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    Chemical Bonding Chap 3

    Uploaded by

    Sahil Bakliwal
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    © All Rights Reserved
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    between oppo: relate the prop ry: Ct > camaripace 1ccst™ CHEMISTRY ¢ Coa Oups, use a molecular model: cheng ssw bul modelo ‘science courses, It would be usehul to water + ammonia Use the models to discuss what you Aare made. It would bo uselul also to recall th ‘that previously ‘Two different forms of carbon are familiar t0 Us in ‘everyclay fo, When ive write with a pene or make a charcoal sketch, ware sliding layers of graphite fonte the paper, Diamonds are used as precious Gemstones in jewellery and can be a very special aft for someone, Diamond and graphite are two structural forms of this particularly important element, carbon, and we willlook at them in more detail later in this chaptor However interest in different stivctural types of carbon has grovn cramatically in recent years as other new forms have been discovered. The discovery of the fullerenes (uch as C..) anc carbon nanotubes has led to many new techiological applications. Even more recenty (in 2003) «further ‘new form of carbon ~ graphene ~ has beon soated at the University of Manchester in the UX Andie Geim and Konstantin Novosclov were anavded the ‘Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010 and the potential foe this new material has generated mmense interes {and research investment aphene is essentially a single-ayered materal made up of individual sheets of graphite The st samples of graphene were isolated in expormurny gimmed at seeing how thin a piece of gaphiererny be made by polishing of by c leaning graphite with {iteky tape! The layers of graphite mere oon for surface science experiments led off -ounstBook le constru Je molecule’ ‘uiing kit "8 F compounds such a tees bute inodels of + mthane, reer ofthe type o Wop these Piiancesckomcnaaans Hon materials such 83 plasticine ang sana you have encountered in your... molecules and how the by yonding in the mol nd, eiterent rnolecules if yOu have coveres interesting properties! + tisan excellent conductor of heat and clecrcty (300 times better than copper) + the introduction of graphene into plastics could make those plastics electrically conducting + itbehaves as a semiconductor and may one day replace silicon in computer chips and ther technology applications, it is 200 timos stronger than steel and is incredibly flexible Of the different forms of carbon, graphene is the ‘most chemically reactive, Membranes of graphone ‘oxide have been shown to filter water and clean it Suggesting possible uses in desalination and wate e pusfication Ths application is highly significant lor | Countries whore water supply is difficult, as curren | methods of large-scale desalination by distillation | Steer cxmans are economically expensive | Discussion questions 1 How many lffrent structural forms of the slement carbon do you know of? 2° Graphite is used to strengthen everything from | enn ackets tothe chassis of Forreule core but do you thin a ect tha its equaly strong in 3.1 Non-metallic substances and covalent bonding Elements, compounds and mixtures Hlements are the building blocks of the universe and each clement has its own distinctive properties. Some elements are very reactive. Other elements, particularly the noble Bases (Group VIII of the Periodic Table) are very stable and inert, We now know of over 104 elements, although only 94 occur naturally, and they are essentially divided into metals and non-metals. The atoms of an element are all the same in terms of their content of protons and electrons. The atoms of any one element all have the same atomic number and are distinct from those of any other atom (Chapter 2) Elements combine to make all the compounds around us. The simplest compounds that we are all familiar with, to the complex molecules that determine our biology, are all made from these elements. Each compound is made of particular elements, always combined in the same Proportions. Simple compounds such as water, ammonia and methane begin to show the variety that can be achieved when the atoms of elements combine together. Water is formed from hydrogen and oxygen. Each water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom (Figure 3.1). 