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Cellular Respiration
1. Outline the need for energy in living organisms, as illustrated by anabolic reactions, active
transport, movement and the maintenance of body temperature.
• It consists of adenine (an organic base) and ribose (pentose sugar), which together
make adenosine (a nucleotide).
• Adenosine is then combined with 3 phosphate groups to make ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
3. Describe the universal role of ATP as the energy currency in all living organisms.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
4. Explain that the synthesis of ATP is associated with the electron transport chain on the
membranes of the mitochondrion.
Synthesis of ATP
• Energy for ATP synthesis can be become available in two ways:
ü In respiration energy released by reorganizing chemical bond during glycolysis
and Krebs cycle (chemical potential energy) is used to make ATP.
ü Most ATP in cells in general using electrical potential energy.
The word glycolysis means ‘sugar splitting’ and is thought to have been one of the first
biochemical pathways to evolve. It uses no oxygen and occurs in the cytosol of the cell. There are
no required organelles. The sugar splitting proceeds efficiently in aerobic and anaerobic
environments. Glycolysis occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. A hexose, usually
glucose, is split in the process. This splitting actually involves many steps but we can explain it
effectively in three stages.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
Third: Once the two G3P molecules are formed, they enter an
oxidation phase involving ATP formation and production of
the reduced coenzyme NAD. Each G3P or triose phosphate
molecule undergoes oxidation to form a reduced molecule of
NAD+, which is NADH. As NADH is being formed, released
energy is used to add an inorganic phosphate to the
remaining 3-carbon compound. This results in a compound
with two phosphate groups. Enzymes then remove the
phosphate groups so they can be added to ADP to produce
ATP. The end result is the formation of 4 molecules of ATP, 2
molecules of NADH, and 2 molecules of pyruvate. Pyruvate is
the ionized form of pyruvic acid.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
Summary
Summary of glycolysis
• Two ATPs are used to start the process.
• A total of 4 ATPs are produced –a net
gain two ATPs.
• Two molecules of NADH are
produced.
Animation: http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vie
w0/chapter25/animation__how_glycol
ysis_works.html
NAD+ is an electron carrier molecule that helps pass energy from glucose to other
pathways in a cell by taking high-energy electrons and holding on to them until they can
be transferred to other molecules.
6. Explain that, when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted into acetyl (2C) coenzyme A,
which then combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C).
Link reaction:
ü Pyruvate passes by active transport from the cytoplasm, through the outer and inner
membranes of the mitochondria and into the mitochondrial matrix.
ü Here it is decarboxylated (that’s when CO2 is removed), dehydrogenated and combined
with coenzyme A (COA) to give acetyl coenzyme A.
ü Coenzyme A acts as a carrier of acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle.
7. Outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that citrate is reconverted to oxaloacetate in a series of
small steps in the matrix of the mitochondrion (no further details are required).
Once glycolysis has occurred and there is oxygen present, pyruvate enters the matrix of the
mitochondrion via active transport. Inside, pyruvate is decarboxylated to form the 2-carbon
acetyl group. This is the link reaction. The removed carbon is released as CO2, a waste gas. The
acetyl group is then oxidized with the formation of reduced NAD+. Finally, the acetyl group
combines with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA.
The Link Reaction: Controlled by a system of enzymes. The greatest significance of this
reaction is that it produces acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA may enter the Krebs cycle to continue the
aerobic respiration process.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
If cellular ATP levels are low, the acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle. This cycle is also called the
tricarboxylic acid cycle. It occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion and is referred to as a cycle
because it begins and ends with the same substance. This is a characteristic of all cyclic
pathways in metabolism. You do not meet to remember the names of all compounds formed in
the Krebs cycle. However, it is important that you understand the overall process.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
4. The 4-carbon compound undergoes various changes resulting in several products. One
product is another NADH. The coenzyme FAD is reduced to form FADH2. There is also
a reduction of an ADP to form ATP. The 4-carbon compound is changed during these
steps to re-form the starting compound of the cycle, oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate may
then begin the cycle again.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
It is important to remember that the Krebs cycle will run twice for each glucose molecule
entering cellular respiration. This is because a glucose molecule forms 2 pyruvate molecules.
Each pyruvate produces one acetyl CoA which enters the cycle. Look again at the complete Krebs
cycle and note the following products which result from the breakdown of one glucose molecule:
a. 2 ATP molecules
b. 6 molecules of NADH (allow energy storage and transfer)
c. 2 molecules of FADH2
d. 4 molecules of carbon dioxide (released)
So far, only 4 ATPs have been gained: 6 are generated (4 from glycolysis and 2 from the Krebs
cycle) but two are used to start the process of glycolysis. Each of these ATPs has been produced
by substrate-level phosphorylation.
