++Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino de las Alas Campus

Indang, Cavite

College of Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Civil Engineering - Architecture Unit

BUILDING UTILITIES III

LIGHT SOURCES

Arch. KATHLEEN N. BESCASER, uap

Instructor:

Group V:

Joel A. Bulagnir
Mark Daniel P. Calupas
Edward M. Casadia
Ivan Francis B. Dellomas
Ma. Rosalex R. Flores
Allen Kaile B. Labrador
Stephen Brandon D. Leyran
Arnie C. Suarez
 INTRODUCTION
LIGHTING
● Lighting within the indoor environment can be considered to have three basic
purposes:

● To enable the occupants to work and move about in safety.

● To enable tasks to be performed.

● To make the interior look pleasant

TYPES OF LIGHT SOURCES

NATURAL LIGHT
● Occur within nature

● Beyond the control of people

● Exploiting natural light sources remains one of the biggest challenges

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
● an be controlled when and in the amount wanted

● include wood flame, oil and gas flames, electric lamps, photochemical reactions,
and various reactions, such as explosives

● Electric lamps have displaced almost all other man-made sources for lighting of
the built environment

LIGHT SOURCES

DAYLIGHT/ NATURAL LIGHT SOURCES

● Daylighting describes the controlled use of natural light in and around
buildings (Reinhart, 2014).
● Daylight in buildings and architecture are defines as composition of a
mix variation of lighting such as direct sunlight, diffuse skylight, and
light reflected from the ground and surrounding elements.
● Direct sunlight its is stated to have and characterized that have a very
high intensity and constant movement. The illuminance produced on
the surface of the earth may exceed 100 000 lux.
● Skylight is characterized by sunlight scattered by the atmosphere and
clouds, resulting in soft, diffuse light. The illuminance level produced by
an overcast sky may reach 10 000 lux in the winter and as high as
 around 30 000 lux on a bright overcast day in the summer. In a cloudy
climate, the diffuse sky is often the main source of useful daylight.

● Reflected light is characterized by light (sunlight and skylight) that is

reflected from the ground: terrain, trees, vegetation, neighboring
buildings etc. The surface reflectance of the surroundings will influence
the total amount of reflected light reaching the building facade. In some
dense building situations, the light reflected from the ground and
surroundings can be a major contributory part of daylight provisions
indoors.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES

● artificial light is human-made and can emanate from sources including
fire, candlelight, gaslight, electric lamps and so on
● term 'artificial lighting' generally refers to lighting that emanates from
electric lamps
● The term ‘lamp’ refers specifically to a light source, typically comprising
a light-emitting element contained within an outer container (bulb or
tube) which emits radiation within the visible spectrum.
● It is generally easily manipulated to achieve the required lighting
outcome. The light can be increased or decreased, directed, focused
and coloured. This allows lighting to create a range of effects according
to the requirements of a space.
● The type of artificial light source chosen will depend on the type of
space the lighting is for (office, living room, bathroom, kitchen etc); the
quality and type of light required for the space, and the energy
consumption of the light fitting.
LIGHT RECEIVED BY AN AREA WILL DEPENDS ON:
1. luminous intensity or illuminating power
2. solid angle formed- it is located between the receiving area and the
light source

NOTE:
the amount of light received by specific area may vary and it can adjust
depending on the two factors such as luminous intensity and solid angle
formed between the surface area and light source.
The movement of changes in receiving the light into specific area is
proportional. meaning in order to increase the light received by specific area
we can use a high luminous intensity power light sources and the another one
is to increase the solid angle form between area and light sources

LUMINOUS INTENSITY: Characteristics of light sources

● Luminous intensity is the basic photometric value, expressing the
capacity of a point light source to provide illumination in a given
direction. It mainly serves to establish the distribution of the light given
off by a lit surface depending on the direction. In mathematical terms,
luminous intensity is defined as the quotient of the elementary
luminous flux by the elementary solid angle in which it is propagated. It
is expressed in candela (cd).
● luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelength-weighted power
emitted by a light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle,
based on the luminosity function. Photometry deals with the
measurement of visible light as perceived by human eyes. The human
eye can see light only in the visible spectrum, and has different
sensitivities to light of different wavelengths within the spectrum.
 ● luminous intensity is also called illuminating power
● a light source that can be estimated by the human eye
● luminous intensity of a point source of light is defined as the luminous
flux emitted from the source per unit solid angle
● it is measure by the amount of power emitted by it per unit solid angle
● it is measured using the device photometer