4 Chemical bonding ) wore 0 Figure 3.4: A vater molecule cons atoms (nite) bonded to an onyge ‘element: substance that cannot be further divided into simpler substances by che methods; all the atoms of an el same number of protons metals: a class of chemical elements (and alloys) that all have a characteristic shiny appearance and are good conductors of heat and electricity non-metals: a class of chemical elements that are typically poor conductors of heat and electricity compound: a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or mate fixed proportions When different elements react together to form a compound their characteristic properties are lost, being replaced by those of that compound. Importantly, the compound formed has properties that bear no direct relationship to those of the elements that make it up. ‘A clear example of this is sodium chloride (common salt) (Figure 3.2). Sodium isa highly reactive metal. On contact with water, sodium fizzes violently and may even cause a flame as the reaction takes place. The toxic gas chlorine was once used as a chemical weapon, and is still used to kill harmful microbes in water treatment. Yet the compound of these two elements. sodium chloride. is a crystalline solid that is not only harmless enough to flavour food, but is in fact essential for life “> 7 CASMOROGE ILE HEMET CIIIII sen ees Figure 32: tener use 0 repee gate. Ver Hata ereecn 2 tain wie The Norrnhac A the egrects wes corti Wated ate Nal 3nd WO petty ese yu pe ‘0 sex hrm lore atx contracted ge coral S7tbeA Oh each erect. Bor frat mate (a A the store tonhoed 1a making the cmopernd a wih Seah a semen oranda ms Chaser 4 Cherie at Wed, riches the tner ectzina oh each sone (hapit 2) hs we examin 4 range (hvac. we shall vex that. whatever type A bending belts the Mrucute emether, 1 the tnter ection that ute ase Whe drvctsity A the material won m prodaced by the diftesem ways in which aioe can yr togethes. Generally wpeating. there ate two types oh consgens gute 33y * muhecislas componnde where the sume ate bones, tomether: water. amtvomia ard methane ate exatagles A situghe mehecibas comppratds * lame conniperuncts where snany ions (charged stone) sare held together ina regular urwctute: sohiom Chloride i an example oh an ionic compensa. orererria iit) Figure 2.2: herevcrva sed ratharn m0 Wrage ncbeate cong Shue 50) atrare OH; cc 0 0 RR ems Ac won temucaly bole pecier The tn faeces er 2x eet oe ere, Gee “Spin re ih wert re 5 fateh wa whan Homer ag a it ce ca EB merit whieh Matis cas or oper, on ets Coe Pope Nepa Rthy a? x Chagher 1) Orher sertares michuce ze wht ‘eaweaare of demeses mck 8 mt2rmes, ony seen tet: we cng ath cating (Cages 17), wa als wis a ras (Chagas 4" sixes of om sa wll poms cat cre see A tieroe comeaes The: tg eacacerit Pgerics sad as be Wsmupes Fipee Sy Hower ane sma! A gon rad las ted, 6 ack Contgrraed on solide lermed, wack i Wh wtraie yo a (Fosse 34a) chacrical bonding: the weer fort oa er 8) eta a8 ta hemes uksarces can bore ventieg, condars cardigan | Sanaa a eben ete Wal Penh 0 ape ceangnt Chemical bonding Figure 3.4 a: A mixture of won and sulfur can be separated with a the black compound, iron sulfide, which is not magnetic magnet b: Iron powder and sulfur Table 3.1 summarises how compounds and mixtures compare. ‘A compound is a single substance. ‘Amixture contains two or more substances. The composition is always the same. The composition can be varied The formation involves a chemical reaction. No chemical change takes place when made. The properties are very different from the elements present in the compound, a The properties of the substances making the mixture Fe still present Can only be broken down by chemical reactions. The substances present can be separated by physical methods. Table 3.1: A comparison of the nature of chemical compounds and mixtures of substances. Covalent bonding in simple molecular elements and compounds In Chapter 2, we learnt that each element contains a defined type of atom (with a defined number of protons). However, elements are not simply made up of separate atoms individually arranged. Elements such as oxygen (O.) and hydrogen (H,) consist of diatomic molecules. Indeed, the only elements that are made up of individual atoms moving almost independently of each other are the noble gases (Group VIII). The noble {gases are the elements whose electron arrangements are most stable and so their atoms do not combine with, cach other. ‘All other elements do form structures: their atoms are linked by some type of bonding. For non-metallic elements the type of bonding involved is covalent bonding. Covalent bonding is also the bonding used in compounds between one