uu XK BRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOO! START ED a . ve different kinds of cells | Organisms that belong to aiffrent kingdoms have dif | With partner, think about the answers to these questions 1 en a cell of an organ Ifyou have a microscope, how can you distinguish between a cell 9: m? Plant kingdom, and one belonging tothe animal kingdo [20 stitus Despite its want to But there an water. They complex tha they do not ‘organisms th Produce the inviting blue colour, you would not hot springs today. This was Set into the water in this hot spring. The perlite eo temperature ofthe wate Sllowstone National Park US organisms that can live in this hot are called extremoph ar lke extreme conditions: They have ani '9 Your microscope, how could you tell Prokaryote kingdom? if a cell belongs to an organisr 'an be as high as 90°C in structure, bacteria are cle. Discussion questions colours around fora 1. What evidence might lead sci “the edge ofthe pool that bacteria evolved more th years ago? or Plant cells for example have survived on Earth alin. ‘an unimaginably long period! Pm belonging Ientists to thy2.1 Animal and plant cells All organisms are made of cvlls, Cells a small, so large organisms contain millions of cells They are multicellular, Some organisms are unicellular, which means that they are made of just a single cell, Bacteria and yeast are examples of single-celled organisms. All cells ar 1 existing cells, New cells are formed wi livides. You can read about h 16 Micr To see cells clearly, you need to use a microscope (Figure 2.1). The kind of microscope used in a school laboratory is called a light microscope. This is because it shines light through the piece of animal or plant you are looking at. It uses glass lenses to magnify and focus the image, A very good light microscope can magnify about 1500 times, so that all the structures in Figures 2.2 and 2.3 cam be seen. eyepiece focussing knob objective lenses stage, where the specimen is placed mirror to reflect light up through the specimen Figure 2.1: A light microscope. 2 Cells coll membrane : indi ~ mitochondria cytoplasm nucleus small vacuole or vesicle /— ribosomes Figure 2.2: An animal cell as it appears through a light microscope. cell wall cell membrane rucleus cytoplasm vacuole mitochondria chloroplast ribosomes Aplant cell as it appears through alight microscope.A photograph taken ig FM ets photomiroga Fies® 248 2F oni eth Foor animal and Fue 2°? of some pant els Figure 2.4: These are cell fo rraminal Theyhave been stained ( takes the rules look darker than the plasm, ses eal hing inne ec, ance OT {sused, A picture taken with an electron microscope is wed an lect micrograph. Ths pe of micOsxoR tesa beam of electrons sea fight and cp roughing upto $0000 nes. Tis mens Bt alot ‘more detail can be sen inside acl We can een) structures more clearly and can see some Stucke that “ant besexn atl with aight mirscope (Fue 26) slecron microscope rucleus vesicles (small vacuoles) position of the cell membrane cell walls of wo adjacent cells rritechondrion chloroplast __— large vacuole containing cell sap ~~ membrane around vacuole slectron micrograph: an image made sing ayQuestions 1 nicellular ular organism, g Every ¢ cell me very imp in and out 0 means that it w others. The cell membr: cell from its environmen contents of the urroundings) Itis difficult to see the cell membrane in a plant cell because itis pressed tightly against the inside of the cell wall. Cell wall All plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall made mainly of cellulose, Paper, which is made from cell walls, is also made of cellulose. Animal cells never have cell walls, Cellulose belongs to a group of substances called polysaccharides, which are described in Chapter 4. Cellulose forms fibres which criss-cross over one another to form a very strong covering to the cell (Figure 2.7). This helps to protect and support the cell. If the cell absorbs a lot of water and swells, the cell wall stops it bursting. Figure 2.7: This photograph of a plant cell wall was taken with a kind of electron microscope that shows surfaces in three dimensions. You can see how the fibres of cellulose ciss-cross over one another. 2 Cells Because of the spaces between fibres, even very large molecules are able to go through the cellulose cell wall. It is described as fully permeable Cytoplasm is a clear jelly. It is nearly all water; about 7s water in many cells. It contains many substances ‘olved in it, especially proteins. Many different » (the chemical reactions of life) take cytoplasm. 