(1ST SECTION)

APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATION METHODS
IN

GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION &

EXPLOITATION

AN OVERVIEW
OUTLINE

• Applied Geophysics

• Geophysical Methods/General Applications

• Groundwater Investigations

• Electromagnetic

• Electrical Resistivity

• Downhole Borehole Logging

Applied Geophysics
the application of the principles
of physics &
mathematics to the study of the earth’s sub-surface (geology).
… essentially measurements (data acquisition) are made at or near the earth’s
surface to obtain data arising from the vertical/lateral variations in the physical
properties of the earth materials - rocks and minerals;

… measurements could either be of natural fields of the earth’s crust (e.g.

magnetic) or the effects of induced perturbations i.e. artificially generated
energy fields (e.g. seismic);

… the physical properties of any mineral or rock are important in identifying

and characterizing them;

… for every geophysical method, there is an operative physical property to

which the chosen method is sensitive, this involves the recognition of a
parameter-contrast or a local variation relative to the background or host value;
… these variations or parameter contrasts are generally referred to as anomalies -
the presence or absence of zones of economic or general interest;

… the cardinal aim of geophysical investigation is to add a third dimension to

geological maps, scientific instruments are used to detect changes in the physical
properties of rocks, which lie concealed beneath the earth’s surface and from each
parameter measured, the geophysicist is able to outline the sub-surface layers;

… sub-surface geology - the third dimension of geological maps - is thus

revealed, however, the geological picture is only shown in lines of equal
anomaly;

… the total technique of adducing a picture of the sub-surface geology from

geophysical measurements is called Interpretation - a term which aptly implies its
indeterminate nature, the onus thus falls on the geophysicist to provide adequate,
reasonably accurate and cost-friendly data from the sub-surface;

… geophysical methods often involve tedious data acquisition techniques and

usually require fairly advanced mathematical analysis for interpretation;

… however, considerable amount of geologic (and sub-surface) information is

often obtainable from geophysical investigations.
Geophysical Investigation Methods, Principles and Applications
Geophysical Physical Measured Calculated Major
Method Property Parameter Parameters Applications

Electrical electrical electrical resistivities metalliferous

Resistivity potential that potential and layer mineral deposits
determines thickness
resistivity
and
conductivity

Electro- electrical response to conductivity metalliferous

magnetic conductivity electro- mineral
magnetic deposits,
field groundwater
exploration -
fractures, joints
and conductive
zones
Geophysical Physical Measured Calculated Major
Method Property Parameter Parameters Applications
Self electrical earth apparent groundwater,
Potential potential for resistance resistivities salt deposit,
conductivity and layer fresh/saline water
or resistivity thickness interface,
metalliferous
minerals, buried
conductors e.t.c.

Induced electrical polarization quantity metalliferous

Polarization capacitance voltages or and mineral deposits
frequency duration of
dependent induced
ground voltages
resistance
Geophysical Physical Measured Calculated Major
Method Property Parameter Parameters Applications

Seismic density and travel times velocities, hydrocarbon

elastic of depths and exploration,
moduli, reflected/refr dips of geologic
velocity of acted reflectors/ structures,
seismic wave seismic refractors groundwater and
waves engineering
foundation
parameters
Gravity specific variation in residual mapping of
density earth’s anomalies, sedimentary
gravitational depths, basins, salt
field dimensions domes, heavy
and trend of minerals (e.g.
causative baryte) and
bodies intrusions
Geophysical Physical Measured Calculated Major
Property Parameter Parameters Applications
Method magnetic variation in residual mapping of
Magnetic susceptibility the strength anomalies, sedimentary
of earth’s depths, basins, magnetic
geomagnetic dimensions minerals (e.g.
field and trend of marble), fault
causative lines, basement
bodies topography and
intrusions
Radiometric radioactivity radioactive emission exploration for
emission count rate of nuclear energy
rate K, Th, U and sources and
their various radioactive
ratios materials,
determination of
radioactive
levels
Groundwater Investigation

What is groundwater?
… most rocks contain several interconnected pore spaces referred to as
interstices (porosity) in which water may be stored and through which water
can be transmitted (permeability);

sub-surface water in the interstices of rocks completely saturated with water

is generally called groundwater.

