DC Grids

ECE 760: Operation and
Control of Future Integrated

Energy Systems
Module 5: DC Grids
Presented by: Dr. Ramadan El-Shatshat
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DC Power Transmission Technology 1

Part I: DC Grid-Transmission Level
Part II: DC Grid-Distribution Level
PAGE 2
Part I: DC Grid-Transmission Level
PAGE 3
Introduction
▪ Historically, the DC system was the earliest inventions/discoveries and the first practical
applications.
▪ AC gained very fast ascendancy in the beginning of the 20th century with development of
transformer, synchronous generator, and induction motor.
▪ Revival of interest in DC was generated because of the following advantages of DC:
➢ No stability limitations with long distance DC transmission
➢ No charging current-much longer distance underground cable transmission possible with DC
▪ Although these advantages were known, the spread of HVDC was limited due to non-availability of
reliable, maintenance free, high voltage, high current, controlled rectification device.
▪ After the advent of high power thyristors in the seventies, the spread of HVDC has been
phenomena
▪ Newer HVDC technology that is based on VSC (voltage source converters), has allowed lower
power DC. VSC converter stations are smaller and can be constructed as self-contained modules,
reducing construction times and costs.
DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 4

Introduction (Technology Milestones)
First Voltage Source

Converter for
transmission in
First Capacitor Gotland, Sweden
Commutated ,1999
Converter (CCC) in
First active DC Argentina-Brazil
filters for interconnection,
outstanding filtering 1998
performance in
Highest DC 1994.
transmission
First voltage (+/- 600
microcomputer kV) in Itaipú,
based control Brazil, 1984.
First solid state
semiconductor equipment for
valves in 1970. HVDC in 1979.
First commercial
HVDC
Experiments with transmission,
thyratrons in Gotland 1 in
America and Sweden in 1954.
Hewitt´s
mercury-vapour mercury arc
rectifier, which valves in Europe
appeared in before 1940.
1901.

AC vs DC Transmission (Economics of Power Transmission)
▪ The cost of a transmission line includes the investment and operational costs.
➢ The investment includes:
1. costs of Right of Way (RoW);
2. transmission towers;
3. conductors;
4. insulators and terminal equipment.
➢ The operational costs include mainly the cost of losses.

AC vs DC Transmission (Relative Cost)
▪ For equivalent transmission capacity, DC line can carry as much power with two
conductors as an AC line with 3 conductors of the same size. This implies that a DC line
requires:
➢ Less RoW;
➢ Simpler and cheaper towers and
➢ Reduced conductor and insulator costs
➢ Low power losses (about 67% of that for AC with same current carrying capacity of
conductors)
➢ More reduced losses in DC conductors due to the absence of skin effect
➢ The dielectric losses in case of power cables is also very less for DC transmission
➢ Less corona effects (economic conductor size)

▪ Typical tower structures and RoW for
alternative transmission systems of
2,000 MW capacity.
▪ RoW for an AC Line designed to carry

2,000 MW is more than 70% wider
than the that for a DC line of
equivalent capacity.This
is
particularly important where
land is expensive or permitting
is a problem.

Example Losses on Alternative Systems for 1200 MW
Reference: https://new.abb.com/systems/hvdc/why-hvdc/economic-and-environmental-advantages

▪ Costs of compensation and terminal equipment.
➢ DC lines do not require compensation as in AC transmission
➢ The need to convert to and from AC implies the terminal

stations for a DC line cost more.
➢ There are extra losses in DC/AC conversion relative to AC

voltage transformation.
➢ Operation and maintenance costs are lower for HVDC system

than for an equal capacity AC system.

AC vs DC Transmission (Break-Even Distance)
▪ AC tends to be more economical than

DC for distances less than 'break even'
distance and costlier for longer
distances.
▪ The break even distances can vary from

400 to 700 km in overhead lines
depending on the per unit line costs.
▪ The breakeven distance for cable

transmission lies between 25 and 50 km

Description of HVDC Transmission System (Types of HVDC links)
▪ HVDC converter bridges and lines or cables can be arranged in a number of configurations for
effective utilization. Various ways in which HVDC transmission is used and they include the
following:
▪ Transmission between two substations: transmission from one geographical location to
another, a two-terminal or point-to-point HVDC transmission is used. Monopolar or Bipolar
are the typical configurations used.
Monopolar link: has one conductor usually of negative polarity and uses ground or sea return. Sometimes
metallic return is also used

▪ Bipolar link: has two conductors, one positive and the other negative. Each may be a double conductor
in EHV lines. Each terminal has two sets of converters of identical ratings, in series on the DC side. The
junction between the two sets of converters is grounded at one or both ends. Normally, both poles
operate at equal currents and hence there is zero ground current flowing under these conditions

Back-to-Back: Back-to-back DC links are used for interconnections between power system networks of
different frequencies or as interconnections between adjacent asynchronous networks.
Back-to-Back system

Multiterminal HVDC transmission systems: They are used when three or more HVDC substations that are
geographically separated with interconnecting transmission lines or cables. If all substations are connected
to the same voltage then the system is a parallel multiterminal DC.
Parallel multiterminal DC System

