Student: ………………………… Date received: ………………

Handout 1 of 14

(Topic 1.1)

Minerals

A selection of some common rock-

forming minerals (natural scale:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Minerals.jpg)
Minerals
Key Ideas Intended Student Learning

Earth is made up of minerals that are the State five criteria for categorising a substance as a
constituents of rocks. mineral.
Name the seven most important mineral groups
(silicates, oxides, carbonates, sulphides,
sulphates, halides, and native elements).
Explain how minerals are classified into these
groups according to their chemical composition.
Describe, for mineral specimens:
ƒ colour
ƒ streak
ƒ cleavage
ƒ hardness
ƒ lustre
ƒ density
ƒ magnetism
ƒ reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid.

Identify the following common rock-forming

minerals, and know the mineral group to which
each one belongs:
Quartz Feldspar
Biotite mica Muscovite mica
Calcite Olivine
Augite Hornblende
Clay minerals - (e.g. kaolinite).

Identify the following metallic ores, know the

mineral group to which each one belongs, and
name the extracted metal:
Galena Chalcopyrite
Malachite Sphalerite
Bauxite Haematite.
Magnetite

Explain the difference between a mineral deposit

and an ore deposit.

The sections of the Intended Student Learning that are italicised must form part of the fieldwork or practical materials
submitted for moderation. They will not be examined in the public examination

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 2 of 18

1.1 - MINERALS
Earth is made up of minerals that are the constituents of rocks.
Rocks of Earth's crust are made up of minerals in the same way that a cake is
made of flour, eggs, sultanas, sugar etc. Therefore, minerals can be considered
as the constituents of rocks.

DEFINITION OF A MINERAL (See p. 23, Essentials of Geology)

A mineral is a substance that is

• naturally occurring
• solid
• inorganic – i.e. not the result of any processes of life
• crystalline – i.e. having a regular arrangement of atoms
• pure – either an element or a compound
(p. 125, Chapter 6c – Crystals, Perspectives of the Earth)

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
Minerals are classified according to their chemical compositions.
The majority of the common minerals in Earth's crust can be classified into
seven groups, according to their chemical composition. This classification is
summarised in the table below:

Chemical
Name of Group Example
Composition
Carbonate Calcite CaCO3
Halide Halite NaCl
Oxide Haematite Fe2O3
Sulphide Galena PbS
Sulphate Gypsum CaSO4
Silicate Quartz SiO2
Native element Gold Au

The largest group is the silicates. About 95% of Earth's crust comprises
approximately 1100 silicate minerals. Most of the common rock-forming
minerals belong to this group.
On the other hand, native elements are very rare because most elements
combine with elements in the air and water to form compounds. Only six
Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 3 of 18
elements occur in Earth's crust as pure elements. One of these is gold which is
always found as an element because it is chemically very stable. It does not
react with other elements to form compounds.

DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Mineral specimens are usually identified by determining their physical
properties and using a key 1 to name the mineral which has those properties. A
test kit, consisting of hand lens, magnet, streak plate (unglazed tile), copper
coin, knife, bottle of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) and quartz crystal, is used.
The diagnostic properties used in mineral identification are:

• Colour • Streak
• Lustre • Hardness
• Density • Cleavage
• Magnetism • Reaction with dilute HCl

In addition, specific tests are diagnostic for certain minerals. For example,
halite tastes salty, and magnetite is magnetic. In some cases, a given mineral
specimen may not possess all the properties listed in the key, and a diagnosis
must be made using the best available information.
Colour:
Although the colour of some minerals, such as azurite, is quite distinctive, other
minerals, such as quartz, occur in a variety of colours. Also there are many
white minerals. Hence colour is frequently NOT a useful diagnostic property.

Streak:
Streak is the colour of the powdered mineral. It is a useful diagnostic property
for many coloured minerals — especially those with a metallic lustre. It is
found by rubbing the specimen on a piece of unglazed tile, or streak plate.
Lustre:
The lustre of a mineral is the way its surface shines when held up to the light.
Lustre is a property distinct from colour. There are many ways of classifying
and describing lustre, but the following system is adequate:

Vitreous — the mineral shines like glass — e.g. quartz, diamond

Metallic — the mineral shines like the surface of a metal — e.g. pyrite, galena
Earthy (dull) – the mineral does not shine at all — e.g. kaolinite

Hardness:
The hardness of any mineral can be assigned a number between 1 and 10, on
Moh's Scale of Hardness. The instruments used to determine the hardness of a

1
Diagnostic properties: Ref. p. 107, Perspectives of the Earth; Ref. p. 30, Essentials of Geology

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 4 of 18

mineral specimen are (in order of increasing hardness) a finger-nail, copper
coin, knife blade and a quartz crystal.
The table below lists the minerals that define Moh's Scale of Hardness, and
gives the relative hardnesses of the test items named above.