4 fluid-filled space inside a cell which is by its own membrane, Plant cells have very janent vacuoles, which contain a solution of sgars and other substances called cell sap. When the vacuole is full, it presses outwards on the rest of the cell, ‘and helps it to keep its shape. Animal cells have much smaller vacuoles, called yesicles, which also contain solutions cell membrane: a very thin layer surrounding the cytoplasm of every cell it controls what enters and leaves the cell partially permeable: allows some molecules end ions to pass through, but not others cell wall: a tough layer outside the cell membrane; found in the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria fully permeable: allows all molecules and ions to pass through it cytoplasm: the jelly-ike material that fils 2 cell metabolic reactions: chemical reactions that take place in living organisms vacuole: a fluid-illed space inside a cell, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane cell sap: the fluid that fills the large vacuoles in plant cells vesicle: a very small vacuole> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Nucleus ‘The nucleus (plural: nuclei) is where the genetic formation is stored. The information is kept on the chromosomes, which are inherited from the organism’s parents. The chromosomes are made of DNA. The information carried on the DNA determines the kinds of proteins that are made in the cell. You can find much more about this in Chapter 16. ‘Chromosomes are very long, but so thin that they cannot easily be seen even using an electron microscope. However, when the cell is dividing, they become short and thick, and can be seen with a good light microscope (Figure 2.8). Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are never found in animal cells, Sf the cells in the green parts of plants have thet x ‘They contain the green colouring or Pigment ean chlorophyll. ‘d Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlieht, andy, energy is then used in making food {0 he plant ye photosynthesis (Chapter 6). Chlorop>:ts often by Starch grains, which have been macic >» photosymn (Figure 2.9), Animal cells never con's» starch grain % Figure 2.9: This electron micrograph shows a chloroplast from a cell in 2 pea plant. The large blue structure inside the chloroplast is a starch grain. The black stripes inside th chloroplast are membranes where the chlorophyll is kept. Figure 2.8: This photomicrograph shows some plant cells dividing, The nuclei of the cells have been coloured with a blue stain. The things that look like spider legs are chromosomes. We can normally only see chromosomes when a cell is dividing. chloroplasts: small structures found inside some plant cells, inside which photosynthesis takes place KEY WORDS starch grains: tiny pieces of starch, made of thousands of starch molecules, that are stored in nucleus: a structure containing DNA in the form some plant cells of chromosomes chromosome: a length of DNA, found in the nucleus of a cell; it contains genetic information in the form of many different genes DNA: a molecule that contains genetic information, in the form of genes, that controls the proteins that are made in the cellMitochondria All the structures we b membrane, cell wall, cyto sd al so far ~ cell asm, vacuo nucleus and chlore J light microsco} But th ures insidi hat w Mit ani mite look | dimen Figure 2.10: An electron micrograph of a mitochondrion, ‘The pink ines are membranes, which separate the inside of the mitochondrion from the rest of the cell. “SS two membranes that separate the inside of the mitochondrion from the rest of the cell Figure 2.11: A drawing of a mitochondrion, cut open to show the membrane inside it. Mitochondria are the parts of the cell where aerobic respiration happens. This is how energy is released from glucose. You can read about aerobic respiration in Chapter 11 2 Cells Aerobic respiration is the main way in which cells get the energy that they need to stay alive. The more energy «cell needs, the more mitochondria it has. Muscle cells, for example, are packed full of mitochondria 2 omes are tiny structures found in almost all animal «plant cells. They are so small that we can only thom with an electron microscope. snes are where the cell makes proteins. The 1s on the DNA molecules are used to link ins of amino acids in a particular You can read more about protein molecules ind more about how a cell makes them in on a small structure in a cell, where aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose | aerobic respiration: chemical reactions that take place in mitochondria, which use oxygen to break down glucose and other nutrient molecules to release energy for the cell to use ribosomes: very small structures in a cell that use information on DNA to make protein molecules cytoplasm cell membrane mitochondrion \ I Figure 2.12: This diagram