Description of HVDC Transmission System (Converter Station)
This figure shows an example of the
electrical equipment required for a DC
substation. In this example, two poles
(bipolar configuration) are
represented. Some DC cable systems
only have one pole or “monopole”
configuration and may either use the
ground as a return path when
permitted or use an additional cable
to avoid earth currents. The main
components of a converter station are
summarized below:

Description of HVDC Transmission System (Converter Station)
The main components of a converter station are summarized below:
1. Converter valves and converter transformers: The central equipment of a DC substation is the thyristor converter
valves. Converter valves perform AC/DC and DC/AC conversion, and consist of valve bridges The valve bridges
consist of high-voltage valves connected in a 6 pulse or 12-pulse arrangement. The converter is fed by converter
transformers with tap changers connected in star/star and star/delta arrangements.
2. Smoothing Reactors: These are large reactors (inductance as high as 1.0 H) connected in series with each pole of
each converter station. They serve mainly to smooth the current through the DC line, to prevent current from
being discontinuous at light load and to limit the crest current in the rectifier during a short-circuit on the DC line.
3. Harmonic Filters: Converters generate harmonic voltages and currents on both the AC and DC sides. Filters are
therefore used on both the AC and DC sides. AC filters are typically tuned to 11th, 13th, and higher harmonics for
12 pulse converters. AC side harmonic filters may be switched with circuit breakers or circuit switches to
accommodate reactive power requirement strategies since these filters generate reactive power at fundamental
frequency. DC side filters reduce harmonic current flow on DC transmission lines.

Three-Phase Thyristor Converters (6-Pulse converter)
▪ The conversion from AC to DC

and vice versa is done in HVDC
converter stations by using 3-
phase thyristor bridge converter,
known as 6 pulse converter
Three-Phase Bridge Converters PAGE 18

The 12-Pulse Converter
▪ Y-Y Transformer Turns Ratio: 2N:1

▪ Δ-Y Transformer Turns Ratio: 2√3N:1
▪ In the above ratios, the factors 2 and √3 are used to compensate for the doubling effect of the 6-
pulse series connection, and √3 which is introduced due to Δ-Y or Y-Δ connection on the ac-side
𝑣𝑎𝑠1𝑛1 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑠2𝑛2 𝑏𝑦 30𝑜
Three-Phase Bridge Converters PAGE 19

Description of HVDC Transmission System (Converter Satation)
4. Reactive Power Supplies: DC converters inherently absorb reactive power. Under steady-state conditions, the
reactive power consumed is about 45-50% of active power transferred. Reactive power sources are therefore
provided near the converters. The capacitors associated with the AC filters also provide part of the reactive power
required.
5. Electrodes: Most DC links are designed to use earth as a neutral conductor for at least brief periods of time. The
connection to the earth requires a large surface-area conductor to minimize current densities and surface voltage
gradients. If it is necessary to restrict the current flow through the earth, a metallic return conductor may be
provided as part of the DC line.
6. AC Circuit Breakers: For clearing faults in the transformer and for taking the DC link out of service, circuit
breakers are used on the AC side. They are not used for clearing faults on the DC line, since these faults can be
cleared more rapidly by converter control.
7. Surge arresters: Metal-oxide arresters across each valve in the converter bridge, across each converter bridge and
in the DC and AC switchyard are coordinated to protect the equipment from all over-voltages regardless of their
source.

Planning For HVDC Transmission
▪ The role of HVDC, for economic reasons, is to interconnect AC systems where a reliable AC
interconnection would be too expensive.
▪ Two applications can be considered:
1. Long distance bulk power transmission
2. Interconnection between two adjacent systems
▪ In the first application, the DC and AC alternatives for the same power carrying capability are
considered. Thus the cost comparisons would form the basis for the selection of the DC (or
AC) alternative if the technical performance and reliability requirements are met
▪ In the second application (asynchronous interconnection ), the advantage of the DC

transmission is obvious.

Modern Trends in HVDC Transmission
▪ Power semiconductors and valves
▪ Converter Control
➢ Micro-computer based converter control equipment
▪ DC breakers
➢ MTDC systems
▪ Conversion of existing AC lines
➢ Converting existing AC circuits to DC in order to increase the power transfer limit
▪ Operation with weak AC systems
➢ FACTS option

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control (Converter Control)
Fundamental Objectives:
▪ to control a system quantity such as DC current, transmitted power, or frequency with sufficient
accuracy and speed of response,
▪ to ensure stable converter operation in presence of small system disturbances, and
▪ to fulfill the above objectives at minimum reactive power consumption.
Additions:
▪ ensure correct operation at large disturbances (faults), or at least minimize their consequences
Converter and HVDC System Control PAGE 23

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control
▪ Two terminal DC transmission
system is considered
▪ The required power transmitted
can be controlled by maintaining
constant voltage in the DC link and
adjusting the current.
Schematic of HVDC link showing transformer ratio
▪ Identical converter stations and
same delay angles are assumed RCr Rd -RCi
▪ The schematic diagram and the Id
equivalent steady state circuit are Vdr Vdi Edi=Vdoi cosg
shown below Edr=Vdor cosa
Equivalent circuit of HVDC link