Hardness Defining Mineral Test Item

1 Talc
2 Gypsum
Finger nail ~2.5
3 Calcite
Copper coin ~3.5
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
Knife blade ~5.5
6 Orthoclase
7 Quartz Quartz crystal 7
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond

Density:
It is not usual to measure the actual densities (relative to water = 1) of
specimens; however, minerals should be classified according to whether they
are light, medium or heavy. This can be done by holding similar-sized
specimens of two different minerals in your hands, and comparing their
weights.

Cleavage:
When a piece of a mineral is dropped or
struck, it may tend to break so that flat,
shiny surfaces are formed.

This effect is shown in the adjacent

diagram.

The cleavage of a mineral

• is the shape which some mineral specimens tend to form when they
are broken.
• is described in terms of the number of flat surfaces formed and the
angles between them.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 5 of 18

Minerals, or individual surfaces, that do not cleave to form flat faces are said to
show fracture.

Cleavage is a diagnostic property for identification of minerals, but the cleavage

of an actual specimen is not always easy to determine. Many specimens do not
show the expected cleavage characteristics.

If cleavage planes are not clearly visible, you should use your hand lens to
carefully examine a broken specimen.

Cleavage is described in terms of the number of cleavage planes formed and the
angles between these planes.

1. One Cleavage Plane

Some minerals (e.g. the
micas) cleave in one direction,
forming flat surfaces in one
plane only. This is why mica
tends to break into thin
sheets. However, if one of these sheets is broken, it will have a rough, jagged
edge, or fracture rather than a smooth cleavage surface.

2. Two Cleavage Directions

Minerals of the feldspar group
form cleavage planes in two
directions which are at right
angles to each other; however, if
they are broken along other directions, only irregular fracture surfaces are
formed.

Hornblende tends to form two pairs of cleavage

planes that are at approximately 60° and 120° to
each other. Again the remaining surfaces show
only fracture.

3. Three Cleavage Planes

Some minerals cleave to form flat
surfaces in three directions,
which may be at right angles to
each other (e.g. galena).

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 6 of 18

Other minerals form cleavage planes
which are not at right angles to each other
(e.g. calcite).

Crystal Faces versus Cleavage Planes

DO NOT CONFUSE Crystal Faces

and Cleavage Planes: Quartz forms
crystal faces but not cleavage planes.
Quartz has no cleavage. If a quartz
crystal is broken, irregular conchoidal
fracture surfaces, are formed. There
will not be any flat cleavage planes.

Well-developed crystals (e.g. quartz) only form if there is room for them to grow.
Since both crystals and cleavage fragments reflect the internal structure of the
mineral, it is not surprising that cleavage fragments are often mistaken for
crystals.

Magnetism:
Some minerals that contain iron are magnetic. Magnetite is strongly magnetic,
and will be attracted by a magnet. Other iron-bearing minerals such as
ilmenite and haematite are weakly magnetic. Consequently, a magnet can only
attract small particles scraped off a piece of haematite, or ilmenite sand-sized
particles.

Reaction to dilute Hydrochloric Acid:

Some minerals especially carbonates, effervesce when a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid is placed on them. This is a useful diagnostic test for calcite, a
white mineral and, in many cases, not easily distinguished from other white
minerals.

COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

Although about 4000 minerals are known to exist, only about 8 of them are
common. These common rock-forming minerals are the major constituents of
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. They constitute more that 99% of
Earth's crust.
You must be able to identify these 8 minerals, and you must know the mineral
group to which each one belongs.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 7 of 18

The following table lists the common rock-forming minerals, lists the mineral
group to which they belong, and summarises their most important diagnostic
properties. Due to factors such as weathering or presence of impurities,
individual specimens may not show all the properties listed in the table.
Identification must be made on the balance of several properties.

