NEOTECTONICS

The term ‗neotectonics‘ was introduced by Obruchev (1948) who defined it as

‗recent tectonic movements occurred in the upper part of Tertiary (Neogene) and in the
Quaternary, which played an essential role in the origin of the contemporary topography‘.
Since then there has been debate on the time period which can be defined as to mark the
distinct neotectonic activity. Some authors consider neotectonics to be basically
synonymous with ‗active tectonics‘, while others start the neotectonic period from the
Middle Miocene. A general agreement has been emerging that the actual time frame may
vary in every geological environment. Tectonic movement contemporaneous with the
formation of the morphology of the modem river is referred to as ―active tectonic
movement‖ (Ouchi, 1985). Pavlides (1989) defined neotectonics as "the study of younger
tectonic events which have occurred or are still occurring in a given region after its orogeny
or after its last significant tectonic set-up." The neotectonic events are recent enough to
permit a detailed analysis by specific methods, while their results are directly compatible
with seismological observations. This approach has been accepted by many researchers.
Later, the definition was widened to include all tectonic processes since the last major
tectonic configuration change, and the establishment of the modem stress field.
The last tectonic event of a region may vary from the other region giving variation in the time
span of the neotectonic events in different areas. The neotectonic study has great societal
importance in the modern society. Knowledge of the neotectonics of an area is used for
seismic hazard studies and to get hold of their mitigation measures, therefore attention is
given in acquiring, processing and interpretation of the data.

The neotectonic studies essentially calls for a multidisciplinary approach. The

importance of multidisciplinary approach by combining structural, neotectonic and
geomorphological data to study the setting of big river basins in relation to geological
structures has been found useful in the study of geomorphological evolution of a region.

Geomorphic indicators of neotectonic movements

In order to measure the amount of deformation that has occurred due to tectonic
processes, it is typically necessary to have an identifiable feature that has been displaced.
Unique rock types or structures that formerly extended across a fault in an unbroken pattern
provide a datum or "piercing point" from which the magnitude of subsequent displacements
can be determined. In tectonic geomorphology, we are often concerned with offset
geomorphic markers, by which we mean identifiable geomorphic features or surfaces that
provide a reference frame against which to gauge differential or absolute deformation. The
best geomorphic markers are readily recognizable landforms, surfaces, or linear trends that
display these three characteristics: 1) a known initial, undeformed geometry; 2) a known age;
and 3) high preservation potential with respect to the time scale of the tectonic process being
studied. Oftentimes, only some of these characteristics may have been determined for a
displaced marker. Because of the usefulness of geomorphic markers, considerable effort and
care are warranted in defining their geometry and age. The geometry of a pristine geomorphic
feature is a crucial attribute of a marker, because it is the deformation of the surface of such a
feature that records the tectonic signal. Modifications ofan original undisturbed feature by
subsequent erosion or deposition, however, may make it difficult to define the original
geometry of a presently offset geomorphic surface. River terraces are frequently used as
geomorphic markers to document fault offsets or folds.

Uplift –subsidence pattern in coastal areas

Along coastal regions ofmany parts of the world, bench-like features, or marine
terraces, have been created by the interaction of the ocean with the adjacent landmass. Marine
terraces fall into two classes: constructional terraces associated with coral reefs, and
destructional or erosional terraces. Terraces ultimately result from the wide variation in sea
level with time, this variation being driven by a combination of the histories of the local
movement of the landmass with respect to the geoid and the global variations in sea level.
The global or eustatic sea level changes within the Pleistocene are caused primarily by
changes in the volumes of the continental ice sheets. Along many tectonically rising coasts,
there are flights of marine terraces that provide direct evidence for multiple decreases in
relative sea level.
Coastal morphology is broadly determined by tectonic setting, although over time
changing sea level is an important control on margin morphology and process. Convergent
and transform margins are active margins, where the edge of the continent coincides with
where two tectonic plates collide. In these settings, continental and oceanic crust move
toward or slide past each other across the continental margin, resulting in active rock uplift.
Active sea cliffs rise vertically from the shoreline at a sharp angle, and are maintained by
wave erosion at their bases. Inactive sea cliffs that have been lifted above the zone of wave
attack by tectonic uplift or isostatic rebound typically have a smoothly curving cliff base that
has been shaped by subaerial weathering, erosion and mass wasting. In places where sea cliff
bedrock is resistant enough to support an overhang, a wave-cut notch may develop at the base
of the cliff. Relict wave-cut notches at the bases of inactive sea cliffs record former shoreline
positions on tectonically active coasts. On actively uplifting coasts, wave-cut platforms that
become elevated above the surf zone provide long-term records of coastal uplift in the form
of marine terraces.

