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Human resource management of

international migrants: current
theories and future research
a b
Chun Guo & Akram Al Ariss
a
Department of Management, John F. Welch College of Business,
Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, CT, USA
b
Department of Human Resource Management, Université de
Toulouse, Toulouse Business School, France
Published online: 04 Mar 2015.
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To cite this article: Chun Guo & Akram Al Ariss (2015) Human resource management of
international migrants: current theories and future research, The International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 26:10, 1287-1297, DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2015.1011844

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 The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2015
Vol. 26, No. 10, 1287–1297, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1011844

INTRODUCTION
Human resource management of international migrants:
current theories and future research
Chun Guoa* and Akram Al Arissb
a
Department of Management, John F. Welch College of Business, Sacred Heart University,
Fairfield, CT, USA; bDepartment of Human Resource Management, Université de Toulouse,
Toulouse Business School, France
The topic of international migration has gained increasing importance for organizations
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as they expand internationally. In this paper, we review prior research on human

resource management (HRM) of international migrants to identify gaps in the
literature. We then discuss paths for future research and present the papers in this
special issue, so as to offer a better understanding of HRM of international migrants.
Keywords: expatriation; international mobility; migration; self-initiated expatriation;
skilled migration

Introduction
The past few decades have witnessed a growing trend of international migrations due to
demographic changes, skilled labor shortages, a more integrated global economy and labor
market, as well as more permeable geographic, institutional and cultural boundaries (Al
Ariss & Syed, 2011; Beechler & Woodward, 2009; Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010; Iredale,
2001). According to United Nations (2013) estimates, there are currently 232 million
migrant workers worldwide, as statistics point to an ongoing increase in global migration.
Numerous and varied drivers lie behind this trend at a macro-societal level, including
conflict and political instability, demographic change and lack of economic opportunity in
countries of origin. At the organizational level, international migrants, especially skilled
migrants, are now considered to constitute an important part of the global talent pool, not
only contributing to the competitive advantages of global organizations, but also helping
host countries to remain the highest bidders in the global war for talent (Beechler &
Woodward, 2009; Carr, Inkson, & Thorn, 2005; Cerdin, Diné, & Brewster, 2014; Sidani &
Al Ariss, 2014). Despite the importance of international migrants to the host countries and
organizations, human resource management (HRM) of this group of individuals remains
under-researched (Al Ariss, Cascio, & Paauwe, 2014).
Indeed, the nature and consequences of international migrations have been well
documented in the migration literature (e.g. Kofman, 2000). However, migration studies
and HRM literature, and more broadly, management literature, tend to run along parallel
tracks without informing each other (Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Dorsch, Suutari, &
Brewster, 2013). As such, in this editorial introduction, we will first review prior research
on international migrants in order to identify gaps in the literature; then we will discuss
paths for future research. After that, we will conclude by summarizing how articles in this

*Corresponding author. Email: chun-guog@sacredheart.edu

q 2015 Taylor & Francis

 1288 C. Guo and A. Al Ariss

special issue collectively contribute to a better understanding of HRM of international

migrants.

Who are we studying?

