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturer's Association.
Overload Capability See Service Factor.
Power Factor The ratio of the kilowatt input to the kilovolt-ampere (kVA) input for an ac
motor. Power factor is usually expressed as a percentage.

Electric Motors
Pull-In Torque The maximum constant torque under which a synchronous motor will pull its
connected inertia load into synchronism, at rated voltage and frequency,
when field excitation is applied.
The speed to which a motor will bring its load depends on the power required
to drive it. Whether the motor can pull the load into step from this speed
depends on the inertia of the revolving parts. Therefore, the pull-in torque
depends not only on the torque of the load, but also on the inertia of the
entire system.
Pull-Out Torque The minimum torque developed by the motor during the period of
acceleration from rest to the speed at which breakdown torque occurs.
Pull-Up Torque The minimum torque developed up to rated speed.
Rated Load The nameplate rating of a motor.
Service Factor A multiplier applied to the rated horsepower to indicate a permissible

horsepower loading under the conditions specified for the service factor.
These conditions usually include the requirement that the actual temperature
rise not exceed the rated temperature rise by more than 10°C, if rated voltage
and frequency are maintained. Also called Motor Continuous Overload
Capability/Service Factor.
Slip The difference between the actual running speed of an induction motor and
synchronous speed, expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed.
Temperature Rise The difference between ambient temperature and the temperature of the
motor in continuous service at its rated load, as measured under conditions
specified in IEC 34.1.
Temperature Test Determines the temperature rise of certain parts of the machine above the
ambient temperature, when running under a specified load.

Electric Motors
REFERENCES
SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARDS
AES-B-068 Electrical Area Classification

AES-P-113 Motors and Generators
AES-P-114 System Equipment and Protection
AES-P-116 Switchgear and Control Equipment
SAUDI ARAMCO DESIGN PRACTICES
ADP-P-113 Motors and Generators

ADP-P-114 System and Equipment Protection
ADP-P-116 Switchgear and Control Equipment
ADP-P-601 Switchgear Assemblies Including Control Switchboards
ADP-P-603 Low Voltage Motor Control Centers and Switchracks
(600 V and below)
ADP-P-606 Medium Voltage Motor Control Centers
ADP-P-702 Form-wound Induction and Synchronous Motors
ADP-P-703 NEMA Frame Motors
EXXON BASIC PRACTICES
BP10-11-1, Sizing of Drivers and Transmissions

BP16-2-1, Power System Design
BP16-7-1, Motor Application
BP16-9-1, AC Motors
BP16-9-2, Additional Requirements for AC Motors Over 1,500 HP

Engineering Encyclopedia: Electric Motors

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Process For additional information on this subject, contact

MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................................1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Motor and Plant Power Factor .............................................................................................................. 18

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 9: VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR MOTORS ............................................................................. 39

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

Incentives for Using Electric Motors

• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very long runs.

• Low maintenance costs.

• Marginally higher equipment reliability than other drive types.

• Simple operation with minimal monitoring. No speed governing system required.

The disadvantages of electric motor drivers are:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services

• Polyphase squirrel-cage induction motors.

• Polyphase salient pole synchronous (single-speed) motors.

Squirrel Cage Induction Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d)

Salient Pole Synchronous Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d)

With permission from Power Magazine

FIGURE 1. TYPICAL ROTOR, STATOR CONSTRUCTION FOR LARGE SQUIRREL-CAGE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d)

With permission from Power Magazine

FIGURE 2. WOUND-ROTOR MOTOR

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services (Cont’d)

With permission from Power Magazine

FIGURE 3. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Induction Versus Synchronous Motors

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.

• Low power factor in low speed ranges.

• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Single Phase Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Single Phase Motors (Cont’d)

With permission from Power Magazine.

FIGURE 4. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Single Phase Motors (Cont’d)

With Permission from Power Magazine

FIGURE 4 (CONT'D). SINGLE PHASE MOTORS - AUXILIARY STARTING

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Single Phase Motors (Cont'd)

Direct Current Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Direct Current Motors (Cont'd)

With permission from Power Magazine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Direct Current Motors (Cont'd)

A summary of motor types and applications is given in Work Aids 4 and 5.

NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13