non-metal and another, Simple molecular elements Hydrogen normally exists in the form of diatomic molecules (H.). Two atoms bond together by sharing their electrons. The orbits overlap with each other and a molecule is formed (Figure 3.5) diatomic molecules: molecules containing two atoms, e.g, hydrogen, H, covalent bonding: chemical bonding formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two atorns 7 CAMBRIDGE Iacse™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOO aan) ea hydrogen hyckogen melecse H) CI-Cl H-H eeplayedformla = NEAL rede! spayed forma » Figure 3.5: The hydrogen molecules formed by shang the siecvons between the toms. 4 spaceling motel canbe L803 to show the stoms overopoing as " [SSN oz oa Zbfoush this sharing, cach atom gains 2 share in two om pai ‘lectrons. This the number ofelectros inthe outer fpr 34 he tomonstne cute teniny, ral taste ig Orbe etree enn 269 table er os tare vaj They we rgerbethse Se mes Trngeeecrons ie this tnown vasa bonting, esr They ge alan | thas been shown that in a hydrogen molecule the are Bigger — slecronsare more likey to be need ences ian huclei. The forces of attraction between the shared Glectrons and the nuclei are greater than any repulsive forces. The molecule is held together by the bood ‘The main features of covalent bonding are: * the bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms, lading to noble gas electronic configurations dotandcross diagram: a diag ‘represent the bonding in a mo drawn to 2, or the electrons in an ion; usually, only outer Gctons are shown and they ar: presented by ets or crosses depending on wi\-h atom they {are from * each atom contributes one electron to each bond * molecules ae formed from atoms linked together by coos sof hydrogen and the halogens are each beld covalent bonds. Molecule teeter by a single covalent bond. Such a singe bond Many non-metallic elements form diatomic molecules, SHO electors oar each atom. The bond ean te However, elements other than hydrogen form bonds in. ST@¥N asasingle oe between the two atoms. Note that. order to gain a share of eight electrons in their outer When we draw diagrams showing the overlap of the outer ‘shells. This is the number of electrons in the outer shells we can show the outer electrons only because the shell of all the noble gases apart from helium, Thus, anc electrons are not involved in the bonding. Each the halogens (Group VII) form covalent molecules ‘tom gains a shi 'arein ight electrons in its outer shell (Figure 3.6). tn forming these molecules each atom gains 4 share in eight electrons init outer shell. A dat-andt ross diagram can be drawn showing the outer electrons only (Figure 3.6a), because the inner electrons are ne involved in the bonding. s2 > When molecules of oxygen (O,) or nitrogen (N,) are formed, more electrons have to be used in bonding if the atoms are to gain a share of eight electrons, These molecules are held together by a double bond (O,) or a tnple bond (N,) (Figure 3.7), Ch) 0-0@® ‘oxygen,O, displayed formula CEn@® ritrogen,N, displayed formula Figure 3.7: Structures of oxygen (O,) and nitrogen (N) molecules involve multiple covalent bonding. An oxygen molecule contains a double bond, a nitrogen molecule contains a triple bond. Simple covalent compounds In covalent compounds, bonds are again made by sharing electrons between atoms In simple molecules, the ‘atoms combine to achieve a more stable arrangement of electrons, most often that of a noble gas. The formation of hydrogen chloride (HCI) molecules involves the two atoms sharing a pair of electrons (Figure 3.8). The examples shown in Figure 3.9 illustrate different ‘ways of representing this sharing. They also show how the formula of the compound corresponds to the ‘numbers of each atom ina molecule. In each case, the atoms achieve a share in the same ‘number of electrons as the noble gas nearest to that clement in the Periodic Table. In all but the case of hydrogen, this means a share of eight electrons in their outer shell 3. Chemical bonding (~~ Abydogenstomtas, SH just one electron in ts A chiorine atom has first energy level seven electrons in ts third energy level Hf the two atoms share one pair of electrons hydrogen can fil. and chlorine can itsfreterergy —_fllisthid energy level lee \, This is 2 | } molecule a shared pair—\ ‘of hydrogen of electrons chloride We can also draw the molecule lke this Figure 3.8: Hydcogen and chlorine atoms share a pair of lectrons to form a molecule of hycrogen chloride. Earlier we saw that multiple covalent bonds can exist in molecules of the elements, oxygen and nitrogen. Multiple covalent bonds can also exist in compounds. The carbon dioxide molecule is held together by double bonds between the atoms (Figure 3.10). Figure 3.10 also shows some other examples of bonding in organic compounds that you will meet again in Chapters 18-20. 