LUMINOUS INTENSITY: principle applications and behavioral characteristics

in natural lighting and artificial lighting
NATURAL LIGHTING
● Sun is the main source of natural light in earth, when we say
luminous intensity it is correlated in illumination in regards in
daylighting in a particular time and place and it may depend on;
1. Altitude and azimuth (latitude, date and time of day)
2. Weather conditions
3. Effects of local terrain and obstructions
● The position of the sun in the sky is expressed in terms of its
altitude above the horizon and its angle. The altitude may vary
depending in geological properties and location of a particular
place or site, but generally it is a good natural application of
principle of the characteristics and behavioral elements of
luminous intensity in daylighting.
You can see in the figure the light source and its characteristics
related in the discussion of luminous intensity

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
● Artificial lighting in regards with the luminous intensity may vary
depending on the physical properties present in the bulb or light
emitting material or device used in construction application as
relation to the field of architecture.
● As a technology progress method of installation of artificial
lighting and artificial lighting usage evolves. Having different
method that will increase the lights perceive by the human eye
in relation with the functionality of a particular space or area.
● The luminous intensity in artificial lighting can be adjustable by
means of adjusting the luminous power emitted by the light
 source primarily the manufacture and man-made light emitting
device as a source of light as well as adjusting the distance of
light source from the targeted area in order to increase or
decrease the targeted surface area that the light will hit.

LUMINOUS FLUX
- Luminous flux, or luminous power, is the measure of the perceived power
of light. It differs from the measure of the total power of light emitted,
termed ‘radiant flux’, in that the former takes into account the varying
sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light.
- Luminous flux radiated by a light source is measured in lumens (lm).
- 683 lumens = 1 watt carried by light with a wavelength of 555 nm.
- The lumen is derived from the unit of luminous power, the candela (cd).
Thus, 1 lumens is equals to 1 candela.

POINTING VECTOR
- Power output of an electromagnetic wave per unit area.
- Rate of change of energy per unit area of any electromagnetic wave.

INCANDESCENT LAMP vs FLUORESCENT LAMPS

- Incandescent bulbs produces light from a heated filament while
fluorescent lamps produce light by way of a gas discharge
- Incandescent bulbs are way more inefficient than fluorescent lamps
- Incandescent bulbs produce a lot of heat compared to fluorescent lamps
- Incandescent bulbs do not last as long as fluorescent lamps
- Incandescent bulbs are much cheaper compared to fluorescent bulbs
- Incandescent bulbs produce a warmer light than fluorescent bulbs

ILLUMINANCE/ILLUMINATION is the quantity of light or luminous flux falling on a unit area

of a surface.
The unit of illuminance is lm/𝒎𝟐 or lux in metric SI system and foot candles in imperial
system.
Purpose/Role
(3)three primary aims:
-To promote work and other activities carried out within the building;
-To promote the safety of the people using the building
-To create, in conjunction with the structure and decoration, a pleasing environment
conducive to interest of the occupants and a sense of their well-being.Ex. use of both artificial
light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight.
Equation
∅
𝐸=
𝐴
∅=luminous flux,the amount of energy coming from the source𝐴 𝑜𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = for the surface area
of a sphere,r comes from how far are you from the light source from the surface
GETTING THE NUMBER OF BULBS:
FIRST COMPUTE THE POWER/LUMENS:𝑃 = (𝑙𝑢𝑥)(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
THEN, NUMBER OF BULBS=(P/(LUMENS OF LIGHTBULB)
Lumens- measure the total of light emitted by the bulb
Watts- measure the amount of power consumed by the bulb.
Indoor Light Levels
The outdoor light level is approximately 10000 lux on a clear day. In a building in the area
closest to the windows the light level may be reduced to approximately 1000 lux. In the middle
area it may be as low as 25 - 50 lux. Additional lighting is often necessary to compensate for
low levels.
RECOMMENDED DESIGN ILLUMINANCE LEVELS ACCORDING TO DEPARTMENT OF
ENERGY
TASK ACTIVITY ILLUMINANCE
LIGHTING FOR Circulation areas and 50 - 150
INFREQUENT corridors infrequently used
USED AREAS
Stairs, escalators areas & 100 - 200
Hotel bedrooms, lavatories
LIGHTING FOR Infrequent reading and 200 - 300
WORKING writing working interiors
INTERIORS General offices, typing and 300 - 750
computing & Conference
rooms
Deep-plan general offices & 750 - 1000
Drawing offices Localized
lighting
LOCALIZED Proofreading for exacting 750-1500
LIGHTING FOR tasks
EXACTING TASKS Designing architectural &
engineering tasks
Detailed and precise work 1000 - 2000