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control
The steady state current I d in the DC link is given by ➢ Observations:
Edr - Edi
Id = ▪ The control variables are 𝑇𝑟 , 𝑇𝑖 , a and γ
Rcr + Rd - Rci
Where,
▪ Change of 𝐼𝑑 can occur by:
Ar
Edr = VLLr cos a and,
Tr o Varying a at rectifier-Fast
Ai
Edi = VLLi cos g o Varying γ at inverter-Fast
Ti
Where,
o Varying 𝑇𝑟 AC voltage at rectifier-Slow
3 2 N sr
Ar = constant = n o Varying 𝑇𝑖 AC voltage at inverter-Slow
 N pr b
3 2 N si ▪ For fixed control variables, small changes in voltage magnitudes result in large
Ai = constant = n changes in DC currents
 N pi b
VLL = Line - to - Line voltage ▪ Manual control of converter angles is not feasible
T = Off - nominal tap ratio
▪ Direct and fast control of DC current by varying a and/or γ in response to feedback
Np / Ns = Transformer turns ratio control is essential in both steady state and transient
(r ) and (i ) refer to converter and inverter
nb = No.of bridges connected in series ▪ It is desirable to have current control at the rectifier station while the inverter
regulates the DC voltage
Then,
Ar Ai ▪ To change the direction of power flow, α and γ are increased simultaneously. The Vdr
VLLr cos a - VLLi cos g and Vdi will change polarity.
Tr Ti
Id =
Rcr + Rd - Rci
Principles of HVDC Transmission Control (Choice of Control Strategy)
➢ Normal operating conditions:
▪ It is required that angles α and γ kept small
▪ Reducing a
 Increased power transmission

 Improved power factor
 Reduced reactive power consumption
 Reduced AC power losses
 Reduced harmonic generation

▪ Minimum γ
 Reduced reactive power consumption
 Reduced AC power losses
 Reduced harmonic generation
▪ The rectifier operates at constant current (CC) control (Id control) and the inverter at constant extinction angle
(CEA) control
▪ To reduce commutation failure, β control is used

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control (Common types)
▪ However, the most common types of HVDC
links are the monopolar and the bipolar.
3 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝑣𝑑1 = 𝑣𝑑2 = cos 𝛼 − 𝐼
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑
Where 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 is the maximum line-line input

voltage
𝐿𝑠 is the transformer leakage inductance/phase
𝐼𝑑 is the DC current
𝛼 is the firing angle
The average voltage across both links is

6 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 6𝜔𝐿𝑠 6
𝑣𝑑 = 2𝑣𝑑1 = 2𝑣𝑑2 = cos 𝛼 − 𝐼𝑑 = [ 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛼 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 ]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

Positive and negative poles are operated identically, so the HVDC system shown above can be represented on per
pole basis as.
• The inverter is usually made to operate at

a constant margin angle 𝛾 = 𝜋 − 𝛼 − 𝜇 • And the rectifier output voltage is
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑑𝑟 = 𝑉𝑑𝑖 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑
• At a constant extinction angle 𝛾, the inverter DC 3
voltage is given by = 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛾 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑
𝜋
3 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 3𝜔𝐿𝑠 3
𝑉𝑑𝑖 = cos 𝛾 − 𝐼 = [ 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛼 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 ]
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑 𝜋
3
= [ 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛾 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 ]
𝜋
Example: Two 6-pulse converter are used in a bipolar HVDC transmission system. The AC systems
are 3-phase, 11 kV, 50 Hz. The input transformer has a leackage inductance of 10 mH per phase. The
current in the DC line is 300 A. the inverter marginal angle is 20˚. Resistance of each DC
transmission line is 1 Ω. Calculate the firing angle of the rectifier, its output voltage and the DC link
voltage.
Solution:
From the equivalent circuit, it is seen that
3
[ 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛾 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 ] + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑
𝜋
3
= [ 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛼 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 ] Rectifier output voltage 𝑉𝑑 =
3
2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝛼 − 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝐼𝑑 =
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 3
cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛾 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑 = ൣ 2 ∗ 11000 ∗ cos 16.283 − 2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 10 ∗ 0.001 ∗
3 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝜋
𝜋 300൧ = 13357.2 𝑉
= cos 20 + ∗ 300 ∗ 1
3 ∗ 2 ∗ 11000
𝛼 = 16.283° DC Link voltage = 2𝑉𝑑 = 26.714 𝑘𝑉

Desired Control Features
Control should have following features:
▪ Control system should not be sensitive to normal variation in voltage and frequency of the ac supply
system.
▪ Control should be fast, reliable and easy (simple) to implement.
▪ There should have continuous operating range from full rectification to full inversion.
▪ Control should be such that it should require less reactive power.
▪ Under steady state conditions, the valve must be fired symmetrically.
▪ Control should be such that it must control the maximum current in the link, and limit the current
fluctuation.
▪ Power should be controlled independently and smoothly which can be done by controlling the current
and/or the voltage simultaneously in the link.
▪ Control should be such that it can be used for protection of line and converter.