2 can enor IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSESOOK —___ atom (7 Figure 3.9: Examples of the om, 3 Chemical bonding carbon dioxide (CO) 20-008 & 2 >} carbon atom carbon dioxide molecule (CO,) two oxygen atoms model O=C=O0 displayed formula ethene (CH) Cron four hydrogen ‘two carbon atoms ‘ethene molecule (C,H) atoms HioacH H Za S displayed malt methanol (CH,OH) $6 OO — Ge four hydrogen fone carbon one oxygen methanol molecule (CH,OH) atoms atom atom fy | | H-C-O-H | displayed formula | Figure 3.10: Formation of the carbon dioxide, ethene and methanol molecules, showing the outer electrons only. | Ball-and-stick models can be used to show the structure. OK 5280" jstnv: COUR camnioce 16c5e™ CHE TR 1 eee Questions ample of any element, wh, a ae tna puresamle of any clr Physical properties of simp! 4 portant feature os ms atoms a covalent compounds ine to ie og aosismade uP simple m sk Knontdsoho sepn oT Sean Rc a) * | arses ec PN arene 3 ‘perixof smple mokectar come , a aye ow meting Po ae © opens or a0 ‘ electrical conduct + they show poor eet i properties of spe when costing nem, Sor aceoted, The ose ons ‘Tuble 3.2 shows key physical properties of simple °a covalent compounds, *0 Figure 3.11: Representations of various gases They are made of 3° Methaneis the simplest |» lrocarbon (a come simple coe of carbon and hydrogen. !y) and has th fo end sat | Molecules. Te forces CH, (Figure 3.12). Often liquids or gates 3t | Eeven the molecles have low melting points_| !ntermolecuar forces) 4 and boiling points 76 onl vey weak, Not ‘much energy is needed fae to move the molecules \ further apart 7 There ar Dorota ise 12: The structure of a methane moet electricity & Eee the total number of electrons invohall Table 3.2: The physical — bonding in methane? | molesiar compounds, tte Aw 82 ce 4 4 Covalent bonding involves electrons being shared between the atoms bonded together. Methane is made up of covalently bonded molecules. Which of the diagrams A-D in Figure 3.13 represents the bonding in methane? A () 8 GOP + electron from carbon x electron from hydrogen c D (*) H GOH aoeh BS mt w) 4 Figure 3.13: The possible bonding in methane. 3.2 lons and ionic bonding ‘Two major types of bond hold compounds together. The first is covalent bonding, which, as we have seen, involves the sharing of electrons, usually between atoms of non-metals. However, compounds between metals and non-metals involve a second type of bonding known as ionic bonding, Electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming ions. These ionic compounds are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions. 3 Chemical bonding ionic bonding: a strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions ions: charged particles made from an atom, or groups of atoms (compound ions), by the loss or gain of electrons electrostatic forces: strong forces of attraction between particles with opposite charges - such forces are involved in ionic bonding Formation of ions ‘An ion is an electrically charged particle. lons are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. We saw in Chapter 2 that atoms with a noble gas electronic configuration are particularly stable and unreactive. Noble gas atoms, except helium, have eight electrons in their outer shells. Most atoms do not have this arrangement of outer electrons and so are more reactive. One way of gaining this noble gas structure is to completely transfer electrons from one atom to another. ‘The metals in Group I all have one electron in their outer energy level. Figure 3.14 shows the loss of an outer electron from a sodium atom. This results in the formation of a positive sodium ion (Na°). {an atom of sodium anion of sodium, Na (28) ler ©) ‘When the sodium atom loses an electron, it forms a sodium ion Figure 3.14: A sodium atom loses an electron to become: {sodium ion. The sodium ion has a single positive change because it now has just 10 electrons in total, but there are still 11 protons in the nucleus of the atom, Halogen atoms in Group VII of the Periodic Table have seven outer electrons. They can achieve a stable noble gas configuration by gaining an outer electron (Figure 3.15), The chloride ion (CI) formed