CHARACTERISTICS OF OUTDOOR ILLUMINATION

A. FACTORS
 B. SKYCONDITION

A. FACTORS
CHARACTERISTICS OF DAYLIGHT
1. VARIABILITY
2. LEVEL OF EXTERIOR ILLUMINATION(at a particular place and time)
DEPENDS ON:
1. Altitude and azimuth (latitude, date, time of day)

For all latitudes, the sun's altitude is highest in summer, lowest in winter
or in cold months. Since days are longer in warm months and shorter
daylight in cold months, it leads to apparent in rapid motion of the sun
across the horizon in the cold months and the apparent slow motion in
the summer. Fall and spring (in our case the in-between months are also
in between high and low altitude).
Equivalent foot candle and lux as per time of the year and day

2. Weather conditions (cloud, cover, smog)

3. Effects of local terrain (natural and man-made obstructions and reflections)
It is sufficient to establish four basic sky conditions, which can then be used
with the specific design approach desired these are:
1. Completely overcast sky
2. Clear sky, without sun
3. Clear sky, with sun
4. Partly cloudy sky
Factors in Interior Daylighting
1. HORIZONTAL and VERTICAL SURFACES
2. WINDOWS DETAILS WINDOWS DETAILS
3. SURFACE REFLECTIONS
4. GLARE AND HEAT CONTROL GLARE AND HEAT CONTROL

In physics, there are many laws that define objects, light, Earth and many more. These
laws are formed with respect to some fundamental quantity. Snell’s law, laws of
reflection, laws of refraction are some of the laws which are formed on the nature of light.
We know that light travels in a straight line and can undergo various phenomenon like
diffraction, polarization, interference, reflection and refraction too.

WHAT IS INVERSE SQUARE LAW?

● This law explains the strength of light with respect to the distance of the source.
● Inverse square law states that “the Intensity of the radiation is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance”.
● As per this law, light loses its brightness or luminosity as it moves away from the
source

● Consider the distance as 2, and when the distance is squared, it results in 4. The
inverse of 4 would be ¼. So, when we compare, we can note that the resultant is
quarter the original power.
● Hence light intensity is 1/d^2
● If the distance between an object and the light source is doubled, a given area
experiences one-fourth part of the light from the source. When the distance from
the source is tripled, the given area experiences one-ninth part of the light.

THE FORMULA OF INVERSE-SQUARE LAW

The formula of inverse-square law is given as,
Where,
d is the distance
I is radiation intensity

Consider light sources of intensity I1 and I2 at the distances d1 and d2. The inverse-
square law is articulated as:
Where the intensity of light is measured by candela or Lumen, and the distance is
measured in meters.

APPLICATIONS OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW

● This law is used to calculate the intensity of any given radiation or distance.
● Inverse-square law helps to calculate the source to film distances in X-ray
techniques.
● It also helps to determine the time of x-ray exposure and the intensity of the x-ray
tube used in the process.
● Using the standard candle approach, when the brightness of the source is known,
it helps to calculate the distance from the Earth.
● Inverse-square law is used to measure various astronomical distances.
●
Quantity of light

LIGHT METRIC: are used to understand and predict how a lighting system will operate. They
deal with quantity of light (light output and light levels), quality of light (brightness and color),
and fixture efficiency (electrical efficiency and how much light leaves the fixture

Units and terms used on determining the quantity of light

• Luminous Flux (Light Output). This is the quantity of light that leaves the lamp,
measured in lumens (lm). Lamps are rated in both initial and mean lumens.
• Initial lumens indicate how much light is produced once the lamp has stabilized; for
fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, this is typically 100 hours.
• Mean lumens indicate the average light output over the lamp's rated life, which
reflects the gradual deterioration of performance due to the rigors of continued
operation; for fluorescent lamps, this is usually determined at 40% of rated life.
A number of factors affect a lamp's light output over time, including lamp lumen depreciation,
the lamp's interaction with the ballast,
• supply voltage variations,
• dirt or dust on the lamp,
• ambient temperature in the fixture