Desired Control Features
Control should have following features:
▪ To control power in two terminals DC link, it is desirable to have current control in one
converter and voltage control in second converter. The increase of power in the link can be
achieved by either
➢ reducing 𝛼 which will also improve the power factor, or
➢ increasing 𝛽 or 𝛾 which will worsen the power factor.
▪ Therefore it is required to operate the inverter at minimum 𝛾. The operation of minimum

extinction angle at the inverter and constant current control at rectifier results in better voltage
regulation than the operation with minimum α at rectifier and current control at inverter.
▪ To avoid commutation failure, it is economical to operate inverter at constant extinction angle

(CEA) control.

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control (Converter Control Characteristics)
Station I Id Station II
Vd
▪ Consider the following two terminal HVDC

system
Vd Vd = Vdo cos a min - Rc I d
▪ Each station must function sometimes as a
rectifier and at other times as an inverter. Both
stations might work as inverter to de-energize
the DC line rapidly Rectifier Constant
Operation Current
Id
Inverter
Operation
Vd = Vdo cos g min - Rc I d

▪ Combined characteristics of both stations. Each station characteristic has three parts as given below:
Station I Station II Type

ab hg Constant a
bc gf Constant Current
cd fe Constant γ

▪ The intersection of the two characteristics (point A) determines the mode of operation
▪ Station I operating as rectifier with constant current control
▪ Station II operating at constant (minimum) extinction angle.
▪ Modes of operation of the link (for the same direction of power flow)
1. CC at rectifier and CEA at inverter (operating point A) which is the normal mode of operation.
2. With slight dip in the AC voltage, the point of intersection drifts to C which implies minimum a at
rectifier and minimum γ at the inverter.
3. With lower AC voltage at the rectifier. the mode of operation shifts to point B which implies CC at the
inverter with minimum a at the rectifier.

Principles of HVDC Transmission Control (Power Flow Reversal)
▪ The control characteristics for negative current margin (Im) indicates
that the current reference of Station II is larger than that at Station I.
▪ The operating point shifts to 'D' which implies power reversal
➢ Station I (now acting as inverter) operating with minimum CEA control
➢ Station II operating with CC control.
▪ It is important to maintain the correct sign of the current margin to avoid

inadvertent power reversal.
▪ We can also prevent the reversal of power , by preventing the inverter from
transition to the rectifier operation. This can be easily done by putting
minimum limits on the delay angle of the inverter (100° to 110°).
▪ The control region must be in the first quadrant to avoid unwanted reversal
of power.

Modification of Control Characteristics (Mode Stabilization)
▪ if the slope of fe exceeds ab, ▪ To eliminate this problem, the inverter characteristics are
there will be three possible modified and given a positive slope when the current is
operating points A, A' and A". between Id1 and Id2
This implies instability of the ▪ Or, modify the inverter control to maintain a constant DC
control which will result in voltage with back-up control of minimum CEA
hunting between different modes
of operation

Modification of Control Characteristics (Voltage Dependent Current Limit)
▪ Faults in the AC system result in low DC voltage
▪ The low AC voltage due to faults on the inverter side

can result in persistent commutation failure because of
increase of the overlap angle.
▪ In such cases, it is necessary to reduce the DC current
in the link until the conditions that led to the reduced
DC voltage are relieved.
▪ If the low voltage is due to faults on the rectifier side
AC system, the inverter has to operate at very low
power factor causing excessive consumption of reactive
power, which is also undesirable.
▪ To overcome the above, it becomes useful to modify
the control characteristics to include voltage
dependent current limits.

Complete Vd–Id Characteristics for HVDC Systems
▪ At the rectifier:
➢ Voltage Dependent Current Limit, VDCL
This modification is made to limit the dc current as a function of

either the dc voltage or, in some cases, the ac voltage.
▪ 𝑰𝒅 − 𝒎𝒊𝒏 limit
This limitation (typically 0.2-0.3 pu) is to ensure a minimum dc
current to avoid the possibility of dc current extinction caused by the
valve current dropping below the hold-on current of the thyristors.
▪ At the inverter:
➢ 𝜶-min limit at inverter
To avoid power reversal, an alpha-minimum-limit in inverter mode

of about 100-110 degrees is imposed.

HVDC Controls
▪ Functions of HVDC Controls
➢ The main functions of the HVDC controller are :
➢ To control power flow between the terminals,
➢ To protect the equipment against the current/voltage stresses caused by faults, and
➢ To stabilize the attached ac systems against any operational mode of the dc link.
▪ Additional functions:
➢ Limit the maximum DC current
➢ Maintain a maximum DC voltage for transmission
➢ Minimize reactive power consumption

HVDC Controls (System Control Hierarchy)
System control : to provide the
power orders to the master controls in
response to required functions such as System
power-transfer control, system-
frequency control, system damping or Control
combinations of these
Pref=Po
Master control: located at
one of the terminals and to Mater Communication to
provide coordinated current
orders to all the poles
Control remote terminal
Iref=Io
Pole control: to
coordinate the bridges in a
pole to provide the ordered
Pole I Pole II
current, with minimum control control
harmonic generation
Valve Group (Bridge)

control: to control the firing
instants of the valves within a
bridge and to define the γo and
VGC VGC VGC VGC
αmin limits