… an aquifer is defined as a saturated bed, formation or group of formations

which yields water in sufficient quantity to be of consequence as a source of
water supply;

… groundwater offers the most reliable and safest source of potable water,
over 60% of Nigerians depend on groundwater for their domestic, industrial,
agricultural and other uses;
Groundwater Investigation

…water is found in virtually every location on the earth's surface, however the
primary challenges are delineation, accessibility and economic justification.

…accessibility depends on several geologic factors that vary from location to

location, irrespective of proximity.

… occurrence of groundwater varies and depends largely on the geology of the

area. Nigeria is basically divided into two geologic terrains namely -
Sedimentary Basins and Basement Complex.

Sedimentary Basins
… by name consists mainly of sediments deposited over a period of time,
sedimentary basins consists generally of clay, sands, shale, limestone, sandstone,
Marl e.t.c.;

… in sedimentary areas of Nigeria, most aquifers consist of sands, sandstone

and gravels (conglomerates), however, carbonate (i.e. limestone) aquifers have
been developed in some areas;
Groundwater Investigation

…groundwater occurrence is more abundant in sedimentary basins compared

to basement terrains;

… notwithstanding the above, some locations in sedimentary areas still lack

suitable groundwater supply, where -

 the underlying rocks are predominantly clay (some parts of Enugu State -
Abakaliki) or shale (some parts of Imo State);

 the aquifers are very deep and therefore expensive to develop, e.g. Chad
Basin, some parts of Niger Delta (Odidi, Tunu, Forcados e.t.c.);

 saline/brackish water occurrence in upper sand formation and fresh water

sands are very deep - Coastal Regions;
Groundwater Investigation

Basement Complex
… consists mainly of metamorphic and igneous rocks - hard crystalline rocks
with no primary potential for groundwater storage and transmission;

 metamorphic rocks - describes rocks that have been physically and/or

chemically altered (metamorphism), having their texture, structure and
mineral composition transformed in response to changes in the
environmental conditions (pressure, heat, circulating fluids e.t.c) of
the earth;

 common metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, marble, gneiss and

quartzite;

 igneous rocks - rocks that are formed by the cooling and solidification of
molten magma, generally classified into intrusive rocks - granite, gabbros,
syenite, pegmatite e.t.c. and extrusive rocks - basalt, andesite, rhyolites e.t.c.
Groundwater Investigation

Basement Complex
… basement rocks have no primary porosity or permeability, water-bearing
voids are usually in the form of fissures, fractures, joints, faults and weathered
zones;

… groundwater occurrence in basement complex is very localized and not as

abundant when compared to sedimentary basins;
Geological Map of Nigeria
Generalized Geological Map of South Western Nigeria
7 º 56 'N

LEG END

Allasoka Recent alluvium

"
Coastal plain sands

Ilaro formation

I woye O shosun formation

N
"

OYO STATE
E wekoro formation
BENIN

A beok uta formation

O deto

"
B as ement c omplex
I diemi
"

O lode
A diho O lorunsogo S tudy area

#
"

"
Fapote O deda

"
Ayetoro
"

"
A BEOKUTA
OF

Obafemi
%

"
I boro Fidiwo
"

#
Igbogila
Kajola

#
"

Ishara I jebu-I gbo

# #

#
Owode O de-Remo A go-Iwoye
I BESHE
"#

O ru

#
#
"
Akaka

#
I peru
REPUBLIC

#
"

Ilaro Ewekoro Sagamu O dogbolu

"

#
Ofada
"
"

#
I dogo Ijebu-Ode

#
Ifo Junction
"

I fe ONDO

#
Otta
"

I di-Iroko
"

Atan STATE
"