Illuminance (Light Level). This is the amount of light measured on the work plane in the
lighted space.
• The workplane an imaginary horizontal, tilted or vertical line where the most
important tasks in the space are performed. Measured in footcandles (fc) (or lux in
metric), light levels are either calculated orc, in existing spaces, measured with a light
meter.
• A footcandle is actually one lumen of light density per square foot; one lux is one
lumen per square meter. Like lumens, footcandles can be produced as either initial
or maintained quantities.
• Initial footcandles indicates a light level after new lamps are installed
• Maintained footcandles indicates a light level after light loss factors are considered
over a period of time. Light loss factors include those affecting light output and also
room surface reflectances, room size/proportions, dirt and dust buildup. While light
output may describe either the output of a light source or fixture, maintained
footcandles always takes into account the efficiency of the fixture in transmitting light
to the workplane.
 • The formulas for calculations involved in predicting light levels is:
Footcandles (fc) = Total Lumens (lm) ÷ Area in Square Feet
1 Lux (lx) = 1 Footcandle (fc) x 10.76
Lux = Total Lumens ÷ Area in Square Meters

LIGHT LEVEL LIGHT IECC 2021 LIGHTING POWER

ROOM TYPE
(FOOT CANDLES) LEVEL (LUX) DENSITY (WATTS PER SF)

Cafeteria - Eating 20-30 FC 200-300 lux 0.40

Classroom - General 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.71

Conference Room 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.97

Corridor - General 5-10 FC 50-100 lux 0.41

Corridor - Hospital 5-10 FC 50-100 lux 0.71

Dormitory - Living
20-30 FC 200-300 lux 0.50
Quarters

Exhibit Space (Museum) 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.31

Gymnasium - Exercise /
20-30 FC 200-300 lux 0.90
Workout
Gymnasium - Sports /
30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.85
Games

Kitchen / Food Prep 30-75 FC 300-750 lux 1.09

Laboratory (Classroom) 50-75 FC 500-750 lux 1.11

Laboratory
75-120 FC 750-1200 lux 1.33
(Professional)

Library - Stacks 20-50 FC 200-500 lux 1.18

Library - Reading /
30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.96
Studying

Loading Dock 10-30 FC 100-300 lux 0.88

Lobby - Office/General 20-30 FC 200-300 lux 0.84

Locker Room 10-30 FC 100-300 lux 0.52

Lounge / Breakroom 10-30 FC 100-300 lux 0.59

Mechanical / Electrical
20-50 FC 200-500 lux 0.43
Room

Office - Open 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.61

Office - Private / Closed 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.74

Parking - Interior 5-10 FC 50-100 lux 0.15

Restroom / Toilet 10-30 FC 100-300 lux 0.63

Retail Sales 20-50 FC 200-500 lux 1.05

Stairway 5-10 FC 50-100 lux 0.49

Storage Room - General 5-20 FC 50-200 lux 0.38

Workshop 30-75 FC 300-750 lux 1.26

CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS

NATURAL LIGHT/ DAY LIGHT
Daylighting- Daylight (both sunlight and skylight) is usually admitted into a building by
the means of windows and skylights. The quantity of daylight obtained within a room will
be dependent upon:
• The orientation, geometry and space planning of the spaces to be lit.
• The dimensions and orientation of the openings through which daylight will pass.
• The location and surface properties of any internal partitions which may reflect and
distribute the daylight.
• The location, form and dimensions of any shading devices which will provide
protection from too much light and glare.
• The light and thermal characteristics of the glazing materials used. Types of openings
[Adapted from: BRECSU, 1997] Rooflight Atrium Clerestorey Borrowed light Window

Controlling daylight A range of methods are available to control the amount of daylight
that penetrates into the building.
• Fixed external – Permanently obstructs skylight and is maintenance free, but is
architecturally dominating.
• Variable external – Allows the maximisation of skylight but can suffer from
maintenance problems.
• Variable internal – Absorbs solar radiation and acts as a secondary heat source
within the building. Effective for visual comfort. Various methods of controlling daylight .
In addition, further control can be provided by the choice of glazing type.