Definition issues
There is a lack of consensus on the definition of the term ‘migrant’ in the extant HRM
literature, and the boundaries between terms such as self-initiated expatriates (SIEs),
qualified immigrants and skilled migrants seem to be blurred (Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry,
2013; Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld, & Dickmann, 2014). For example, Carr et al.
(2005) defined migrants as those ‘who expatriate themselves voluntarily to new countries
independently of any employers’ (p. 386). Zikic, Bonache, and Cerdin (2010) defined
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qualified immigrants as individuals who initiate their own international career moves that
are risky, unpredictable and usually involving career and life transitions. Cerdin et al.
(2014) suggest that qualified immigrants are university-educated people who have moved
on a permanent basis to work in countries other than their own. Finally, Al Ariss and Syed
(2011) defined skilled migrants as highly educated and experienced individuals.
As an effort to provide more clarity to these issues of definition, several researchers
(e.g. Al Ariss, 2010; Andresen et al., 2014; Cerdin & Selmer, 2014) recently proposed
criteria to differentiate among these terms. For instance, Al Ariss (2010) identified four
main features of migrants based on which scholars have been differentiating migrants
from other categories of internationally mobile individuals. These features include the
geographical origin and destination of the international migration, the forced/chosen
nature of the movement, the period of stay abroad and the symbolic status of a migrant as
compared to an SIE in a host country. For instance, by reviewing the literature on SIE in
management, Al Ariss and Crowley-Henry (2013) found that internationally mobile
individuals who come from developed countries including western European states
(Crowley-Henry, 2012), the USA (Vance, 2005), Australia (Tharenou, 2010) and New
Zealand (Thorn, 2009) are frequently labeled ‘expatriates.’ However, when internationally
mobile individuals come from less-developed countries, management scholars more often
refer to them as ‘migrants’ or ‘immigrants.’ Al Ariss and Crowley-Henry (2013) state that
no rational, theoretical or methodological foundation exists to justify the use of this
terminology. This terminological distinction moreover seems to place migrants as
‘second-class’ SIEs and to support a stereotyped image of migrants who have less agency
and are less advantaged in terms of their originating country and ethnic origins. In order to
avoid such stereotypes, Al Ariss and Crowley-Henry (2013) propose that both SIEs and
migrants be researched under one term that refers to internationally mobile individuals.
Thus in this paper we use the terms ‘migrant’ and ‘SIE’ interchangeably.
Based on a literature review of articles published from the year 2005 to 2010 on
assigned expatriates, SIEs and migrants, Andresen et al. (2014) conclude that ‘migrant’ is
an umbrella term including both assigned expatriates and SIEs. They define a migrant as
an individual who moves from one geographical location to another, crossing national
borders and changing the dominant place of residence. They also remind that international
migrations can be either self-initiated or obligatory, and can be work related or non-work
related. It is important to note that although migrants share ‘international mobility’ as
a common factor, they are not a homogeneous group as they may come from various
cultural, ethnic and educational backgrounds. Furthermore, sub-groups exist within this
group with different skills and work experiences, hence presenting different challenges to
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1289

the host organizations and countries (Dietz, 2010; Doherty, 2013; Kofman, 2000; Suutari
& Brewster, 2000).

What has been under-researched on migrants in HRM?

An important question of this paper is: what do we know about this group of individuals
and what has been under-researched? Below we delineate two major research gaps based
on a review of literatures on migration in HRM studies.

Research gap #1: gender-related issues

Although women’s international careers have been examined in traditional expatriation
literature, we know little about the role of gender or gender relations in migration
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processes (Berry & Bell, 2012; Iredale, 2005; Tharenou, 2008). This is a significant
omission especially given that women now count for about half of the total number of
migrants worldwide (OECD, 2013), and women migrants almost exclusively constitute
the majority of the workforce in professions such as nursing and teaching (Kofman, 2000).
In exploring the factors that have led to the invisibility of women in the migration
literature, Kofman (2000) argues that there has been a false stereotype of women migrants
as unskilled dependents whose international moves are usually due to the career moves of
their spouses. In addition, an international migrant has been assumed to be a heroic, male
figure, disembedded from his social contexts such as family and personal relationships
when making cross-border moves (Kofman, 2000).
Migration scholars (e.g. Curran & Saguy, 2001) suggest that there are significant
differences between men and women in terms of motivations, risks and norms in
international movement, as well as cross-cultural adjustment and subsequent
consequences. In addition, the selection and accreditation of professional migrants as
well as the outcome of the application of immigration policy are often different for men
and women, hence resulting gendered migration experiences (Hyndman, 1999; Iredale,
2005). However, it is not until recently that management scholars started examining these
gender-related issues (e.g. Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Tharenou, 2008, 2010). For
example, Tharenou (2008) found that women’s willingness to go abroad and expatriate
was more affected by their family roles, obligations and barriers. Tharenou (2010) noted
that women who chose to self-expatriate and took initiative in migrating to another
country were usually pushed by barriers to career development in their home countries or
were pulled by more favorable attitudes toward female employment and careers or better
career opportunities in the host country. However, female migrants may not realize the
same return on the international experience as men (Tharenou, 2010). In addition, skilled
women migrants face additional barriers in the pursuit of their careers due to gender bias
and family structures and obligations. Often, they are obliged to delay the application for
recognition of their qualifications until their spouse or partner completes the process
(Iredale, 2005). Therefore, it is not surprising that skilled women migrants often work in
unskilled positions such as domestic work upon their arrival in the host country (Berry &
Bell, 2012).
In short, women and gender relations in international migration are largely absent in
the HRM literature. HRM scholars would benefit from theoretical advances in the
migration literature (e.g., Curran & Saguy, 2001; Kofman, 2000), and we encourage future
research to shift away from the ‘methodological individualism’ (Kofman, 2000, p. 53) and
focus more on the role and importance of personal networks and social contexts such as
 1290 C. Guo and A. Al Ariss

family structures and communities where the cross-border migration process unfolds.
In addition, more attention should be directed to examining unique challenges facing
women migrants, such as gender-specific labor violations and discriminations, cross-
cultural adjustment of the spouse/partner, career outcomes, as well as barriers to skill
accreditation and deployment or skill discounting experienced by women migrants.