has a negative charge because it has one more electron (18) than there are protons in the nucleus (17). Tho chlorine atom [28,7] needs to gai? an election to make it moro stable * This san ion of chlorine [28.8] Figure 3.15: A chlorine atom gains an electron to become a chloride ion, ‘The case with which the atoms of Group I and Group VIL can lose or gain outer electrons results in Uhese elements being strongly reactive. Note that positive ions are also known as cations and hegative ions are also known as anions. This naming relates tothe movement of these ions in electolysis (Chapter 6), ation: a positive ion that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis anion: a negative ion that would the anode in electrolysis be attracted to ol mpounds between metal and On met Compo conic Bonding cae generally! econ from Ne ida Mer. Thi transfer OF ectrons results in the forma lg Paitig transfer of In thecase of Sodium chloride, and nega soi (Na) and chloride (C1 ) ign, ions forme formed (Figure 3 Ne }+ — [Nal a sodium chloride (NaCl) Figure 3.16: Transfer of electrons from a sodium ator to a ure 3.16: chlorine atom to form ions. pea um ion then has the stable electron arrangemey ele? arneon atom -the element just before it inthe Periodic Table The electron released is transferred toa chlorine atom (Figure 3.16). The chloride ion formed (cleetron arrangement 2,8,8) has the electron arrangement of an argon atom. The positive and cgative jon in sodium chloride are held together bythe electrostatic attraction between opposite charges The important features of ionic bondin» re: + Theelectrons involved in the forn) a of ions are those in the outer shell of the ato: * Metal atoms lose their outer electr 10 become Positive ions (cations), In doing soy achieve the more stable electron arrangement « ie nearest ‘noble gas to them in the Periodic ‘1 Generally atoms of non-metals gan clectrons to Fa eeatve ons (anions). Again, in doing so, they achieve the stable electron arrangement of the "rest noble gas to them in the Periodie Table. The type of diagram we have used here is a dot-and- he then drawing such a diagram we usually ‘cr electrons as these are the ones that ithe bonding. Similar diagrams ean tc UP Ta bonding in other compounds the 28d Group Vit non-metals —the halogens, Try drawing diagrams like asin go COPOUNS suchas lithium a Tide, You will see that there is "'Y in the diagrams > More complex ionic compounds than those formed botwoen the alka metals andthe halogens involve the Lransfer of a greater number of electrons, Diagrams showing the bonding on such compounals reine are ‘when droving. Figure 3.17 shows two examples of sul ssompounds Tn the first cass of mages oxide (MgO), {wo electnons are being transfered froma magnesia toan oxygen atom A magnesium atom has two electrons {nits outer shell. An exyygen atom has six outer electons By transferring two electrons thom magnesium to exygen to complete its outer shell, both the magnesium ant ani tons formed have the configuration of a neon atom. calcium chloride (CaCl) Figure 3.17: Diagrams showing the formation of ionic bonds in magnesium oxide and calcium chloride. Only the outer electrons are shown, The case of calcium chloride complicated. The slightly more om (2.8,8,2) has wo oms are needed. Each chlorine atom accepts one electron, In calcium chloride there are two chloride ions (CI) formed for each, calcium ion (Ca) produced, In summary, the following features are common to the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non~ metallic elements: ‘outer electrons to © metal atoms always lose the form positive ions (cations) = the number of positive charges on a metal ion is equal to the number of electrons lost © non-metal atoms, with the exception of hydrogen, always gain electrons to become negative ions (unions), 3. Chemical bonding * the number of negative charges on a non-metal jon in equal to the number of electrons gained * im both cases, the ions formed have a more stable lectronic configuration, usually that of the nearest noble gas to then in the Periodic Table + {onic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Physical properties of ionic compounds ‘The physical properties of ionic compounds are different to those of covalent simple molecular compounds, opie 3.1) because the type of bonding involved is dliflerent, The key general physical properties of ionic ‘compounds are: + they have high melting points and boiling points, ‘and so are crystalline solids at room temperature © they are often