SIGNIFICANT DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES

Mineral Group
H Colour Lustre Cleavage Other properties
Clear when pure.
Quartz Silicate 7 Impurities cause many Vitreous None Hexagonal crystals
colour variations.
Feldspar group:
Orthoclase: pink, cream
Orthoclase Silicate 6 Vitreous 2 at ~90°
Plagioclase: white, grey
Plagioclase
Biotite Silicate 2.5 Black Vitreous: 1
sometimes Thin sheets are flexible
appears and elastic
Muscovite Silicate 2.5 White or clear metallic 1
Amphibole (e.g. Often confused with
Silicate 5.5 Black Vitreous 2 at 120°
Hornblende) Pyroxene
Small green crystals.
Olivine Silicate 6.5 Green Vitreous none Often enclosed in a
basalt volcanic 'bomb'.
Pyroxene (e.g. Often confused with
Silicate 5.5 Black Vitreous 2 at 87° & 93°
Augite) Amphibole
Calcite Carbonate 3 White or clear Vitreous 3 not at 90° Effervesces with acid
Clays
Silicate 2.5 White Dull None Very powdery
(e.g. Kaolinite)

ORE MINERALS
Most metals react with other elements in the atmosphere and hydrosphere
(water), and therefore do not exist in nature as elements. Rather they are found
as compounds, usually oxides, sulphides or carbonates of metals. Compounds of
metals are known as ore minerals and can be smelted to extract the metal
itself.

Many of the ore mineral specimens used to teach geology consist of the mineral
embedded in, or covering a piece of rock that contains other minerals (known as
gangue). Properties such as hardness, density and cleavage are often
impossible to determine in these specimens. However, colour, lustre and streak
are usually sufficient for identification of common ore minerals

The compositions and significant diagnostic properties of the ore minerals

listed in the SSABSA curriculum statement, that you must be able to recognise
are summarised in the table below.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 8 of 18

Mineral Composition SIGNIFICANT DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES
H Colour Lustre Streak Other properties
Very high density, 3
Galena Lead sulphide (PbS) 2.5 Grey Metallic Lead-grey
cleavage planes at 90°
Copper iron sulphide Greenish-gold or
Greenish Iridescent specimens are
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) 3.5 many colours Metallic
black known as 'peacock ore'.
(iridescent)
Copper carbonate Vitreous
Malachite [Cu2CO3(OH)2] 3.5 Green Green Green colour is diagnostic.
or dull
Dodecahedral cleavage (6
Sphalerite Zinc sulphide (ZnS) 3.5 Brown/black Metallic Brown
planes of cleavage)
Consists of round nodules
Mixture of aluminium
Bauxite 2 Brown Dull Brown (i.e. pisolitic). Easily
hydroxides
recognised.
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Reddish brown Usually Reddish Appearance of mineral
Haematite 6
to black dull brown varies. Streak is diagnostic.
Magnetite Iron oxide (Fe3O4) 6 Black Metallic Black Strongly magnetic.

Compounds of metals are found in all rocks (e.g. iron-bearing minerals in

granite). However, they cannot be economically extracted unless a natural
process has concentrated large amounts of the same mineral (e.g. the
concentration of ilmenite in palaeochannels or placer deposits).
A concentration of any mineral by natural processes is called a mineral deposit.

An ore body is a mineral deposit from which one or more

ore minerals can be economically extracted.

Factors that may affect the profitability of a deposit can be divided into two
groups - geological and economic.
Some geological factors are the
• grade of the ore (i.e. percentage of ore in the rock)
• extent of the ore body (i.e. total amount of ore present)
• depth of the ore body
• difficulty of removing underground water

• presence of any folds or faults.

Some economic factors are the
• distance of the deposit from potential markets
• current market price of the material extracted
• availability of energy for processing the ore.

Other factors to be considered include environmental considerations and

Aboriginal perspectives.
Continual advances in mining and ore processing techniques has meant that
lower grade deposits can be profitably mined compared with (say) at the end of
the nineteenth century.
Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 9 of 18
 EXERCISES
DEFINITION OF A MINERAL
1. Explain why mineralogy, the study of minerals, is a very important topic
in geology.

2. List five properties which a substance must possess if it is to be classified

as a mineral.

3. In everyday life, substances such as coal and petroleum (oil) are often
referred to as minerals. Give two reasons why petroleum and one reason
why coal do not meet the above criteria.
Petroleum:
Coal:

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
1. Name the seven groups into which the majority of the most common
minerals may be classified, and name a common mineral in each group.
Group 1: Common mineral:
Group 2: Common mineral:
Group 3: Common mineral:
Group 4: Common mineral:
Group 5: Common mineral:
Group 6: Common mineral:
Group 7: Common mineral:

2. Name the largest mineral group, and state the proportion of Earth's crust
which consists of minerals belonging to this group.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 10 of 18

3. Explain why native elements are rare, and name one element which
always occurs in this form.

DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Explain how you would proceed to identify a specimen that you knew to be
a mineral.