LAGOS STATE I biade

#
Iwopin

#
A bigi

#
Mak un

#
Atijere

#
0 60 km

5 º 43 'N
2 º 3 7 'E 4 º 3 7 'E

FIG. 2 GEOLOGICAL MAP OF OGUN STATE SHOWING THE IBESHE STUDY AREA.
Groundwater Investigation - Objectives

Sedimentary Basins
 determine sub-surface strata (lithology), delineate water-bearing aquifers,
depth to aquifer units, brackish-saline-fresh water interfaces, localized
pollution, aquifer thickness and nature of sub-surface lithology;

Basement Complex
 determine thickness of overburden, the degree and nature of fracturing/
weathering of the bedrock, the presence or absence of clay above the
weathered zone, effect of clay on the rate of infiltration of water into
weathered zones and permeability of the weathered/fractured zone.

 geophysical investigation is very crucial to the success of groundwater

exploration in basement terrain.
Groundwater Investigation - The Process

… successful groundwater exploration using geophysical techniques should

be in the following stages;

 Desk Study

 Recce (reconnaissance) Survey

 Field Data Acquisition and Quality Control

 Data Analysis and Recommendation

Groundwater Investigation - Geophysical Methods

… the most common geophysical prospecting method used in groundwater

exploration includes;

Direct Current Electrical Resistivity;

 Vertical Electrical Sounding;
 Horizontal Profiling; and

Electromagnetic

… the Electromagnetic method is more applicable in basement complex terrain to

map water-bearing fractures, joints and conductive zones, while the Direct Current
Electrical Resistivity Method is applicable in both Basement Complex and
Sedimentary Basins;

… ideally, the Electromagnetic method (and/or Horizontal Profiling technique of

Electrical Resistivity) should serve as a recce tool for groundwater exploration in
Basement Complex terrain;
Groundwater Investigation - Electromagnetic

… involves the use of an alternating magnetic field as the power source, when
this primary field is imposed on earth materials through a primary coil -
Transmitter, a flow of current results;

… the amount of current flow, as in other electrical techniques, depends on the

conductivity of the sub-surface layers;

… the current flow produces a secondary magnetic field, which can be detected
at the surface by measuring the voltage induced in another secondary coil -
Receiver;

… coil separation can vary from 10, 20 and 40 metres;

… water filled fractured zones are detected by measuring distortions produced

on a primary EM field;

… it is useful in coastal areas for mapping lateral occurrence of saline water in

shallow aquifers;
Groundwater Investigation -Electromagnetic

…the use of EM methods in groundwater exploration is not as widespread as

direct current electrical resistivity method, as it lacks the resolution and
penetration of the latter;

… EM equipment is relatively expensive and not common in the country;

… their great advantage lies in the fact that direct contact with the ground is not
necessary, therefore, data acquisition is rapid, easy and less expensive;

… EM data is a very useful tool for reconnaissance studies over a large area in
basement complex environment; electrical resistivity can then be used more
effectively in areas of high EM anomalies i.e. conductive zones;
 Interpreted EM34-3 Reading along Traverse 1-1 (E-W) direction
150

140

130
R e s is tivity V a lu e -O h m m (1 /C on d .-m S )

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Intercoil Spacing x 20m Hori(20) Vert(20) Hori(40) Vert(40)

Typical EM Chart
Groundwater Investigation - Geophysical Methods

Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

… the direct current electrical resistivity method of geophysical prospecting is

the most widely used in groundwater exploration studies;

… the method is based on the principle that materials within the earth crust
exhibits significantly contrasting and measurable resistivity properties;

… the resistivity values of geologic formation vary widely and are strongly
influenced by several factors such as fissuring, porosity, water saturation,
temperature, texture, presence of clay minerals and fluid permeability;

… the Electrical Resistivity method has been used successfully in groundwater

exploration to delineate the geo-electric characteristics of the superficial deposits
overlying basement rocks as well as delineate structures favorable to groundwater
accumulation and discharge - faults, fractured zones, shear zones and
basement depressions;
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