HVDC Controls (Master Control)
• The master control generates the current order (to the current control systems of both convertor stations) from a power
order set by the operator or a dispatch control office.
• Normally subjected to a controlled rate of increase/decrease in order to protect the system from sudden changes in desired
power.
• ∆𝑃0 ( to compensate for the frequency variations) can also be inputted at this stage, if required.
• Maximum power and minimum power limits to the excursions of the power controller are imposed.
• Finally, current order 𝐼𝑜 calculated by dividing the DC power order by the measured DC voltage
• For this circuit, in case of start up routine when the DC voltage may be zero or low value, a bias circuit is required to
counteract any problem due to a divide-by-zero function.
• The output of this controller is the limited value which is subjected to the protective Voltage Dependent Current Limit
(VDCL)

HVDC Controls (Pole Control)
• The input to each of the pole Controller is the current order 𝐼𝑜
from the Master Controller.
• The supplementary current ∆𝐼𝑜 input can be added to this to
achieve any modification of the order if desired.
• The current input is subjected to upper and lower limits
( 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) for protective purposes.
• Then , the current order is compared to the measured value of
dc current to generate an error signal
• The current order is modified by the current margin 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
(required for the inverter operation) so that the gamma
controller can take over.
• The current controller uses the PI regulator to provide
dynamic properties to the control loop, and provides the alpha
order at its output.

HVDC Controls (Valve Group Control (VGC))
• The alpha order signal 𝛼𝑜 from the pole controls is used to
generate the firing pulses for the converter in the valve group
controller.
• The VGC has two separate secondary loops associated with it:
• Tap Changer (TC) Controller: This is a relatively slow-
acting loop (time constant of the order of several hundreds of
milli-seconds) which maintains the tap position of the
converter transformer.
• The Commutation Failure (CF) Controller: This loop
detects the possibility of a CF from measurements of the ac
current, commutation voltage and the dc current. Rapid pre-
programmed changes to the alpha order can be made as a
function of the CF detector for assisting the recovery of the dc
system from a CF.

HVDC Controls (Closed Loop Current Control)
▪ The current controller is invariably of feedback control type. A typical block diagram of the controller is shown
below.
▪ The control amplifier (PI type) is used to give suitable static gain and dynamic compensation for stabilization
of the control loop.
▪ The current controller generates a control signal Vc which is related to the firing angle required.
▪ The firing angle controller generates gate pulses in response to the control signal Vc.
Id
Imargin
S Id Control
Id ref e Vc
Control Firing Angle Vd
Amplifier Control
Id
Current
Measuring
Switch S is closed for inverter operation transducer

HVDC Controls (Firing Angle Control)
▪ The operation of CC and CEA controllers is closely related to the gate pulse of valves
▪ There are two basic firing schemes, namely:

➢ Individual phase control (IPC)
➢ Equidistant pulse control (EPC).
Individual Equidistant
Phase Control Pulse Control
(IPC) (EPC)
Linear control Pulse Pulse period

Pulse phase
Cosine Control (Constant α frequency control
control (PPC)
control) control (PFC) (Modified PFC)

HVDC Controls (Equidistant Control-Application of Current Control)
▪ voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is the basic element of an equidistant firing control system.
▪ VCO’s frequency in steady state is equal to the product of the pulse number (p) of the converter and the fundamental
frequency of the ac network (f), i.e., pf.
▪ The output frequency is controlled by the input voltage Vc from the current control amplifier as shown below.
Id
Id Control
Id ref e Voltage 6 (or 12)
Control Vc
Controlled Counter
Amplifier
Oscillator
S
Imargin
• If Id, ref > Id , Vc is given a suitable value by the control amplifier to decrease the frequency of the oscillator.
• If Id, ref < Id , Vc increases the same frequency.
• A decreasing frequency  α ↑ increased  Vd ↓ reduced
• An increasing frequency  α ↓ reduced  Vd ↑ increased
• In either case, Id is restored to its reference value.
• The output signal from the controlled oscillator is a pulse train which contains all triggering pulses for a valve bridge.
• A digital counter is used to separate individual control pulses for each individual valve.
HVDC Controls (Extinction Angle Control)
▪ Analogous to current control, i.e., it may be of the individual phase or equidistant firing type.
▪ It measures the actual γ, compares it to a

reference value γr, and uses the difference VC
= γr - γ to control a voltage-controlled
oscillator similar to that for the current
▪ It is a feedforward-type of control
system Extinction control system.
▪ The correct firing instant is

Angle Control ▪ It gives a better precision of control and may
calculated from the instantaneous be simpler to implement, especially when
measurements of direct current combined with the voltage-controlled
and commutation voltage oscillator system for current control.
▪ It is of the individual phase Predictive Feedback

control type. control system control system
▪ prevent commutation failures
during small disturbances
gref Control Vc Voltage 6 (or 12)
Controlled Counter
Amplifier
Oscillator
g