Ultimately, the breakdown of each glucose molecule results in a net gain of 36 ATPs. Let’s now
consider the phase of cellular respiration where most of the ATPs are produced. In this phase,
oxidative phosphorylation is the means by which the ATPs are produced.
8. Explain that these processes involve decarboxylation and dehydrogenation and describe the
role of NAD.
NAD+ is an electron carrier molecule that helps pass energy from glucose to other pathways in a
cell by taking high-energy electrons and holding on to them until they can be transferred to
other molecules.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
NAD and FAD become NADH and FADH2respectively, this is because they become
electron carriers. This happens in the breakdown of Acetyl CoA in the Krebs cycle (aka
the citric acid cycle) inside the second membrane of the mitochondria. NADH and
FADH2 will carry and donate the electrons to the Electron Transport Chain on the
internal membrane; the transfer of the electron's energy allows for the proteins crossing
the membrane to pump hydrogen ions into the space between the two membranes and
build up a gradient for chemiosmosis. The NADH and FADH2becomes NAD and FAD
again and returns to the Krebs cycle.
NADH then becomes oxidized in the first step of electron transport by mitochondrial complex I
or NADH dehydrogenase. NADH contains flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a bound prosthetic
group, which is responsible for catalyzing the reaction.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
9. Outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation, including the role of oxygen (no details of
the carriers are required).
Animation:http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter25/animation__electron_transport_sys
tem_and_atp_synthesis__quiz_1_.html
a. The hydrogen picked up by NAD and FAD (in glycolysis
2NADH, Link reaction 2NADH, Krebs cycle 6 NADH and 2
FADH2) SPLITS by a dehydrogenase enzymes into electrons
and proton.
b. The electrons are passed along the ETC on the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion.
c. As the electrons move along the chain, they lose energy. This
energy is used to actively transport hydrogen ions (proton)
from the matrix of the mitochondrion across the inner
membrane (cristae) and into the space between the inner and
outer membrane.
d. The movement of hydrogen ions (proton) in an
intermembrane space builds up an electrochemicalgradient or
chemiosmosis.
e. The hydrogen ions (proton) are allowed to diffuse back into
the matrix through ATPases (a channel in the cristae that
transport protons back to the matrix) which will provide
energy to make ADP combine with inorganic phosphate to
form ATP.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
Anaerobic respiration
If oxygen is not available, oxidative phosphorylation cannot take place, as there is nothing to
accept the electrons and protons at the end of the electron transport chain. This means that
reduced NAD is not reoxidised, so the mitochondrion quickly runs out of NAD and FAD that can
accept hydrogen from the Krebs cycle reactions. The Krebs cycle and the link reaction therefore
come to a halt.
Glycolysis can still continue so long the pyruvate produced at the end of it can be removed and
the reduced NAD can be converted back to NAD.
Location: cytoplasm
Substrate: Glucose
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
Note: lactic anaerobic respiration supplements aerobic respiration in the production of ATP.
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration can take place in the human cell at the same time.
The lactate that is produced (usually in muscles) diffuses into the blood and is carried in
solution in the blood plasma to the liver. Here, liver cells convert it back to pyruvate. This
requires oxygen, so extra oxygen is required after exercise has finished. The extra oxygen is
known as the oxygen debt. Later when the exercise has finished and oxygen is available again,
some of the pyruvate in the liver cells is oxidized through the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and
the electron transport chain. Some of the pyruvate is reconverted to glucose in the liver cells.
The glucose may be released into the blood or converted to glycogen and stored.
Location: cytoplasm
Substrate: Glucose
This is the end point for this fermentation reaction. Ethanol and CO2are both excreted with no
further metabolism of the energy stored in the ethanol (very inefficient)
Note: The glucose molecule has been hydrolysed further than in human respiration. Some
organisms are totally anaerobic others can switch between anaerobic and aerobic.
Fermentation respiration in yeast yields two useful products from a human perspective. The
carbon dioxide can be used in a variety industrial processes the best known of which is to raise
bread. Many Brewers of alcohol will bottle the CO2 for use in the 'carbonation' of other drink
products.
The alcohol itself is of course the basis of many industries such as beer brewing. In more recent
time the use of fermentation products is being used as an alternative source of fuel such as is the
case in fuel for automobiles.
11. Explain the relative energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein as respiratory
substrates.
The greater number of hydrogen present, the greater the energy value. Lipids have higher
energy density than carbohydrates.Could use a calorimeter to burn substances to compare the
rise in temperature.