Glare from daylight

Glares- caused by one part of a room being excessively bright in relation to the
remainder. It can be described in 2 ways:
• Disability glare - when glare impairs vision, but does not necessarily cause
discomfort.
• Discomfort glare - when glare causes discomfort, but does not necessarily impair
vision. Disability and discomfort glare can occur simultaneously or separately.
Disability and discomfort glare.
Glare from daylight can be reduced by:
• Using solar control devices - such as external screens and louvres, glass of low
transmittance, or internal blinds and curtains
• Other methods of decreasing the contrast between the interior and the view of
the sky - such as ensuring that the window wall is light coloured.
Daylighting
Duxford Solar Office.
• Designed to eliminate the use of artificial light on normal days.
• Average daylight factor of 2% over 80% of the office space.
• Atrium has rooflights which allow natural light to enter the building.
• PV façade designed to produce 25-33% of the offices electricity needs.

Daylighting
BRE Environmental Building.
• Designed to achieve a minimum 2% daylight factor over the office area.
 • Solar shading provided on South façade via motorised external translucent glass
louvres.

Daylighting
BRE Environmental Building.
• Louvres made from 10mm clear-float glass, the undersides of which have a white
ceramic coating to bounce daylight onto the internal troughed slab.
• When external light level is low, louvres are opened so that they can act as
external light shelves, reflecting daylight into the offices.

Innovative daylighting technologies

A number of innovative daylighting technologies are available which are capable of
redirecting the incoming sunlight or skylight to the areas where it is required.

The technologies available include:

• Sunlight tracking systems - have mirrors and/or lenses that follow the sun and
redirect its light to a required location.
-heliostat and light pipe systems.
-mirror systems.
• Daylighting systems - redirect diffuse skylight and usually sunlight as well. They
generally modify or supplement an existing window or rooflight
. - light shelves.
- prismatic glazing.
-holographic diffracting systems.

Heliostat Mirror Light pipe Emitter Innovative daylighting technologies Light pipes Such
systems attempt to redirect light deep into a building. They generally consist of 3 main
elements:
• Heliostat - a mirror which tracks the sun.
• Light pipe - transfers light from the heliostat to the emitter.
• Emitter - redirects the tracked sunlight to the space. Principles of a light pipe Light
pipes can be expensive to construct and depend upon the sun shining. They often
need to be supplemented by artificial lighting.

Light pipes
Such systems attempt to redirect light deep into a building. They generally consist of 3
main elements:
• Heliostat - a mirror which tracks the sun.
• Light pipe - transfers light from the heliostat to the emitter.
• Emitter - redirects the tracked sunlight to the space.
Light pipes-can be expensive to construct and depend upon the sun shining. They often
need to be supplemented by artificial lighting.

Innovative daylighting technologies

Mirror systems
These systems are placed at the upper part of a window, and may or may not be set
within the glazing system.
 Mirror systems-protect occupants from high altitude direct sunlight and redirect low
altitude direct sunlight onto the ceiling, which acts as a secondary diffuser. They can be
difficult to maintain and tend to obstruct skylight.

Light shelves
These can be used to redirect sunlight and skylight deep into a space. Both interior
and exterior light shelves are available. Exterior shelves can also function as a
shading device.

The performance of light shelves depends upon the proportion of the shelf which is
situated inside or outside the space.
They can also be used to control sunlight and reduce glare.

Innovative daylighting technologies

Prismatic glazing and holographic diffracting systems
These systems utilise optical principles to redirect light into the space in question. They
take 2 forms:
• Glazing.
• Films.

Principle of prismatic glazing and film These systems can improve daylight penetration
to the back of the room but only under limited conditions. Prismatic glazing can be used
to limit glare.

Innovative daylighting technologies Innovative daylighting technologies are

particularly appropriate where:
• Visual requirements within the space are especially stringent, e.g. in a room
with visual display units.
• There are large external obstructions outside.
• Much sunlight is available, typically in a south-facing window wall in a sunny
location.
• The space is too deep to give adequate uniformity of lighting with conventional
windows.
• Conventional windows or rooflights would give unacceptable, gloomy areas
within a space.