shows what an animal cell might look lke f we cut it open{ Figure 2.13: An electron micrograph showing the carta part an animal SS Questions 3 ame the part of a cell which has each of these functions: Comparing animal cells and plant cells @ making proteins containing the information about which proteins to m Work in a group of three or four for this activity ‘You are going to make a display to compare the Structures of animal cells and plant cells, © photosynthes: eae : a ‘ow you will do this, You could perhaps d Dreventing the cll bursting wien it takes use annotated drawings, construct sane Up water comparison table, or make a prosentation © storing a solution of sugars and other solutes f controlling what enters and leaves the cel 4 Which of the structures that you have name in Question 3 are found in both animal and plant You can uso the information in this chaptor to rake your comparison, You might also like to '00k for some more pictures on the intornet xs >2 Cells Functions of the parts of a plant cell ‘| On your large sheet of paper, make a drawing You could work on your own or in a pair for of a plant cell, You could copy the one in this activity Figure 2.3. Leave plenty of space around your drawing | y | 2 Uso the information in this chapter to find the | Junction of one part of the cell - for example, the cell wall Draw a label line, using a ruler, to this part of «he cell, Wate the name of the part, and then » short summary of what it does. feat stops 2 and 3 for each part of the cell Po think about: Exchange y her the drawing is as large and clear Look at your par ible wall they have carrled out the task 1» well they have described the function Rate them a mark according to the following of each part scheme, Green if they did it really well Amber if they made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded Red if they did not try to do it, or did not succeed REFLECTION Now that you have studied your partner's diagram, is there anything you would like to ‘change on yours?i > _CAmBninGe I6cse™ BloLocy: couURsEBOOK 2.2 Bacterial cells Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular organisms asc ee aero animals and plants: Figure 2.14 54 r cell wall made of coll membrane Peptidegiycan not cellulore Fibosomes circular ONA_—_pasmide bacterial cell ce plant cells, Is always have a cell wall. Unl ‘not made of cellulose. But the function the same as in plant cells ~ the bacterial cell wall helps (0 support the cell, and stops it bursting if the cell takes up alot of water. ily permeable cell membrane is pressed tightly ell wall. As in plant A parti Against the inside of the bacteri nd animal cells, the cell membrane controls what enters land leaves the cell Bacterial cells have cytoplasm and ribosomes, which have "They do the same functions as in animal and plant cel not have mitochondria or chloroplasts sportant difference between a bacterial ‘The most ell and animal of plant cells is that bacteria do not Bacterial cells are also known as. Instead of chromosomes inside a nucleus, bacteria havea circle of DNA. This is sometimes called ost chromosome. The DNA has exielly the same Se it provides instructions for fanetion as in other cell ‘making proteins vacterial cells often have one oF more smaller circles of Beare nids. Scientists can use plasmids in the cealled pla bene fication of cells and organisms, which you netic mo sersead about in Chapter 20. -eton og ll rang plasm Nae roarh Figure 2.15; Tis picture was taken with on electron eroscope, afer which the colours were acl toy I shows 9 bacterium called Enterococcus faocalis dh into to. This the way that bacteria reprodues, ining bacteria: unicellular organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus prokaryotic cells: have prokaryotic cells, circular molecules of DNA, found alls with no nucleus; bacteria plasmids: sm in many prokaryotic cells in addition to the main, ‘much larger circle of DNA Question 5 Construct a table to compare the structure of a cell with animal and plant cells, Remember jes as well ws differences to include simi oT practising drawing your own diagrams and getting a friend to test you by asking question* * making some revision cards for yourself, with What other ideas might you try?2.3 Specialised cells Multice!l may c cells are alih all of in most mitochon: our cells their structure is, that fun, Tec The same have slightly di specific functions. You will meet many exer hhave the basic char you continue through your bioloz - lists seven of these (five plants) and indicates wher 2 Cells sins other tissues. For example, cle in the stomach wall, made of oti can find ot more abou ells which can This muscle tissue makes the wall each one. ove in and out, chur