… the method involves the passage of electric current into the ground through
two (2) current electrodes, while the potential gradient (voltage) is measured
across another pair of electrodes (potential electrodes);

… the apparent resistivity of the sub-surface is calculated from the measured

resistance; the Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) survey technique is often
adopted;

… in Vertical Electrical Sounding, variations of the apparent resistivity with

depth are measured, this is achieved by a gradual and systematic increase in
the electrode array;

…Vertical Electrical Sounding, also referred to as “depth sounding” is undertaken

on the assumption that the earth is made up of layers of approximately constant
resistivity separated from others of differing resistivity by a plane surface;

…the electrical depth sounding, irrespective of the electrode configuration used,

is also undertaken on the basis that the farther away from a current source the
measurement of the potential, the deeper the probing will be;
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

…generally, longer current electrode separation is required in sedimentary

terrain
compared to Basement Complex;

…the common electrode configuration for groundwater exploration is the

Schlumberger Electrode Configuration - four (steel) electrodes are placed along
a straight line on the earth’s surface with AB (current electrode separation)
greater or equal to 5MN (MN = potential electrode separation);

… a typical Schlumberger Array -

C1 P1 P2 C2

r
M N
A a = AB/2 B
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

Instrumentation
… the very low levels of resistance commonly encountered in resistivity surveys
requires that survey instruments must be both very sensitive and accurate;

… a resistivity meter is required to introduce direct current (or in modern

equipments, low-frequency alternating current) and also measure the
return potential in one single unit;

… the common resistivity meters used in Nigeria are the ABEM SAS family (SAS
300, 300A, 300B, 300C, 1000 and 4000 as well as the PASI Digital resistivity meters,
other components required for data acquisition includes;

 Steel Electrodes
 Current & Potential Cables
 Hammers
 Wooden Pegs (optional)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Instrumentation

 Clinometer
 Measuring Tapes
 Pre-marked Strings (optional)
 Record Sheets
 Calculator

ABEM SAS 1000

... the ABEM SAS 1000 is a single channel instrument for geo-electric
investigations with outstanding performance and very low noise level, it is
particularly suited for deep sounding in sedimentary basin; it has an integrated
receiver and transmitter, with capacity for output power up to 1000mA;

… the system automatically averages a minimum of four (4) stacks measurement,

which ensures high signal/noise ratio.
ABEM SAS 1000 Digital Resistivity Meter (Terrameter)
PASI Digital Resistivity Meter
ABEM SAS 300C (Terrameter) Resistivity Meter
Global Positioning System
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Data Acquisition

…in the Vertical Electrical Sounding mode using the Schlumberger array, the
Current electrodes are expanded symmetrically about the centre of the spread,
as AB is increased, the potential electrodes are also expanded at pre-determined
intervals;

… by increasing the separation of the current electrodes, the depth penetrated

by the current lines increases (except in cases where current attenuation is high,
probably due to a thick layer of clay or saline water-saturated sand bodies;

… the resistance (or apparent resistivity, in case of modern equipment) are

recorded against the current electrode separation;

… constant quality control is required on the field to ensure good data quality,
while remarks should be recorded for data acquired in noisy environments and
difficult terrains;
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

Data Acquisition - Typical Resistivity Record Sheet

Project Name: Location:

Instrument: Electrode Configuration:
VES No.: VES Description:
Co-ordinate:

Station AB/2 MN K R App. R Remarks

No
1 1 0.5 6.28
2 2 0.5 25.13
3 3 0.5 56.55
4 4 0.5 100.53
5 6 0.5 226.19
6 6 1.0 113.10
7 8 1.0 201.06
8 12 1.0 452.39
9 15 1.0 706.86
10 15 2.0 353.43
Data Acquisition - Typical Resistivity Record Sheet

Station AB/2 MN K R App. R Remarks

No
11 25 2.0 981.75
12 32 2.0 1608.50
13 40 2.0 2513.27
14 40 5.0 1005.31
15 65 5.0 2654.65
16 100 5.0 6283.19
17 100 10.0 3141.59
18 150 10.0 7068.58
19 225 20.0 15904.31

k = geometric factor = п(AB/2)2

MN
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Data Presentation & Interpretation