soluble in water * they conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in ‘water (not when solid), Tonic compounds (such as sodium chloride and magnesium oxide) are solids at room temperature. The ions arrange themselves into a regular lattice structure (Figure 3.18). In this regular arrangement, each ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge. The whole structure is held together by the electrostatic forces of attraction that occur between particles of opposite charge. Figure 3.18: An ionic lattice where each ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge, ‘Table 3.3 outlines the relationship between the yeneral physical properties of ionic compounds and their structure and bonding, We will explore further th structural features of ionic crystals ina later section of this chapter. 59 > ‘Table 3.3: General physic! They are often soluble in wert ‘solvents, ©. ‘ompounds. properties fiorc compoun Questions 5 “The boiling point ofa substance elas 10008 mame THO Toe eg cient inte sb Oo erm combine forma nud wih erly To baling point of 120°C, Wh of the alternatives A- this substance? ‘able35 lst four descriptions of the bonds fora iD in Table 3-4 correctly describes ther by str racted to each OI ona a eae runt of eNetaY Fe Needed =“ rangement of the ions in ult page #F2 NOX! t0 each ogy) =o charged ions and therefor a olution, the ions are free to inthe iu or stmove towards the elecrodn | ‘ 19 shows the structure of a molsculg 7 Figore3. ethanoic acid. x Y A [metal _|metal__ [covalent tunween the earbon and oxygen atoms in the sha [non-metal [non-metal [ionic fasion of the structure. Which °° the description C_|non-metal_[nonmetal [covalent ae D_[metal___[non-metal [ionic = ‘Table 34: Possible descriptions of the make-wp of shares electron ‘es 1 electron aliq 1A | with hydrogen and 3. |» hydrogen and! Sy iaeedigun at tlectrons with oxygen | _ctron with cabot Dr dr ro pee a hare 2 electrons, | es ea oa [with hydrogen and | with hydrogen até 2 lithium fuori 2electrons with 2 electrons with b sodium oxide oxygen carbon magnesium chloride shares Telectron __| shares 1 electron [with hydrogen and | with hydrogen 3 electrons with 2 electrons wit ‘oxygen carbon shares 2 electrons | shares 1 elector |wth hydrogen and | with hydrogen * 2electrons with 1 electron wi ‘orygen carbon 1 Table 3.5: Bonding in methanoic acid. - 3 Chemical bonding Part 1: Mind-mapping chemical bonding Mind-mapping is a technique that allows you to visually organise your thoughts and share information on a complex topic. Figure 3.20 shows part of a mind map on atoms, ions and molecules. Assection of the map has been drawn based on the ideas behind atomic theory. 1 Copy the current map and complete the ‘atomic theory’ group by filing in the missing words. 2 Draw new clouds on the unoccupied branches: the upper branch labelled ‘ionic bonding’ and the middle branch labelled ‘covalent bonding’ 3 Add boxes around each new cloud giving the key details of that type of bonding, Include 2s many ideas as you can 4 Using another coloured pen, can you make 2 new link between one of the lower boxes and the middle cloud? You could also try to create your own mind map using online tools and resources available on the internet. Atoms are tne | smallest particles that take pat © Dator’s ides Apueclemertcontans | | Atoms ofan ony somswntheseme | eemertare number of each given their in the nudeus ong Figure 3.20: & mind map on atoms, ions and molecules | | | —S > CAMBRIDGE IGcsE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK ——— 3.3 Giant structures types of erst late, Thi the layers. an fondo eye another brings ions of the Giant ionic lattice structures other, The repulsions force the Tonic con ‘ SomPounds form lattices consisting of postive tr cnn eat de ss He near neighbours of ansmacalot—— SmpOUNE sake fn tate Watery {85 OPPosite change: Thus in sam honda wey to interact with both positive and meen Sxttum (Na°y ion s surrounded by si chloride 11) oa a assoles each ion becomes Nar wongitt §2D.and cash CT son srroundalty si SHEP MOK This breaks up tne lag ins apart Figure 323). Far those ign dono disobvein water, the Frees ben be very strong th ot AOeL Overall tbesear Suual annie ot wetted CU tons, so the charges balance: The actual arrangem Sr the tons in other compounds depemven theca of tons involved and on ther sves Howe UMPOrRL to remember that all ionic compe electrically nc y ton slation are abe 1 moves the soy cart an cet current. tonic compan electric when dissolved in water, Thing they ae