Advantages of daylighting The utilisation of daylight in buildings has a number of

advantages,
namely:
• It can make a significant contribution to energy efficiency.
• It has a variability and subtlety which is more pleasing than the relatively monotonous
environment produced by artificial lighting.
• It helps to create optimum working conditions by bringing out the natural contrast and
colour of objects.
• Windows and skylights give occupants contact with the outside world.
• The presence of natural light can bring a sense of well-being and awareness of the
wider environment.
 • It is also claimed that exposure to natural light can have a beneficial effect on human
health. However, due to its uncertainty and variability, daylighting cannot provide
adequate illumination of the internal environment all of the time. Therefore, artificial
lighting systems must always be incorporated into buildings in order to supplement
daylighting when this is required.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Incandescence

● The emission of electromagnetic radiation from a hot body as a result of

its high temperature.
● An object is heated to a high temperature, the atoms within the material
become excited by the many interactions between them and energy is
radiated in a continuous spectrum

Luminescence

● The generic term for the emission of light which is not an effect of high
temperature.
● The process involves a material absorbing radiation and then re-emitting
light.
● The energy may be re-radiated almost immediately, or it may take several
hours.

Luminescence

● Chemiluminescence – light produced by chemical reaction

● Bioluminescence – light produced by a living organism
● Fluorescence – light is absorbed by a substance and re-emitted at a
different wavelength
● Phosphorescence – energy is absorbed and re-emitted but over a long
period of time.

Electroluminescence

● A phenomenon of certain materials, such as semiconductors, that causes

the material to emit light due to a strong electric field or passage of an
electric current.
● Direct conversion of electric energy to light occurs without generation of
heat

Radioluminescence
The phenomenon by which light is produced in a material by the
bombardment of ionizing radiation such as beta particles.
An example of a common radioluminescent material is the tritium-excited
luminous paint used on watch dials and gun sights.
Cathodoluminescence
an optical and electromagnetic phenomenon in which electrons impacting a
luminescent material, such as a phosphor, cause the emission of photons,
which may have wavelengths in the visible spectrum.
This process is the means by which light is generated in a cathode ray tube.
Thermoluminescence
A form of luminescence that is exhibited by certain crystalline materials, such
as some minerals, when previously absorbed energy from electromagnetic
radiation or other ionizing radiation is re-emitted as light upon heating of the
material.
The best-known practical use of the method of light production is the mantle
used in some types of gas lamps.
Electric dischargee
An electric current that flows through a gas
In an electric discharge, the electric current is carried by electrons that have
been removed from the gas atoms, and ions that are gas atoms with one or
more electrons removed
A good example of such a discharge is the natural phenomenon of lightning.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHT SOURCES

COLOR TEMPERATURE

● The term describes the temperature of objects by which they emit light.
● When increasing the temperature of a “black body”, it starts to emit visible
light in a continuous spectrum.

COLOR RENDERING INDEX

● A measure of how accurately light from a source will reproduce colors.

● Incandescent bulbs have a CRI of 100 which is taken as a perfect score.

SHAPE

● Light sources vary in shape.

● The three basic shape types are point sources, line sources, and area
sources.
● Each radiates light differently, thus causing distinctive effects.
Letters to describe shape

LAMP SIZE

● The
physical size of the lamp affects the size of the luminaire and, in turn, determines
how some sources might be used.

The number represents the size measured by 1/8” increments

BULB TEMPERATURE

● The bulb temperature of incandescent and halogen lamps and most high-intensity
discharge (HID) lamps is sufficiently high to cause burns and, in the case of halogen
lamps, extremely severe burns and fires.

● Fluorescent lamps, while warm, are generally not too hot to touch when operating,
although contact is not advised.

OPERATING TEMPERATURE

● Fluorescent lamps are sensitive to temperature caused by the ambient air.

● If the bulb of the lamp is too cool or too hot, the lamp will give off less light than
when operated at its design temperature.

● Most other lamps give off the same amount of light at the temperatures encountered
in normal applications

DIMMING CHARACTERISTICS

Dimming is the process by which lamps are operated at less than full light, often as an
energy-saving or mood_x0002_creating method.

With incandescent lamps, dimming is simple and inexpensive, but with other types,
dimming can be considerably more complex, and, in some cases, not advisable.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
The energy efficiency of a light source is called its efficacy and is measured in lumens
per watt.