Stream channel morphology changes

The courses of rivers and ridge crests that are displaced across strike-slip faults can clearly
record lateral offsets. It is important to ascertain, however, that the deflection of a stream is
due directly to differential displacement of its course by faulting and is not the result of the
intersection between a regionally sloping surface and a fault scarp. If streams are offset in
directions that oppose the regional slope, the cause of the offset is more likely to be tectonic
than when the deflection occurs in the direction of the regional slope. Due to strike-slip
motions, streams can be "beheaded," by which it is meant that an abandoned stream channel
abruptly terminates as it crosses a fault.
Because rivers are capable of incising and modifying any displaced profile, vertical
movements often: are underestimated by the apparent displacement of the river channel at the
location ofthe fault. If the upstream part of a stream bed is elevated by faulting with respect to
its downstream continuation, the stream will tend to incise through the scarp. Remnants of the
former valley floor may be preserved as small terraces on either side of the channel, and their
height above the downstream, but offset continuation of the channel can be used to assess the
amount of vertical displacement

Fault reactivation
Reactivated faults form when movement along formerly inactive faults can help to alleviate
strain within the crust or upper mantle. Faults may be reactivated at a later time with the
movement in the opposite direction to the original movement (fault inversion). A normal fault
may therefore become a reverse fault and vice versa. Reactivation is dependent upon fault-
zone orientation and the existence of weak mylonites along these zones. The recognition of
reactivation within mylonite zones, and the softening processes that first concentrate
deformation into these and secondly provide a weak medium for reactivation.

The upper crust of the earth is anything but homogeneous and isotropic: even a casual glance
at any outcrop will reveal numerous pre-existing planes of weakness. The rocks are beset
with fractures — both joints and faults — in a variety of orientations and stratification itself
can commonly represent a significant an isotropy. These pre-existing planes of weakness
commonly have little or no cohesion and, because the fracture is already there, the coefficient
of static friction on the plane, is different than the coefficient of internal friction. Just because
it crosses the pre-existing failure envelope, however, does not mean that failure will actually
occur; the pre-existing weak planes must lie within a range of orientations defined by the
intersections. One of the most important controls on the strength of rocks in the upper
crust is the pressure of fluid in the pores of the rocks. Weakening of pre-existing buried fault
zones has been implicated in human induced seismicity.

Drainage modifications
Tectonic conditioning of drainage changes have been widely described in the literature, and
it is usually studied on the regional and continental scale. It can be considered the most
dramatic effect not only for conditioning the pattern and texture of the drainage itself but
also for determining the characteristics and amount of sediment that is transported to
downstream depositional basins and where this sediment is delivered. Uplift, subsidence
and faulting, all modify the overall shape of drainage systems, altering parameters such as
slope, valley floor and channel gradient. The form and magnitude of these changes will
depend on the amount of deformation and the capacity of the channels to adjust to the
altered slope (Shumm, 1977; 1985), thus, in order to understand how tectonic evolution
impacts drainage development, evolution and preservation, it is necessary to examine the
coupling of externally (allogenic) and internally generated (autogenic) forces.

Examples of the characterization of how the tectonic events impacts drainage development -
especially associated with orogenic belts –A good example of such relationships between
tectonic processes and drainage changes on a large scale is the case of rivers in Patagonia at
the southern end of South America. The rifting process that separated South America and
Africa first occurred at the southern part of the continent during the Middle Jurassic, and the
development of broad uplifts, rifting and aulacogens were key factors in establishing the
drainage patterns. The Andean uplift also has controlled the paleo-geographic settings of all
drainage in the central and northern cordillera region modifying the position of rivers such as
the Orinoco and Magdelena at northwestern part of South America.