Research gap #2: the role of organizations in managing skilled migrants

In addition to women migrants, another hidden aspect of migration in the HRM literature
is the under-researched role that companies play in managing international skilled
migrants. Although there are more migrants now constituting a pool of international HRs
in the host organizations, we know little about how well organizations are prepared for the
challenges of managing this group of individuals; incorporating an international focus in
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HR practices in many organizations seems to be still in its infancy (Howe-Walsh &

Schyns, 2010). For example, organizations still do not master the issue of return on
investment of their international mobility programs (McNulty, De Cieri, & Hutchings,
2009). Indeed, the traditional studies in the migration literature are mostly at the macro-
level and focus on issues such as brain gain and brain drain, as well as immigration
regulations and policies, whereas most prior research on international migrants tends to be
at the micro-level and focuses on issues such as migration motivations, forms of human
capital and international mobility (Al Ariss & Syed, 2011; Kofman, 2000). There is a lack
of meso-level research examining how companies recognize and understand individual
differences among international migrants and develop HRM strategies and policies
accordingly to facilitate the transfer and utilization of knowledge and skills of
international migrants, which subsequently can enhance a firm’s strategic competitive
advantages.
International migrants usually face legal barriers and constraints that limit their career
choices and opportunities in the host country due to administrative difficulties in obtaining
proper visas and work permits (Rodriguez, & Mearns, 2012). In addition, immigration
restrictions and policies in the host countries can also delay or deny the recognition of
migrant’s credential qualifications and limit their international mobility in terms of
selection of the migration destinations and career choices. In this regard, business lobbies
could influence policy-making processes in a way to facilitate the identification, selection,
recruitment and development of international-skilled migrants. This could avoid newly
arrived migrants accepting job positions that are incompatible with their qualifications or
educational backgrounds, leading to skill discounting and/or underemployment (Almeida,
Fernando, & Sheridan, 2012). Newton, Pillay, and Higginbottom (2012) covered a review
of the recent literature on the migration and experience of transition of internationally
educated nurses, exemplifying some of the above. From the results, it is apparent that
a main motivation behind migration is the anticipation of greater income and/or progress
in one’s career; yet nurses’ working experience seems to disappoint such expectations.
The challenges faced include (1) costly, complicated and prolonged migration processes
largely unassisted by employers; (2) language and communication barriers in social and
professional contexts plus a disjunction between their education and nursing practices in
the host countries; (3) professional credentials such as registration and licensure are not
easily recognized in the host countries; (4) discrimination, stereotyping, marginalization,
lack of support from colleagues and managers, qualifications and skills unacknowledged/
unaccepted qualifications among both colleagues and patients, unequal treatment in terms
of assignments, shifts and promotion opportunities.
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1291