Low-efficacy lamps, like incandescent lamps, are less than 20 lumens per watt.*
Incandescent Lamp Technology

● Uses electric current to heat a coiled tungsten filament to incandescence.

● The glass envelope contains a mixture of nitrogen and a small amount of other inert
gases such as argon. The gas filling of the lamp is present to reduce the rate at
which the tungsten evaporates and thus make the lamp last longer.

Halogen Lamps

● Unlike incandescent lamps, halogen lamps use a halogen gas fill (typically iodine or
bromine), to produce what is called a “halogen cycle” inside the lamps, that enables
them to produce a larger amount of light and have a significantly longer life.

Discharge Lamp Technology

● Discharge lamps produce light by passing an electric current through a gas that emits
light when ionized by the current.
●
● An auxiliary device known as a ballast supplies voltage to the lamp’s electrodes, which
have been coated with a mixture of alkaline earth oxides to enhance electron emission.
● Two general categories of discharge lamps are used to provide illumination:
‒ high-intensity discharge (HID) ‒ fluorescent lamps (low-pressure)

High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

● Light is produced by an electric discharge through gaseous mercury.

● The mercury, typically along with argon gas, is contained within a quartz arc tube, which
is surrounded by an outer bulb of borosilicate glass.

● Xenon may also be used in high_x0002_pressure mercury vapor lamps to aid starting
time and does not significantly change the visible spectrum of the lamp)

Metal-Halide Lamps

● A mercury vapor lamp with other metal compounds (known as halides) added to the arc
tube to improve both color and luminous efficacy

High-Pressure Sodium Lamps

● Light is produced by an electric discharge through combined vapors of mercury and

sodium, with the sodium radiation dominating the spectral emission.

● The hard glass outer bulb may be clear, or its inner surface may be coated with a diffuse
powder to reduce the brightness of the arc tube

Fluorescent Lamps

● Fluorescent powders (phosphors) coating the inner walls of the glass bulb respond to
this ultraviolet radiation by emitting wavelengths in the visible region of the spectrum.

● Ballasts, which are required by both fluorescent and HID lamps, provide the necessary
circuit conditions (voltage, current, and wave form) to start and operate the lamps

Linear Fluorescent Lamps

● Range in length from six inches to eight feet, and in diameter from 2/8 inch (T2) to 2-
1/8 inches (T17).

● Their power ranges from 14 to 215 watts.ps

Compact Fluorescent Lamps

● Produce light in the same manner as linear fluorescent lamps.

● Their tube diameter is usually 5/8 inch (T5) or smaller.

● CFL power ranges from 5 to 55 watts.

OTHER LIGHT SOURCES

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
● LED lamps can be used in specialty applications, including signs and display
lighting.

● At present, the most common architectural application of LED lamps is in exit

signs.

● Automotive and sign lighting applications, including traffic signals, are multiplying
rapidly

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLED)

● they consist of sheets of semi_x0002_conducting organic material which generate light on

the basis of the composition of the sheets.

● Tend to be planar light sources from which evenly distributed light emerges.

● Because of their flat surface lighting construction, OLEDs are used for digital displays, or
for illumination mounted to glass, plastic and metal

Induction Lamps

● They are a type of fluorescent lamp that uses radio waves, rather than an electric arc, to
cause the gas in the lamp to give off ultraviolet energy.

● They have most of the characteristics of fluorescent lamps, including 70 to 80 lumens per
watt, choice of color, and high CRI.

Neon and Cold Cathode Lamps

● They are the oldest electric discharge lamps; closely related to fluorescent lamps in
operating principles.
●
● They last up to 40k hours and are reasonably energy efficient, and can be dimmed and
even flashed on and off without affecting lamp life.

● Cold cathode lighting is like neon, but generally the lamps are larger in diameter.

Neon and Cold Cathode Lamps

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Daylighting- Daylight (both sunlight and skylight) is often brought into a structure
through windows and skylights.
Glares- generated by one portion of a room being too bright in comparison to the rest.
Solar control devices - can assist to minimize building cooling energy consumption,
artificial lighting energy consumption, visual comfort, provide healthy natural lighting,
and create solar power and solar heat all at the same time.
Sunlight tracking systems - have mirrors and/or lenses that track the sun and
redirect its light to a specific area.
Daylighting systems - Redirect diffuse skylight and, in most cases, sunlight as well.
In most cases, they augment or complement an existing window or roof light.
Heliostat - devices made up of one or more mirrors, commonly plane mirrors, that may be
independently controlled and adjusted to maintain reflecting sunlight into the central receiver,
thereby correcting for the sun's apparent movements in the sky.