HVDC Based on Voltage-Source Converters (Light HVDC)
• The converter is a typical six-switch three-
phase VSC as shown below where transistors
are used to represent the switches. A
number of IGBTs of course are connected in
series to make up one switch.
• In this case the real power flow remains
unchanged and is in both directions like the
thyristor based HVDC as shown below
• However, the reactive power flow is
improved and can be in both directions
mainly due to the independent control of the
amplitude and phase of the converter output Power flow in HVDC systems. (a) conventional; and (b) VSC based.
voltage due to PWM operation.
48
Advantages of Light HVDC
• There are a number of significant advantages gained from the application of
PWM VSC technology into the HVDC transmission systems. These can be
summarized as follows:
1. Independent control of both real and reactive power almost instantaneously.
2.Transformerless’ applications may be possible if the voltage handling capacity of the
semiconductors is high enough to be connected directly to the AC system.
3.The system can be connected to an AC weak grid without the presence of generators, as
the voltages are not required for the commutation of the thyristors which are replaced by
fully controlled devices.
4.Reduction of the size of the installation since the AC filters are smaller, and the reactive
power compensators are not required.
49
Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems
▪ A Multi-Terminal DC transmission system (MTDC), introduced in 1987, consists of three or more
HVDC terminal substations ( rectifier or inverter).
▪ MTDC system interconnects three or more AC systems via HVDC transmission lines.
▪ Some terminal substations act in rectifier mode and transfer power from AC to DC, while other
terminals operate in inverter mode and transfer the same power from DC system to AC system.
Neglecting the losses,
෍ 𝑃𝑟 = ෍ 𝑃𝑖
▪ In MTDC system, the controls of the convertors in various terminals should be meet the following:
– the characteristics should match and
– basic circuit equations are satisfied.

Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems (Configurations)
➢ Constant-current scheme: converters in

series:
▪ The convertors of a pole located at different sites may

be connected in series to form a closed DC circuit.
▪ Same 𝐼𝑑 flows through all convertors
▪ Disadvantage: full 𝐼 2 𝑅 losses even at light load

Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems (Configurations)
➢ Constant-Voltage scheme: converters in parallel:
▪ The convertors in different locations are connected in parallel.

The normal DC voltage of convertors is same and held
constant.
▪ Same voltage across each convertor
▪ Parallel connected schemes are now accepted widely for MTDC
systems as they give practical solutions to the expansion and
operational problems (offer minimum operational and control
problems).
▪ For parallel connected MTDC system, the following equations
apply:
σ 𝑃𝑟 = σ 𝑃𝑖 +σ 𝑃𝐿 , where σ 𝑃𝐿 = sum of losses
▪ For nth converter, connected in parallel, 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑𝑛 ∙ 𝐼𝑑𝑛

▪ With constant voltage control, 𝑉𝑑1 = 𝑉𝑑2 = 𝑉𝑑3 = 𝑉𝑑𝑛
▪ Therefore, 𝐼𝑑1 , 𝐼𝑑2 , 𝐼𝑑3 𝑒𝑡𝑐. are adjusted to get the required
power.
Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems (Control of Parallel Connected MTDC Systems)
▪ The basic principle of 𝑉𝑑 /𝐼𝑑 characteristics and common
meeting point 'A' of intersection of Rectifier
Characteristic and Inverter Characteristic described
earlier is applied to the MTDC control.
▪ One substation with lowest ceiling voltage (i.e., lowest
Vdo cosαo, or Vdo cosγo ), known as 'Master station' or
Voltage Setting Terminal (VST), is selected to control
the dc line voltage.
Voltage Setting Terminal [VST] is an Inverter (Terminal 4)
▪ Algebraic sum of current commands I1, I2, I3, and I4, is
∆𝐼= Current margin provided by VST.
equal to ΔI (current margin)
▪ The DC voltages of other stations are equal to voltage of
Master station plus or minus the line voltage drops. Terminal 4 is one of the inverters
▪ If VST is an inverter terminal, the rectifier current is operating at CEA. Other stations operate
greater than the sum of other current by margin ∆𝐼 i.e. at CC and at a voltage lower than their
𝐼𝑉𝑆𝑇.𝐼 = σ 𝐼 + ∆𝐼 ceiling.

Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems (Control of Parallel Connected MTDC Systems)
▪ The 𝑉𝑑 /𝐼𝑑 characteristics and common meeting point 'A' of intersection of in which station 2 is selected as
VST is shown below.
▪ In this case, VST is a rectifier terminal and the current is less than the sum of other currents by ∆𝐼.
𝐼𝑉𝑆𝑇.𝑅 = σ 𝐼 − ∆𝐼
▪ To change a converter from rectifier to inverter or vice

versa, its current must be brought to zero, a reversing
switch must be operated, and the current must be
increased to the desired value. If all converters are going
through power reversal, the voltage polarity can be
changed
Voltage Setting Terminal [VST] is a Rectifier (Terminal 2)
∆𝐼= Current margin provided by VST.

Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems (Applications)
The criterion for applications of MTDC systems are basically those for 2 TDC systems, i.e.
▪ Bulk power transmission from Energy parks to two or more distant load centres.
▪ System Interconnections between 3 or more AC systems, by
1. Radial MTDC
2. Meshed MTDC
▪ Cable transmission between three or more AC systems.
▪ Parallel tapping of 2 TDC systems at intermediate point to supply power to load centre en-
route
▪ Reinforcing AC Urban network.