• The more hydrogens, the more ATP is produced in the electron transport chain
• Some molecules have more hydrogens than others
• The more hydrogen atoms there are in a respiratory substrate, the more ATP is
produced
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
• If there are more hydrogen atoms per mole (fixed amount) of substrate, the more
oxygen is needed to be the final acceptor
Respiratory quotient – is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide released to the volume of
oxygen consumed by a body tissue or an organism in a given period.
Note: if RQ of animal is 0.9 - mainly suggest that the animal is metabolizing protein molecule.
Lipid RQ: 0.7
Glucose: 1
13. [PA] Carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to measure RQ and the effect of
temperature on respiration rate.
Dehydrogenase - an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of hydrogen from a substrate and the
transfer of the hydrogen to an acceptor in an oxidation-reduction reaction.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab5/features.html
Practical Activity
• to use the respirometer again to measure the net volume of gas exchanged by the
respiring material and hence calculate the volume of carbon dioxide given out by
the material
Procedure
Potassium hydroxide and soda lime are corrosive. Wear goggles when handling and
seek first aid immediately if any gets in your eyes.
Push the parts of the equipment together firmly but gently to get airtight seals, but
reduce the risk of breaking any glass apparatus and injuring yourself.
Preparation
a Use a funnel to pour 5 cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution (corrosive) into each
respirometer vessel. Make sure none of the potassium hydroxide touches the sides
of the vessels.
c Fill the basket or cage with respiring material and put it into vessel B. Make sure
that the seeds or invertebrates are not touching the potassium hydroxide or the
wick. Add water to vessel A to match the volume of respiring material in vessel B
(see diagram overleaf).
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
d Fit vessel A with a bung holding two connecting tubes – one with a screw clip on
flexible tubing. Alternatively fit a bung with a 3-way tap connected to the same
items.
e Fit vessel B with a bung holding a 1 cm3 syringe and a connecting tube as shown in
the diagram. Alternatively fit a bung with a 3-way tap connected to the syringe and
tube.
f Draw some coloured fluid into the manometer U-tube. The fluid must be free of
bubbles and come to about the middle of the scale on each side.
g Open the screw clip and remove the syringe, then connect the manometer U-tube.
To check that the apparatus is airtight, move the marker fluid in the manometer to
one end with the syringe and leave for a few minutes. The fluid should not move.
h Set the piston of the syringe at about the 0.5 cm3 mark and insert the syringe as
shown. Close the screw clip. Use the syringe to adjust the manometer so that the
fluid levels are the same on both sides.
i Record the exact position of the syringe piston, the position of the menisci on both
sides of the manometer, and the time.
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A2 Biology Notes: Cellular Respiration
Investigation
j Record new positions of the manometer fluid at regular intervals for 30 minutes.
When it nears the end of the scale on one side, restore it to its original position and
note the new position of the syringe piston.
l Remove the potassium hydroxide solution from both vessels and wash them out
with water.
REMINDERS:
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab5/measure.html
After you have collected data for the amount of oxygen consumed over time by
germinating and nongerminating peas at two different temperatures, you can
compare the rates of respiration. Let's review how to calculate rate.
In this case, Δ y is the change in volume, and Δ x is the change in time (10 min).
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A2 Biology: Cellular Respiration Anglo Singapore International School
QUESTIONS
1 Use this table to record your results and guide your calculations. Compare your results
with those of others in your class.
4 What tests can you think of that would allow you to find out what substrates are
present?
6 Suggest three different explanations for respiring material in this test producing an RQ
of 1.0.
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A2 Biology: Cellular Respiration Anglo Singapore International School
ANSWERS
2 Seeds such as sunflower contain oils. Other seeds contain more carbohydrates. All
contain proteins – raw materials for the initial growth of seedlings.
4 You could carry out standard food tests to confirm the components of seeds. To test
for oils: Crush the seeds and shake with about 1 cm3 of ethanol. Use a pipette to
collect some of the ethanol and drip into water. If the water becomes cloudy as an
emulsion forms, this suggests the presence of oils or fats in the seeds. To test for
starch: crush a couple of seeds and add to a drop of iodine solution on a dimple tile. A
blue-black colour indicates the presence of starch.
5 If the yeast culture is growing rapidly and respiring anaerobically, it will take in very
little oxygen and so the RQ will be very large and effectively meaningless.
6 Three explanations for respiring material in this test producing an overall RQ of 1.0
are:
• aerobic respiration of two substrates together – one with an RQ above 1.0 and the
other with an RQ below 1.0,
• aerobic respiration of a substrate with a respiratory quotient less than 1.0 and
anaerobic respiration of another substrate.
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/index.html
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