2. List the items of test equipment that you would use.

3. List the diagnostic properties which you would determine.

4. Give two reasons why the colour of a mineral specimen is not often a useful
diagnostic property.

5. a. What is the streak of a mineral specimen?

b. Explain how this property is determined.

c. For what type of minerals is streak a very useful diagnostic property?

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 11 of 18

6. a. What is the lustre of a mineral specimen?

b. Name and describe three terms which may be used to describe the
lustre of a specimen.

7. How is the hardness of minerals described?

8. In the table below, give the hardness of each of the commonly used test
items
APPROXIMATE
TEST ITEM
HARDNESS
Finger nail

Copper coin

Knife blade

Quartz crystal

9. Explain how you use the above test items to determine the hardness of a
mineral specimen.

10. How do you estimate the approximate density of a mineral specimen?

11. How is the cleavage of a mineral specimen described?

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 12 of 18

12. Surfaces that are not flat and smooth are said to show

13. Explain the difference between the processes of formation of crystals and
of cleavage fragments.
Crystals are formed when:

Cleavage fragments are formed when:

14. Explain why crystals of ice form on the inside walls of your freezer as it
frosts up, but no ice crystals form when water freezes in an ice tray.

15. You have a black mineral which is attracted to a magnet.

That mineral is:

16. You have a white mineral which effervesces (fizzes) when a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid is placed on its surface.
That mineral is:

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 13 of 18

17. The first column of the table below gives the number of mineral cleavage
planes and the angles between them, the second column shows these
planes diagrammatically, and the third column shows the general
appearance of mineral with each type of cleavage, and the fourth lists an
example.
However, the information in each row does not correspond. By means of
coloured lines, or otherwise, indicate which diagram, mineral specimen
and mineral name correspond to each type of cleavage.

CLEAVAGE APPEARANCE OF
DIAGRAM EXAMPLE
PLANES MINERAL

One Feldspars

Two at 90° Calcite

Two not at 90° Galena

Three at 90° Micas

Three not at 90° Hornblende

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 14 of 18

COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
1. Collect mineral specimens, one at a time from the trays provided, together
with a mineral test kit. Write the names of the mineral diagnostic
properties in the top row of the table below.
Then determine these properties for each of your specimens.

Mineral

Quartz

Muscovite

Biotite

A feldspar

Hornblende

Olivine

Kaolinite

Calcite

Augite

ORE MINERALS

1. Explain why most metals do not exist in nature as elements, but in the
form of ores, which are compounds of the metals.

2. To which mineral groups do most metallic ores belong?

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 15 of 18

3. For each of the following ore minerals, name the mineral group and the
metal obtained:

Mineral group Metal obtained

Galena

Chalcopyrite

Magnetite

Bauxite

Sphalerite

Malachite

Haematite

Remember these are the ores listed in the SSABSA curriculum statement —
the ones you must recognise.

4. Explain the difference between a mineral deposit and an ore body.

5. Discuss the geological factors which would determine whether a deposit of

an ore mineral might become an ore body.

6. What economic and other factors must also be taken into consideration?

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 16 of 18

7. The diagram below shows how the profitability of mining a particular ore
body changed between 1900 and 1980.

a. What does the graph tell us about the change in profitability of

mining different grades of ore during the period indicated?

b. What was the lowest grade of ore which could be profitably mined in
1920?

c. What is the prediction for the lowest grade which could be profitably
mined in the year 2000?

d. During which period did the grade of ore which could be profitably
mined, decrease at the greatest rate?

e. Suggest reasons for the decrease in the grade of ore which can be
profitably mined.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 17 of 18

 8. Collect ore mineral specimens, one at a time from the trays provided,
together with a mineral test kit. Write the names of the mineral diagnostic
properties in the top row of the table below.
Then determine these properties for each of your specimens.

Ore mineral

Bauxite

Chalcopyrite

Galena

Haematite

Magnetite

Malachite

Sphalerite

9. How do you describe the cleavage of members of the feldspar family of

minerals?

10. What is the hardness of the micas and how many cleavage planes do they
possess?

11. Describe the cleavage of hornblende:

12. Describe the cleavage of calcite:

13. What is the hardness of calcite?

14. Describe a test for calcium carbonate in any form i.e. calcite, limestone or
marble.

Topic 1.1 Minerals Page 18 of 18