Bulk power transmission by long distance

MTDC with radial HVDC transmission
lines.
Radial HVDC system: Asynchronous
Interconnection with MTDC system.

Rectifier [R] feed power into HVDC mesh. Inverters [I] feed
power to AC systems. AC systems are interconnected with
each other via 3Ph. AC lines as well as 𝑣𝑖𝑎 HVDC meshed
system. The power exchange between 1, 2, 3 etc. can be
Asynchronous System interconnection with Meshed HVDC system. controlled by means of HVDC system.
AC system feed power into HVDC Mesh via a rectifier [R], Inverters Meshed HVDC system for synchronous
[I] feed power to load centres. Interconnection between 3 AC system.

Urbarn network of a Mega city (e.g. Toronto) can

receive power from HYDC Ring Main. The
rectifier station R can be located near generating
station. The inverters can be located on
periphery of the Megacity. HVDC lines need
lesser right-off-way
MTDC system for reinforcing AC Urban network.

HVDC Systems: Applications
▪ Today there are strong economic reasons and sustainability-related incentives to invest in
DC infrastructure.
▪ Many new long distance transmission lines in the U.S., China, India, and Europe are
moving toward ultra-high voltage DC (HVDC). In the U.S., the new transmission lines
from major wind and solar farms in the mid-west and western states are being planned as
HVDC, in addition to an emergence of HVDC merchant transmission projects throughout
the county.
▪ There already are approximately 20 HVDC systems in operation in the U.S. and Canada.
All of China’s new high voltage transmission is planned as HVDC, with dozens of systems
already in operation and over 20 new systems in planning stages.
▪ Europe is expanding and upgrading much of its transmission infrastructure with HVDC
being a significant part of their plans, including interconnection of nations and
continents.

Part II: DC Grid-Distribution Level
PAGE 60
DC Distribution Systems— Introduction
▪ The requirement of DC power for major consumer electronic loads and recent developments in
renewable energy technology as well as increased penetration of distributed energy resources have
prompted renewed interest in DC distribution systems among researchers and industry players.
▪ At the load side,
▪ DC loads are rapidly replacing these traditional loads. The DC load category includes all devices
which require DC either for end-use or as a power conditioning stage—loads such as:
▪ computers,
▪ consumer electronics,
▪ cellular telephones,
▪ electronic ballast fluorescent lamps,
▪ light-emitting diode (LED) lamps, and
▪ variable frequency motor drives (VFDs).
DC Power Distribution Systems PAGE 61

DC Distribution Systems— Introduction
▪ At the source side,
▪ Installations of distributed generation (DG) technologies in buildings are growing

in response to incentives and environmental concerns.
▪ Most DG sources for buildings—such as photovoltaic (PV) arrays—are DC devices.
▪ Connecting DC loads to the AC electric grid requires AC-DC conversion

(rectification). Similarly, DC sources require DC-AC conversion (inversion) at
their point of interconnection to the electric utility.

DC Distribution Systems— Why?
▪ DC distribution system can enhance energy efficiency, improve power quality and
reliability, and inherently compatible with renewable and clean energy development.
▪ DC power is beginning to evolve towards replacing AC as a worldwide standard for
electricity delivery infrastructure, in many applications, based on the following reasons
listed below:
1. DC power is more energy efficient than AC power.
▪ DC motors have higher efficiency and power to size characteristics.
▪ DC-based lighting (LED) is as much as 75% more efficient than incandescent lighting.
▪ The greater efficiency resulting from recent developments in DC converter technology allows
improvements in electricity delivery over long distances.

2. DC grid is inherently compatible with renewable sources of energy such as solar
and wind.
These renewable sources generate power intermittently (when the sun shines or the wind blows),
requiring storage (batteries) in some applications as part of the system in order to provide reliable
supply, and also require a power conversion interface to the grid. The output power of PVs and
batteries is DC, which can naturally interfaced with DC grid.
3. Energy storage integration is enhanced.
Energy storage is required to improve the capacity utilization of renewable energy supplies. Most
energy storage technologies are DC-based (primarily in the form of battery technologies), creating
opportunities for improved integration efficiencies and reduced operating losses.

4. Electronic equipment operates on DC power.
. The increasing reliance on electronic equipment creates a greater need for DC grid. Connecting
to DC grids eliminates the need to convert from AC to DC and hence, reducing the conversion
losses (5% to 20% ).
5. DC and Hybrid AC/DC micro-grids are being developed.
Micro-grid applications can effectively integrate local power generation with the main power grid
to effectively serve defined end-use loads; improve reliability, especially under disturbance event
conditions; and create opportunities to buy and sell (net metering) power to minimize energy
costs to the consumer.

6. The technology needed to gain the advantages of DC grid in data centers, homes,
and communities is making significant advances.
▪ The most significant new consumers of electric DC power today are data centers and servers
(Google, Apple, etc.). They need DC power because electronics require DC power. New
developments for DC applications are creating investment in local DC power generation in
order to ensure 24/7 reliability with zero downtime, and improve the efficiency of supply.
▪ Electric vehicles use DC (battery) power and their batteries can be charged using DC power in
a small fraction of the time needed for charging using AC power.
▪ DC power is already in use in rural areas, e.g., four states in India are experimenting with
providing DC power to homes.