Researchers (e.g. Binggeli, Dietz, & Krings, 2013; Dietz, 2010; Turchick Hakak &
Al Ariss, 2013) note that employment discrimination toward migrant minorities can be
either subtle or blatant and does not impact all migrant minorities equally. In other words,
while some ethnic minorities are more likely to be subject to negative stereotypes or
receive negative employment outcomes, others are not. For example, Hosoda and Stone-
Romero (2010) found that in comparison with French-accented job applicants, Japanese-
accented job applicants were more negatively discriminated against in employment-
related decisions, especially for jobs that had high communication demands. Similarly,
Dietz, Baltes, and Rudolph (2010a) found that the endorsement of a negative Turkish
stereotype significantly affected suitability ratings for highly qualified Turkish candidates
in Germany.
The findings of these studies suggest that organizations can play an active role in
helping migrants overcome some of the challenges mentioned above. Therefore, a fruitful
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direction of future research is not only to highlight challenges faced by migrants in the
workplace but also to identify and theorize the way businesses can successfully shape the
career choices and outcomes of migrants as they make cross-border moves. Below we
highlight some key areas for future research at the organizational level.
As Doherty (2013) noted, international employees present a special challenge to HRM
strategies and practices due to their high level of career agency, individualism, proactivity
and non-conformity. In addition, they may be less likely to commit to and stay long term
with the host organizations, highlighting the need to develop HR strategies and programs
pertaining to these unique individual characteristics. However, only a handful of studies
(e.g. D’Netto & Sohal, 1999; Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010; Richardson, McBey, &
McKenna, 2008) have examined these issues and the findings of these studies have shown
two HRM areas to be of particular importance: recruitment and selection, and cross-
cultural adjustment.
First, proactive, inclusive and differentiated recruitment and selection practices can
ensure that organizations have access to qualified international migrants as a way to
address skilled labor shortage; the lack of such practices can lead to problems of unfairly
blocking international migrants’ entry into the local labor market as well as skill
discounting or underemployment commonly found in SIE and migration studies. For
example, based on an Australian sample, D’Netto and Sohal (1999) found that despite the
strong top management support for recruitment of skilled migrants, there was a lack of
effective, proactive recruitment practices at lower levels, including inadequate inclusion
of migrants on selection panels and in the HR department as well as neglect of ethnic
newspapers as an important way to recruit migrant employees. In addition, many local
organizations were found to overly emphasize their need for Australian work experience
regardless of actual job requirements, which prevented qualified new migrants from
entering the job market. In a recent study with a focus on employers’ role in the
recruitment process, Almeida et al. (2012) found that the recruitment process was not only
driven by human capital perspective but also influenced by organizational characteristics,
such as organizational type, client ethnicity and management style. These organizational-
level factors can have an impact on the employers’ level of tolerance, stereotypes and
comfort levels as well as the design and development of job specification, competency
frameworks, personal profiles and selection methods, all of which can subsequently result
in either selection or rejection of immigrant professionals in the hiring process. Based on
these findings, Almeida et al. (2012) suggest that a more inclusive recruitment process is
necessary if organizations plan to reach beyond the traditional candidate base to utilize the
immigrant professionals’ knowledge and skills.
 1292 C. Guo and A. Al Ariss

Furthermore, a few studies suggest the importance of adopting differentiated HR

practices in the recruitment process, given that organizations need to develop appropriate
recruitment methods and approaches to better attract this group of individuals. For
example, in a study conducted on international faculty, Richardson et al. (2008) identified
the need for a holistic approach to providing international recruits with realistic
information about social context and prospective living conditions (realistic living
conditions previews) in addition to the work-related information (realistic job previews).
Richardson et al. (2008) note that such information, however, is not equally important to
all. While junior faculty were particularly concerned about the price of housing as well as
tenure and promotion policies, faculty with working partners were more interested in
information about career opportunities for their partners. Similarly, in a theoretical paper,
Howe-Walsh and Schyns (2010) differentiated career expatriates, or individuals who self-
initiated expatriation to pursue careers in the host country, from private expatriates, or
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individuals who expatriate for private or family reasons. They suggest that prior foreign
experience and cross-cultural skills are more important in selecting career expatriates,
while technical skills need the closest examination when selecting private expatriates
(Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010). In short, the findings of these studies imply that good
recruitment HRM practices and strategies that attract qualified international migrants in
order to meet the challenge of skilled labor shortage can give organizations competitive
advantage over other companies without such practices, putting the former a step ahead in
winning the global war for talent.
Second, in terms of cross-cultural adjustment, while extensive research has been
conducted into adjustment-related issues in the traditional expatriation literature, there is a
paucity of research in what precisely engages international migrants in their work abroad.
Understanding this is essential in order to design appropriate HR practices and programs
capable of retaining these international migrants and help them better adjust to the new
work arrangement and living conditions. Based on a literature review of SIE studies,
Doherty (2013) concluded that SIEs are motivated by different factors and these factors
can be considerably influenced by local cultural values and practices, the nature of the
contractual relationships experienced by SIEs, as well as other individual-level factors and
preferences. While income may be a significant motivator for some to work in Saudi
Arabia, peer/mentor support, job autonomy and family-related variables are found to be
important motivators for others working in different cultural contexts. Understanding
these individual nuances is critical to developing relevant HR programs and practices that
can facilitate international migrants’ cross-cultural adjustment and retention.
In exploring these issues, Howe-Walsh and Schyns (2010) proposed different HRM
practices that can facilitate SIEs’ cross-cultural adjustment. Specifically, they suggest that
giving a clear definition of the job position may have a positive effect on SIEs’ work
adjustment, while support provided by the host organization in terms of mentoring and co-
working may enhance interaction adjustment. In addition, the provision of on-site
intercultural training, help with legal issues and family adjustment may also have a
positive effect on SIE adjustment. Several recent studies empirically examined the role of
adjustment in the career experience of SIEs. For example, Peltokorpi and Jintae Froese
(2009) examined the differences in SIEs and organizational expatriates’ (OEs) cross-
cultural adjustment in Japan. While the study did not find a significant difference in SIEs’
and OEs’ work adjustment, Peltokorpi and Jintae Froese (2009) found that SIEs exhibited
a higher level of interaction adjustment due to their possible previous social interactions
with host country nationals and a higher level of general adjustment as a result of their
personal motivation and interest in various aspects of life in Japan. Moreover, Cao,
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1293