Light pipe - light is transferred from the heliostat to the emitter.

Emitter - reroutes the monitored sunlight to space.

Mirror systems- shield occupants from high altitude direct sunlight and deflect low
altitude direct sunlight onto the ceiling, acting as a secondary diffuser They can be
difficult to keep clean and might obscure skylights.
Light shelves - These can also be used to direct sunlight and skylight into a room.
There are internal and external light shelves available. Exterior shelves can also be
used to provide shade.
Incandescence - As a result of its high temperature, a hot body emits electromagnetic
radiation (including visible light).
Luminescence - is the spontaneous emission of light by a material that does not
originate from heat; sometimes known as "cold light." As a result, it is a kind of cold-
body radiation. Chemical interactions, electrical energy, subatomic vibrations, or
crystal stress can all cause it.
Chemiluminescence – Light created as a result of a chemical reaction

Bioluminescence – The light emitted by a live body.

Electroluminescence - is the process by which photons are produced when an

electric current triggered by an externally imposed bias generates extra electron–hole
pairs.
Incandescent Lamp Technology - Heats a coiled tungsten filament to incandescence using
an electric current.

Halogen Lamps - Unlike incandescent lights, halogen lamps employ a halogen gas supply
(usually iodine or bromine) to create a "halogen cycle" inside the bulbs, allowing them to
generate lighter and last substantially longer.

Discharge Lamp Technology - Discharge lamps generate light by running an electric current
through a gas, which emits light when it is ionized by the current.

High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps - An electric discharge across gaseous mercury

produces light.

Metal-Halide Lamps - A mercury vapor lamp with additional metal compounds (known as
halides) added to the arc tube to boost color and luminous effectiveness.

High-Pressure Sodium Lamps - An electric discharge produces light by combining vapors of

mercury and sodium, with sodium radiation dominating the spectrum emission.

Fluorescent Lamps - Fluorescent powders (phosphors) on the inner walls of the glass bulb
respond to this ultraviolet energy by emitting visible wavelengths.
Induction Lamps - They are a form of fluorescent lamp that employs radio waves to trigger
the gas in the lamp to emit ultraviolet radiation rather than an electric arc.
Neon and Cold Cathode Lamps - They are the oldest electric discharge lamps, and their
operating principles are quite similar to those of fluorescent lamps.

Luminous Intensity - the fundamental photometric value representing a point light source's
ability to generate illumination in a particular direction Its primary function is to determine the
distribution of light emitted by an illuminated surface based on the direction. Luminous intensity
is defined mathematically as the quotient of the elementary luminous flux by the elementary
solid angle through which it is transported. It is measured in candela (cd).

Luminous Flux - is a measure of light's perceived power. It varies from the measure of total
power of light emitted, known as 'radiant flux,' in that the former takes into account the human
eye's variable sensitivity to different wavelengths of light.

Pointing Vector - Power output per unit area of an electromagnetic wave or rate of change of
energy per unit area of any electromagnetic wave

Illuminance/Illumination - is the amount of light or luminous flux that falls on a given unit area
of a surface.

Lumens- calculate the total amount of light radiated by the bulb.

Watts- Calculate the amount of electricity used by the bulb.

Inverse Square Law - This rule describes the power of light in relation to its distance from the
source. According to the inverse square law, "the intensity of the radiation is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance." Light loses brightness or luminosity as it goes away
from the source, according to this rule.

Light Metric - are utilized to comprehend and forecast how a lighting system will function. They
are concerned with light quantity (light output and light levels), light quality (brightness and
color), and fixture efficiency (electrical efficiency and how much light leaves the fixture).

Initial Lumens - show how much light is generated once the bulb has stabilized; normally, this
is 100 hours for fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps.

Mean Lumens - represent the average light output throughout the lamp's specified life,
reflecting the progressive loss of performance owing to the rigors of sustained use; for
fluorescent lamps, this is typically assessed at 40% of rated life.

Footcandle - is really one lumen per square foot of light density; one lux is one lumen per
square meter. Footcandles, like lumens, can be generated in either initial or sustained volumes.