7. DC distribution systems will help to better improve the integration of clean, local,
distributed generation of DC power into the grid, and enhance their overall
economic and environmental value proposition. Examples of these new emerging
technologies are solar, wind, second-generation clean biomass, and innovative,
low-cost fuel cell designs.
8. In China and Europe, new cities and villages are being envisioned that will be
entirely DC powered. In green-field applications, from resource and delivery
infrastructure to end-use applications, complete DC system concepts and
operation are being considered in many developing parts of the world.

▪ In Summary, DC power distribution
▪ Higher efficiency and reliability at an improved power quality.
▪ Reduced installation costs as it requires fewer power conversion stages, less

copper, and smaller floor space.
▪ Better and simpler integration of renewable energy sources and energy storage
systems.
▪ No reactive power or skin effect in the system as the power is distributed in DC
▪ Unlike the AC distribution system, a DC distribution system facilitates plug and

play features as it does not require any synchronization.

DC Distribution Systems— Bus Structures and Power Architectures
1. Radial Bus Structure
▪ This type of distribution structure is the
most simple and economical in terms of
implementation.
▪ The DC bus runs from one end to another

with the sources and loads connected
anywhere depending on their location
▪ The reliability of the system is the least

compared to other bus structures as a
fault on the DC bus will result in the
shutdown of the entire system.

2. Ring Bus Structure
▪ This bus structure is more expensive than
radial
▪ It has improved reliability at increased

cost.
▪ The DC bus is divided into two sections

using switchgear.

3. Ladder Bus Structure
▪ Ladder bus structure is an extension of
the ring structure with higher reliability.
▪ It is more reliable but expensive

compared with ring bus structure.

4. Mesh Bus Structure
▪ It is a modified ring bus structure obtained
when multiple rings are joined together.
▪ It has the highest reliability compared to the
other three structures.
▪ However, it is the most expensive of all.

DC Distribution Systems—Power Architecture
Figure. Power architectures: (a) centralized; (b) distributed. Distribution configurations: (c)
parallel; (d) cascading; (e) source splitting; (f) load splitting; (g) sum stacking module; (h) difference stacking module

DC Distribution Systems—Power Architecture
Figure. A possible DC distribution system for future homes[1].

References
1. Vijay K. Sood, HVDC and FACTS Controllers: Applications of Static Converters
in Power Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.
2. Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and
Design, 2nd or 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995 or 2003.
3. Prabhala, V.A.; Baddipadiga, B.P.; Fajri, P.; Ferdowsi, M, “An Overview of Direct
Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits”, Energies 2018, 11, 2463–
2483.
4. DC Power Production, Delivery and Utilization, Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, CA, USA, 2006
PAGE 75

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ECE 760: Operation and

Control of Future Integrated

Presented by: Dr. Ramadan El-Shatshat

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

DC Power Transmission Technology 1

Part II: DC Grid-Distribution Level

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 4

First Voltage Source

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 5

➢ The investment includes:

1. costs of Right of Way (RoW);

4. insulators and terminal equipment.

➢ The operational costs include mainly the cost of losses.

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 6

➢ Simpler and cheaper towers and

➢ Reduced conductor and insulator costs

➢ Less corona effects (economic conductor size)

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 7

▪ RoW for an AC Line designed to carry

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 8

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 9

▪ Costs of compensation and terminal equipment.

➢ DC lines do not require compensation as in AC transmission

➢ The need to convert to and from AC implies the terminal

➢ There are extra losses in DC/AC conversion relative to AC

➢ Operation and maintenance costs are lower for HVDC system

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 10

▪ AC tends to be more economical than

▪ The break even distances can vary from

▪ The breakeven distance for cable

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 11

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 12

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 13

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 14

Parallel multiterminal DC System

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 15

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 16

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 17

▪ The conversion from AC to DC

Three-Phase Bridge Converters PAGE 18

▪ Y-Y Transformer Turns Ratio: 2N:1

Three-Phase Bridge Converters PAGE 19

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 20

▪ Two applications can be considered:

1. Long distance bulk power transmission

2. Interconnection between two adjacent systems

▪ In the second application (asynchronous interconnection ), the advantage of the DC

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 21

➢ Micro-computer based converter control equipment

▪ Conversion of existing AC lines

➢ Converting existing AC circuits to DC in order to increase the power transfer limit

▪ Operation with weak AC systems

DC Power Transmission Technology PAGE 22

▪ to ensure stable converter operation in presence of small system disturbances, and

▪ to fulfill the above objectives at minimum reactive power consumption.

Converter and HVDC System Control PAGE 23

Equivalent circuit of HVDC link

Converter and HVDC System Control PAGE 24

 Increased power transmission

 Reduced AC power losses

 Reduced harmonic generation

Converter and HVDC System Control PAGE 26

Where 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 is the maximum line-line input

𝐿𝑠 is the transformer leakage inductance/phase