meted Bscuse hee gui, the ‘move through the liquid and carry ther Chlorine atom (co chlonde ion gainsone (Cl) electron iw sodium atom : unit cell (Na) Figure 3.21: The arangement of positive and negative ons ina sodium chloride crystal force applied here HA, eoeece eee eeeoeo eo9 foo eoeoce — > ©eeclesg eeceo © ede o eoeeoe ©0686 bo lee Figure 3.23: Water molecules ced and white) =0"0% slide against another, repulsions S2use the ental to fracture Substances .9, sodium chloride, NaCl) to disso? » 7 ert ome emce Suture £ ence Nee Tegeter Sy he mecmmane tee oF eect etme sontie ee eee ore Ger cous Mase se amices whee te uae ecees tet ral Greens, te wees cane mete seme val Srecers teins Te wre Stsce epe Part comilen races: 2 sosarce where wey utes F mors we hes ogee by Comaaiee Cones termine 2 Sore ame Seacte pare manallnc attics: 2 equa erargerers of Pence mara ors eG Togete by Te =cbile sea! of electors movrg batman Te ors Giant covalent structures Giara mokecalat crysaals are held together by strong cowalent bonds Thas type of structure is shown by some themens (e.g carbon. in the form of diamond and Exaphine) und also by some compounds (eg. silica, Si0,), Colourless, transparent crystals that sparkle in light The hardest natural substance poids In jewellery and ornamental objects In drill bits, diamond saws and glass- BIMONT Bs Qrashike Dre pees ov dame anc viac ae Be Ba “comp srvaten: Nand etens i al Birgu wg MR, Eat cach sor aight Ra ATS Seams se arama asec Sys 8 NO ane ul fhe anos an: Nanay 9 cad oh ots Dramond bas 2 very Bagh meting poet and, acaase the Bonding extends thrceghoer the whole strocture 5 very hard and is wend to cotting touts The bonds axe mpd Soweves and thew stractores are much MOE bercle than giant metals lattoes All the cuter ehectoons of the atoms in these strectures are used to form covalent bonds There are no electrons fine to move. Diamond &s therefore a typical non-metallic element. Itdoes not condoct electricity (Table 3.6) Dark grey, shiny solid Soft - the layers can slide over each other | In pencils, and as a -and solid has a lubricant slippery fe Does not conduct olectricity A comparison of the properties and uses of diamond and graphite As electrodes and for the brushes in electric motors Conducts electricity 5 300K > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSES —— 2 _ CAMBRIDGE 1acse™ CHEMISTY: COUTTS Within these layer z others by strong covalent bonds. Between the layers there are weaker forces of attraction. The layers are able to slide over each other easily. This means that graphite feels slippery and can be used as a lubricant. Graphite is Used in pencils. When we wnte with a pencil thin of graphite are left stuck to the paper The most distinctive property. however. results from the fact that there are free electrons not used for covalent bonding by the atoms inthe layers These elee:roas can move between the layers. carrying charge $0 that graphite can conduct electricity in a similar ay to metals, The first samples of graphene (soe the Scicce in Context section) were isolated in experiments aimed at seemg hhow thin a piece of graphite could be made by pois or by cleaning graphite with ‘sticky tape’ (Figure ‘The layers of graphite were peeled off for surface science experiments. Mesailic bonding Gare mecslic ames Viera aus Tae cele ie ss er ee Qe Sao be eet oe aoe aon ee 2 Ler @ ecaives se Ta =e ee Soa 2 net sade apr poe com racer Ute: Tae ems ot ucremiet Secrest car move Se See Gems The jee secre we Senet ct EE wa me pense wnund toon 2 tet of Soe ee ‘ping ee Seas aH vitae = cat menalic “Goo oo Fogure 22% oe wealicaordeg Fetes oere arorcnt ty: wed F cecceeer eens Tae rosso saa’ of delccalined tlecons tem used forthe fee, mobic ciecrors Seteees Te poste oS —————- metalic bonding an elecrosat force of zoraction betaeen the mobile ‘sez’ of elecrors 2c tre reget aray Of poste Tes ons we 2wxid mew! © nce tee mgt pete nt Nay mS, Sane ater sae) mnie Aree cere ENA ATTRA Dene mee aan De a aS meng wine tex acne ike ar aah erent De eet > tat. + Met ame shapes maileainie: soetched gma eres dca. Thx arsine ees apa amen ace acvaped iners Wher shies er cast coher rece ar menus Nemdimg a inot the scractare tagecee This meas ‘Ghat wher dhe lagers shut cece cach eeher ace Neat Ths mnament CAMBRIDGE IGCSE”" FP sais EM fer electrons and this is elements, There are difference between Hemel apr of ‘ond is formed between two 310M by the shari Acovalent ang ee roteules including those conning illustrated using dotan lve ionic bonding using th Group VII elements inv Fe ween Group metals and dene jow electron transfer. of elect ! and-cross diagrams sh } oppositely charged ions. electrostatic attraction betweer * ofione bonds between metals and non-metal, ve used to describe the formato. simple molesular compounds andi An ionic bond is a strong Dot-and-cross diagrams a The physical properties of structure and bonding. The physical properties of simple molec their structure and bonding. Diamond and graphite have giant covalent structures andi and versatile. Scon(IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure similar to that of diamond, andthe two have simifar physical properties. Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attract delocalised electrons between them. ‘Metallic bonding explains why metals are malleable and ductile and good electrical co nic compounds can be related to their Jar compounds and ionic ‘compounds can be explained in terms of heir very strong structures make them useful stances therefore between positive metal ions in the metall tice and a ‘sea’ Choice materials Being abl tke pei bonding tthe aearawic rate taux oe chos fastened oe cron tors ren marie Canesten ane ‘You have been asked to desi ini eaten eas predict the properties of given compound) ‘structure and link this to their understeadin fi dotand-cross diagrams, i ee te), electric motor, showin: id rotor h “showing the go Sarthe mal gape brushes on ether sid }roating copper col. The bonding Ps a! ach of thes A components is suited to is role inthe Toke 2 piece of Af card and cut it into quarters. Select four different chemicals: an ionic compound, a simple covalent compound, 2 giant molecular compound and a metal. Draw diagrams of each material on one side ‘of each card {for the ionic and simple covelent this must include dot-and-cross diagrams, for the metal it should include the lattice of ions surrounded by delacalised electrons and for the giant molecular it should just be a part of the lattice). Dran equally spaced lines on the reverse of ach card to make five spaces and add the following details: 1 name of compound 2 type of bonding 2 melting point: state whether it orlow conducts as a solid, liquid, in solution or no electrical conductivity 5 other properties: list any other properties 4g, lubricant, malleable, etc. (if none just leave as blank. For example, a card on ionic bonding for calciun chloride is shown in Figure 3.32. Important formation for designing the card: ‘You must have the numbers 1-5 on the cards for each property. 3 Chemical bonding Take one of the quarters of paper (one of the four compounds) and cut it into five segments, each giving one of the properties. Repeat for the other three compounds. Then, mix al of the ‘and ask your partner to try to sort them out and put them into the correct number sequence. When ‘completed you can ask them to draw the structure diagrams for each compound. These can be checked by flipping the card over. 1) Name: Calciurn chloride 2) Type of bonding: Ionic 2) Melting point: High 4) Electrical conductivity: Conducts when molten or in solution but not as 2 solid 5) Other properties: Figure 3.32: Front and reverse side of a card for an. onic compound. 2 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK CEA ere sale 1 Some non-metal element form covalent simple molecular sutures involving a number of atoms, Phosphorus is one of these, forming molecule P, Which o A-D indicates he total mb Bf com shared in the bonds in this molecule? 4 AnD B8 4 D2 1 2 There are various different types that compounds can form, depending on the nature of their! ‘substance has an ionic in the figure below. 3888 ‘a What could this substance be? A iodine B water © potassium bromide give produce an ansvier fon Mie oy I] given source heaps spot ener ta) recall/memory Total: ‘explain: set out ‘3 When potassium reacts with chlorine the onic compound potassium 3 iy ae chlorides formed, The cletroni structures of thet or fan lie See a/make relationships °" things eviden" provide why 0° hhow and supp? relevant evide" the same. [K288" (C1288) ‘9 Explain what as happened during the reaction tof 1b When two chlorine atoms react with ach other. Skeich a dotand-cross diagram to show the ba chlorine atoms Show outer shel eetrons only Seva teats es wun GRE aa | d_ Givea difference in physical properties tt j potassium chloride, Properties between the chlorine and m Total: 6) "rm these two ions (2) ‘ons are not formed, nd between two sketch: make * simple free

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