the food and = Plants also have tissues. You may already have looked at Tissues Often, cells that speciali in the same activity are found together. A group of cells like this is called a tissue An example of a tissue is a layer of cells lining your stomach. These cells make enzymes to help to digest your food (Figure 2.16). some epidermis tissue from an onion bulb. Inside a leaf, a layer of cells makes up the palisade tissue - these cells are specialised to carry out photosynthesis. tissue: a group of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function ciliated cell | ining the trachea and bronchi of |__| cilia move mucus upwards Topic 11.2 animals neurone in the nervous system of animals conducting electrical impulses Topic 12.1 ted blood cell_|in the blood of mammals transporting oxygen Topic 9.4 sperm cell___| produced in the testes of mammals _| the male gamete in sexual Topic 15.1 reproduction egg cell ‘produced in the ovaries of mammals | the female gamete in reproduction _| Topic 15.1 root hair cell | near the tips of the roots of flowering | absorption of water and mineral Topic 8.2 plants ions palisade inthe leaves of flowering plants _| photosynthesis Topic 6.2 mesophyll cell Table 2.1: Examples of specialised cells,> camerince IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK You should find that itis 40m Organs The real spider was 8mm long A group of different tissues that carry out a function much the diagram is magnifica mn Wk together is called an organ, The stomach is an organ. ne Other organs include the heart, the kidneys and the magnification = Soe lungs. In a plant, an onion bulb is an organ. A leaf is length of another example of a plant organ. = The stomach is only one of the organs which help in the digestion of food. The mouth, the intestines and = the stomach are all part of an organ system called the digestive system. The heart is part of the circulatory ‘There are two very important thine: \ rememby system, while each kidney is part of the excretory system. youare calculating a magnification, : The way in which organisms are built up can be Make sure that all the numbers in your caleyy summarised like this: cells make up tissues, which make have the same units. It soften good idea up organs, which make up organ systems, which make up convert everything to millimetres, mm, before, organisms. do anything else. , + Magnification is always written with a multi sign in front of it, X. Magnification doesnot 2.4 Sizes of specimens haverits Many of the structures that biologists study are very small. Cells, for example, are so small that we cannot see them without a microscope. The photographs and diagrams of cells in this chapter are all much larger than actual cells. ‘organ: a group of tissues that work togetherto perform a particular function organ system: several organs that work togete ‘We can tell someone how much bigger the image is to perform a particular function than the actual object by giving its magnification. The magnification of an object is how many times larger itis than the real object. magnification: how many times larger an image than the actual object. ication = S22 0timase magnification =~ of actual object, Some of the objects that we study in biology ares For example, try measuring the length of the spiders small that even millimetres are not a suitable unit body in Figure 2.17. use for measuring them. Instead, we use micromets The symbol for a micrometre is pm. Jum = 1% 10" Im = 10%um Questions 6 How many micrometres are there in!" ; 7 The mitochondrion in Figure 2.108 mast 20000 times, Using a ruler, carefully measure the mé length of the mitochondrion. Recor?” measurement in mm (millimetres); Conver your answer to ym (ierom=™ ed 2 > a i Figure 2.17: A spiderXena} Practising using the magnification equation Work on your own for the first part of this activity, and then pair up with someone else for the second part. You will need: * several small objects that are easy to measure and draw — for example an eraser, a paper clip, a button a ruler that can measure in mm some plain paper, a good pencil and an eraser. First part — work on your own for this 1 Measure each object carefully and write down the measurements. Don't let anyone else see these measurements at this point. Make a magnified drawing of your objects. Calculate the magnification of each one and write it next to your drawings, Try to use different magnifications for each object. (You could even try drawing some objects smaller than they really are, so that the magnification is less than 1,) rt — work with a partner your drawings with a partner. Each 108 the drawings and magnifications he size of the actual object | 4 Check your answers with your partner ~ did | you correctly calculate the actual sizes of the objects they had drawn? Did your partner calculate the actual sizes of the objects that you had drawn? Self-assessment Did you calculate the magnifications of your drawings correctly, so that your partner could work out the actual size of each drawing? If not, where did you go wrong? Were you able to calculate the actual size of the objects your partner had drawn? If not, where did you (or they) go wrong? Gate) What are the most important things that you need to remember when you use the magnification equation? What can you do to help you to remember the ‘equation and how to use it?