Hirschi, and Deller (2013) found that SIEs’ protean career attitudes led to better cross-
cultural adjustment, which, in turn, is linked with positive career outcomes such as career
satisfaction, life satisfaction and intention to stay. Nolan and Morley (2014) investigated
the relationship between person –environment fit and cross-cultural adjustment among
SIEs. Their study found that person –job needs – supplies fit was associated with SIEs’
interaction adjustment; person – job demands abilities influenced both work and
interaction adjustment; and person –organization fit influenced work adjustment.

Papers in this issue

The first paper, ‘Job embeddedness among migrants: fit and links without sacrifice,’ is
authored by Halvorsen, Treuren and Kulik. While Australian employers are ever more
dependent on migrant workers, turnover rates are considerably greater among migrant
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employees than among native born Australians. According to job embeddedness theory,
employee attachment is key to retention. The authors interviewed a number of migrants
regarding the various attachments they made both in and outside of work. Findings show
that the strategies outlined in job embeddedness theory are indeed used by migrants in
creating on- and off-the-job fits and links, alongside other strategies, such as deliberately
distancing themselves from their culture and country of origin; developing attachments at
work based on common spirituality and hosting social events as a means of engaging with
their communities. Contrary to predictions of the job embeddedness theory, good fit and
these on- and off-the-job links did not lead to a strong sense of attachment. As a result,
migrants perceived few costs when leaving their employers and communities. Based on
these results, the authors propose how organizations can better retain and embed their
migrant workers.
The second paper is ‘The skill paradox: explaining and reducing employment
discrimination against skilled immigrants,’ by Dietz, Joshi, Esses, Hamilton and Gabarrot.
Based on a social identity theory, the authors conjectured that skilled immigrant job
applicants face significant discrimination in selection processes. The phenomenon by
which immigrants can expect to experience greater discrimination in recruitment the more
skilled they are is referred to as a ‘skill paradox.’ Working from the common ingroup
identity model, the authors then propose that the solution to this paradox might be found in
HRM strategies that actively endorse inclusive recruitment processes, focusing on fit with
a more varied group of clients, for example. A laboratory experiment confirmed the
hypotheses: skilled local workers are favored over skilled immigrant workers on condition
that these local workers are specifically qualified for the job applied for. In addition, this
bias against qualified and skilled immigrant applicants was mitigated when the fit with a
diverse clientele was emphasized, but not when fit with a homogenous clientele was
emphasized or when the hiring strategy was not explained. Implications for future research
into the bias suffered by skilled migrants in employment are discussed, as well as the
importance of inclusiveness as a means of tackling such discrimination.
The third paper is entitled ‘Cross-cultural adjustment of skilled migrants in a
multicultural and multilingual environment: an explorative study of foreign employees
and their spouses in the Swiss context,’ by Ravasi, Salamin and Davoine. Across the
world, skilled migrants have become fundamental to the global economy, and to both
states and organizations in achieving and retaining competitive advantage. The Swiss
economy is a case in point given the huge proportion of migrants attracted to seek
employment opportunity in the absence of a sufficient skilled national workforce.
Switzerland is a context of interest since it is home to a significant number of multinational
 1294 C. Guo and A. Al Ariss