… for Vertical Electrical Sounding, the field data collected are represented in
graphs in which half of the current electrode separation, AB/2, is plotted on the
abscissa (x-axis), while the corresponding apparent resistivity is plotted on the
ordinate (y-axis), the scales of both axes are logarithmic;

… the graphs or “curves” are interpreted qualitatively in terms of the vertical

distribution of the calculated formation resistivities using the traditional
methods, such as auxiliary point techniques and curve-matching procedure
employing albums of theoretical curves;

… quantitative interpretation of the curves involved partial curve matching

using two-layer Schlumberger master curves and the auxiliary K, Q, A and H
curves;

… electrical resistivity data are difficult to interpret quantitatively especially in

the absence of any other geophysical/geological data (control) from the same area,
however, softwares have been developed from theoretical models to aid the
process of resistivity data interpretation;
K, Q, A and H Curve types
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Data Interpretation

… common softwares in use include - Resis, Sclum (both DOS based and
WinSev (Windows based);

…interpretation is expected to yield sub-surface lithology in terms of geo-electric

layers, which may or may not correspond to the actual geologic sequence;

Limitations
… the interpretation of a multi-layer sounding curve is not unique - a given VES
curve can correspond to a variety of sub-surface distributions of layer thicknesses
and resistivities;

… the detect-ability of a layer of a given resistivity depends on its relative

thickness, the smaller the relative thickness, the lower the chances of it being
detected - principle of suppression and equivalence;

… the practical depth limit of resistivity surveys ranges between 400 - 1000
metres, simply because of the maximum electrical power that can be introduced
into the ground and the practical difficulties in laying out long lengths of cable.
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Application

… electrical resistivity method of geophysical prospecting provides reliable and

cost effective information on sub-surface layers;

… delineation of brackish/saline/fresh water interface in coastal aquifers;

… in basement complex terrain, the method is capable of delineating fractures,

weathered zone and depth to the bedrocks - all critical factors to groundwater
occurrence;
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Typical Curves

1 topsoil
2 sandy clay
3 laterite
4 clay
5 shale
1 topsoil
2 laterite
3 sandy clay
4 laterite
5 clay
6 shale
1 topsoil
2 clayey sand
3 sandy clay
4 sand
1 topsoil
2 clay
3 sandy clay
4 sand
1 topsoil
2 weathered basement
(clay)
3 fractured basement
4 fresh basement
1 topsoil
2 sandy clay
3 weathered basement
(clay)
4 fresh basement
1 topsoil
2 clayey sand
3 partially weathered
basement
4 fractured basement
5 fresh basement
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Typical Report Format

 Title Page
 Table of Contents
 List of Figures
 The Project Team
 Statement of Objective
 Executive Summary
 Introduction
- Site Location and Accessibility
- Geomorphology
 Geology/Hydrogeology of the Study Area
 Field Methods and Data Acquisition
 Station References/Field Limitations
Groundwater Investigation - Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Typical Report Format

 Instrumentation
 Data Processing
 Discussion of Results
 Groundwater Potential Evaluation
 Recommendations and Concluding Remarks
 Appendix
 References
Groundwater Investigation - BOREHOLE LOGGING

… borehole logging describes all the methods of lowering probes or detectors

into boreholes and recording various geophysical parameters such as electrical
resistivity, natural gamma, spontaneous potential, density, conductivity,
temperature, sonic, neutron e.t.c.;

… all the geophysical techniques discussed earlier are applicable in borehole

logging, but the most common probes for water wells include - Electrical
Resistivity (Long & Short Normal), Natural Gamma and in some cases
Spontaneous Potential;

… is a vital tool in establishing the viability of water wells, this purely scientific
tool helps in the design and completion of a well for optimum performance, it
provides accurate and very important information about aquifer characteristics,
lithology and formation water quality;