> _ CAMBRIDGE IGcsE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK ine, ribosomes, mitochondria ‘Animal and plant cells contain cytoplasm, a cell membrane, an J containing DNA inthe form ofchromovoses Plt cll aso conan el wall, a large | sometimes chloroplasts a nucleus vacuole ang | Bacterial cells have cytoplasm, ell membrane, a cell wall and ribosomes They don not have a nucleay Their DNA is circular. They may have extra, small circles of DNA called plasmids, walle fecmbrane of al els is partially permeable and controls what enters and leaves theca Teicgl all is fully permeable and allows all molecules and ions to pass through it Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in a cell Mitochondria release eneray from glucose and other nutrients, by arobie respiration, Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, Cells may be spe ised for specific functions. Magnification can be calculated using the equation magnification = —Si#€0f image size of actual object PROJECT Making a model cel Ifyou are short of ideas, you could search onthe It's best to workin a group of tree orfourfor _inemet. However even you cong enn this project ee Suggestions there, ts important to mate the model eel your own, using some of your own ideas that make it differen from everyone elso's models Discuss different ideas about how you can make 2 ‘model cell. What kind of cell wll it bean eninal in coll, a plant cell ora bacterial cell? As you build your model, you will almost certainly make some changes to your original plans, so | be prepared to source some extra materials as yOu work How can you construct your cell? What materials. will you need? ‘ter you have completed your model, you can fompare with the models that other groupe fave made This might give you ideas about ho You could make an even better model if you itagain. 3Which labelled part contains DNA? W 2. Which structure is not found in both animal and bacterial cells? A cell membrane B cytoplasm € mitochondrion D ribosome Wm 3. A diagram of a flower is 8em across. The magnification of the diagram is x4. ‘What is the actual width of the flower? A 32mm B 20mm C 0Sem Dem It} rag er en eee no de “The width of the diagram is 60mm. The mean width of an actual palisade ell Perry : What is the magnification of the diagram: ae B x50 (ecu Peed ra}OK ) CAMBRIDGE 1GCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBO! CONTI 5. Thisisa photograph taken plant cells State one: State one way you can tel EM ee rages so) Suan tell that these are plant cells and not ‘animal cells. that these are not bacterial cll, ii rode STH eo oni vc would expect to fn ina paisa ol, i the: b Name three Parts the funetion ofeach par calls in hej © Some of the, ‘State the fung © The actual jelyfish ig “ ie the b Outi the function of ‘nucleus, ction of 501 ach of these arts ofa plant cel, in diets 1 Of the pho} through light microscope. I shows a group of ASG 08 state: expresin clear terms outline: set outmit Points a calculate leas from given 205g fr figures or in2 Cells TT uae VSR toaceene vesicle containing protein molecules made by the cell a Structure A contains molecules that determine the type of proteins made in the cell. Identify structure A Peer crn una sce structures B and CIGCSE™ BIOLOGY: > camriDsE | ink about how co! r this chapter, thi Alter stuying tgnowedge and help you t Tear more any gaps in your knowledge an describe and compare the structure of an animal coursesook fident you are with the effectively. different topics. This will he = IP You ty cell with a plant cell describe the functions of each of the structures found in an animal cell and a plant cell identify the parts of cells in diagrams, and in images taken using a light microscope or an electron microscope describe the structure of a bacterial cell, and the | 4 » functions of each of its parts name some specialised cells and their functions | 2.3, remember the magnification equation, and use it (0 calculate magnifications or actual sizes of objects | 24 shown in images convert measurements between millimetresand | 5 4