companies (MNCs), and is also a place where the gap between skilled migrant workers and
assigned expatriates is becoming ever more insubstantial. This paper studies the
adjustment of 153 international workers employed in MNCs based in Switzerland, as well
as that of 126 spouses. It does so with regard to various elements of adjustment, in
particular, the ability to speak the local language and support practices used in relocation.
While the Swiss context is both multicultural and multilingual, findings uncovered
comparatively low scores in terms of cross-cultural adjustment, notably in interaction
adjustment. The paper explores the extent to which relocation support practices are
available to, utilized by and considered necessary among international workers, and
highlights which such practices might serve to increase migrant adjustment.
The final paper, by Zikic, is ‘Skilled migrants’ career capital as a source of competitive
advantage: implications for strategic HRM.’ Skilled migrants are significantly responsible
for an increasing workforce in the economy of knowledge worldwide. Management
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research has, however, failed to invest due attention in discerning how far the career
capital of these migrants might be strategically valuable and how local organizations
might attract and integrate them. Applying both intelligent career theory and the resource-
based view theory to the topic of diversity within a new, integrated framework, this paper
identifies how local employers might access and utilize this career capital of skilled
migrants. The framework accounts for an organization’s need to accurately evaluate its
needs and its own capacity (knowing-why, at an organizational level) to manage skilled
migrant employees and suggests how to successfully attract and then integrate (knowing-
how and knowing-whom, in terms of skilled migrants) this workforce. Lines of further
research, notably regarding HR’s role throughout the three stages of an employer
understanding, attracting and integrating the skilled migrant worker, are put forward.
Finally, it outlines implications for future practice. This paper offers an important
contribution to the literature on diversity given its focus on career capital diversity, a type
of diversity under-researched.

Conclusions and managerial implications

Future empirical studies should examine the role of HRM practices in facilitating
migrants’ cross-cultural adjustment. Collectively the findings on migration in HRM
literature suggest that international migrants undertake cross-national moves and pursue
international careers with different motivations, individual backgrounds, personal work
experiences and available resources to those who are sent by their employing companies.
Hence there is an urgent need for future research to devote more effort toward identifying
relevant HRM practices and programs that can help in offering better talent management
of international migrants. In terms of better understanding international mobility and its
different facets, the discussion below illustrates an example of direct managerial
implications for organizations.
In the face of ever increasing costs of expatriation, a number of MNCs are now
resorting to what has become known as the ‘local-plus’ strategy in their management of
employees assigned overseas. This management strategy designed to cut costs consists of
sending highly qualified employees abroad where their skills and capacities are invested in
the overseas subsidiaries, but contrary to traditional expatriation, these employees find
themselves dismissed and re-employed on a contract of usually less than advantageous
terms local to the country of destination (this includes losing social benefits, pension
payment, legal advantages and sometimes in enjoying a lesser quality of life). While some
organizations will offer their employees the choice of remaining on the same contract
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1295

albeit with no pay rise or to receiving a pay rise but on the terms of the new (local)
contract, others decide for their employees in demanding resignation and a new local
contract.
While firms may find few obstacles in enticing employees eager for international
experience to accept such conditions, once abroad, the disadvantages in their circumstances
soon become clear. This is especially so for those whose firms continue to simultaneously
assign colleagues (in more strategically significant positions) to international missions on the
financially rewarding terms of traditional expatriation. The sense of injustice naturally incurs
frustration and demotivation, impacting both the employee’s performance and his or her
successful adaptation into the new context. With trust lost in the organization, many of these
individuals might resign without completing the assignment.
Generally speaking, however, it is not the employees who will lose out. Often multi-
lingual, able to adapt to different circumstances and cultures, and internationally experienced,
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these are highly talented individuals with skills of immense global value. As boundaryless
career theorists have shown, increasing number of skilled workers enjoy ever greater mobility
between countries, and even between companies; their opportunities are many.
Rather, it is the MNCs that will have to bear the human and financial losses of this failure
in HR. The ‘money-saving’ local-plus strategy is incompatible with good HR and successful
talent management, since the former fails to develop the skills, motivation and performance
of the individual expatriate employees. The MNC, therefore, misses the real opportunity to
make economies of scale by way of increased employee performance and better utilization
of talent, and instead lose talent who prefer to be dismissed, return to the host-country or
seek a position in a competitor company rather than remain in a position of unsatisfactory
and unfair conditions. Furthermore, the HR function itself can lose its legitimacy through
such practices as this (in spite of the fact that such strategies are often dictated by top
management). Globalization has made HR of huge strategic importance in MNCs; practices
that waste precious HRs and subsequently money could cost HR this position.
From our discussion of international mobility in this paper, there does, however, exist an
alternative to both the costly traditional expatriation and the local-plus strategy: skilled
migrants/SIEs. These are generally highly talented individuals, with all of the linguistic,
cultural and international experience and expertise of traditional expats, who have voluntarily
chosen to work abroad. These migrants/SIEs will therefore not experience the frustration or
disappointment of traditional expats in being offered a local contract, and in fact will often be
delighted to be offered a package even only marginally superior to that of local workers.
In sum, HRM practices that take into account international skilled migration could not
only ease and shorten the adjustment process for these migrants but also more importantly
will help organizations to better transfer and utilize the skills and knowledge of
international migrants when developing the firm’s competitive advantages.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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