…for the purpose of water well construction, geophysical logging offers the most
accurate and cost effective means of delineating exact lithology and formation
water quality and potential quantity, which constitutes pre-requisites for effective
placement of screens and casings;
Groundwater Investigation - BOREHOLE LOGGING

… modern logging systems offer real-time digital printout of logging run, which
can be used for immediate on-site interpretation;

… logging result is more accurate and reliable than drill samples and provides a
better picture of the sub-surface relative to depth, however, logging does not
entirely replace sampling;

… the combination of Natural Gamma (an essentially lithology log) and

Electrical Resistivity (fluid saturation), gives a more complete picture and allows
accurate interpretation of resistivity data;

… borehole log data is relatively easy to interpret and it provides very reliable
control for the interpretation of surface geophysical investigation data;

… borehole logging is more applicable in Sedimentary Basins, especially in

coastal and virgin areas, while it is rarely applied in Basement Complex terrain;

… the major downside of the technique is that a drilled hole is required for log
data acquisition.
Groundwater Investigation - BOREHOLE LOGGING
Applications

…borehole logging applications in water well construction includes -

 bed boundary identification;

 lithology identification;
 bed thickness;
 aquifer thickness and characteristics;
 strata correlation between boreholes;
 porosity determination;
 nature of saturating fluid and formation water quality;
 strata geometry.
RG Digital Borehole Logging System
RG Digital Logging System (exterior view) - advanced technology for
determining quantity and quality of groundwater in borehole construction.
ELGG - Electrical Resistivity +
Natural Gamma Probe
NB Plc, Iganmu, Lagos State
NB Plc, Iganmu, Lagos State
LWC Waterworks, Ikoyi, Lagos State
LWC Waterworks, Ikoyi, Lagos State
LWC Waterworks, Ikoyi, Lagos State
LWC Waterworks, Ikoyi, Lagos State
LWC Waterworks, Ikoyi, Lagos State
QUESTIONS?
 (2ND SECTION)

BOREHOLE CONSTRUCTION

AN OVERVIEW

foluwaso adebobuyi
(applied geophysicist)
afoluwaso@yahoo.co.uk
Borehole Construction - The Process

…borehole construction defines the process of cutting a hole through the earth
continuously, flushing and stabilising the hole until the desired depth is
attained, including the process of screen and casing installation, development,
pumping test and casing installation;

… the major process can be highlighted as follows -

 Pre-construction studies and design
 Mobilisation and Site Preparation
 Drilling
 Sampling
 Logging
 Borehole Design
 Casing & Screen Installation
 Backwashing, Gravel Packing and Grouting
 Airlifting & Jetting
 Pumping Test
 Submersible Pump and Riser Mains Installation
Borehole Construction - Drilling Rig

… a drill rig is a basic equipment for borehole construction, servicing and

maintenance;

… drill rigs can either be motorised or manual;

… major components of a drill rig includes - mud pump, centrifugal pump, grout
pump, water injector pump, foam pump, air compressor, gear boxes, draw works,
hydraulic winch, rotary table, weight indicator, collar, drilling bits, hammer head,
drill pipes e.t.c;

… drilling methods include rotary drilling - suitable for sedimentary terrain,

rotary-hammer drilling for basement complex environment and percussion for
shallow wells and geotechnical studies;
Borehole Construction - Pumping Test

… the principal objective of carrying out pumping tests on boreholes is to

evaluate the borehole hydraulics and aquifer characteristics for selecting pump
size and pump setting for the borehole in long term production;

….under natural conditions, groundwater flows through aquifers, from areas of

high hydraulic head to areas of low head, where the groundwater discharges to
the surface, this natural flow is disturbed when groundwater is purposely
designed to cause such disturbance under controlled conditions, so that its
effects and characteristics can be analyzed;

… major parameters include - yield, drawdown (difference between Static and

Dynamic water level) and rate of recharge;

... the pumping test programme has three distinct parts:

 Pretest Observation;
 Pumping Test (Step Drawdown & Constant Discharge); and
 Recovery Test.
QUESTIONS?