Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522

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Energy and Buildings

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Temperature distribution and energy consumption in impinging jet

and mixing ventilation heating rooms with intermittent cold outside
air invasion
Xiao Ye a , Yanming Kang a , Xiufeng Yang a,b , Ke Zhong a,∗
a
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
b
School of Hydraulic, Energy and Power Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: For spaces with occupants coming in and out frequently, e.g., airport terminals and commercial buildings,
Received 3 June 2017 the intermittent opening of the entrance door causes masses of cold outside air to invade the heating
Received in revised form 16 October 2017 space in winter, and this leads to an increase in the heating energy demands. As impinging jet ventilation
Accepted 18 November 2017
(IJV) has a potential for reducing high energy consumption compared to the use of mixing ventilation
(MV), a series of experiments were conducted to investigate the temperature distribution and energy
Keywords:
consumption of IJV used in a space with cold air invading intermittently and compared with those in a MV
Cold air invasion
system. The results indicate that the door opening frequency only affects the amplitude of temperature
Space heating
Impinging jet ventilation
fluctuation with time for a fixed door opening duration. The floor-to-ceiling temperature difference in
Mixing ventilation the IJV is always less than 60% of that in the MV for different durations of door opening, proving that
Thermal environment the former consumes less heating energy. Moreover, the increase of the inertia to buoyancy ratio on the
Energy efficiency supply air can improve the thermal environment and reduce energy consumption for both IJV and MV,
with this improvement better in IJV than in MV, meaning that IJV is more energy efficient than MV when
used for heating space with cold air invasion.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are
usually used for room cooling in summer and space heating in
winter in almost all public buildings in China. Although displace-
ment ventilation (DV) is believed to have high energy efficiency, it
cannot be used for space heating because of its low supply momen-
tum [1–3]. As a traditional ventilation strategy, mixing ventilation
(MV) has been widely used for both cooling and heating in various
types of buildings, but it has poor ventilation and energy efficiency
[4]. Particularly, when a MV runs in heating mode, the warm air
is hardly distributed into the lower part of the room due to the
buoyancy effect, and the indoor temperature is lower in the occu-
pied zone and higher in the upper part of the room. Hence, the
temperature in the upper zone is much higher than the set value
in order to meet the thermal comfort requirement for occupants.
This results in the averaged indoor temperature being too high and
causes much heating energy to be consumed [5].
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhongkeyx@dhu.edu.cn (K. Zhong).
When spaces with occupants coming in and out frequently, for
example, in airport terminals, station halls and commercial build-
ings, etc., the intermittent opening of the entrance door causes
masses of cold outside air to invade the heating space in winter.
The cold invading air flows downwards to the ground because of the
negative buoyancy effect and then spreads along the floor after it
invades the heating room, so a cold air layer is generated next to the
floor. When the cold air passes through indoor heat sources (such as
human bodies and electrical equipments), it is heated by convection
heat transfer and then flows upwards, and thus a thermal stratifi-
cation is formed in the room. This is similar to that in a DV cooling
room [6]. In addition, the cold air layer near the ground also results
in a temperature difference between the warm supply air and sur-
rounding air and the difference always remains at a high level in
the room, but the momentum of the warm supply air drops with
the increase of spreading distance. As a result, the effect of upward
thermal buoyancy on the supply air is strengthened. Therefore, the
heating energy is not efficiently delivered into the occupied zone,
a large amount of warm air accumulates beneath the ceiling, and
an evident vertical temperature gradient is generated between the
floor and the ceiling in the room. The experimental results by Saïd
[5] indicate that the floor-to-ceiling temperature differentials in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.11.038
0378-7788/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522 1511

at the low room level, strikes the floor and then distributes along
Nomenclature the floor in the form of a very thin layer [2,8]. When IJV operates
in cooling mode, it ventilates the room in a similar manner to DV
ACE Air change rate (h−1 ) in terms of stratification and air motion [3,9]. When IJV is used
CN Normalized CO2 concentration of each test run at for space heating, the warm supply jet is directly delivered to the
time t occupied zone, overcoming the disadvantage of MV which cannot
Vs Supply velocity (m/s) distribute the warm supply air into the lower part effectively [8]. It
Ts Supply temperature (◦ C) seems that IJV has a promising application for the above mentioned
To Temperature difference between the indoor and public spaces with cold air invading intermittently, because the
outdoor air (◦ C) warm supply air mixes with the invading cold air at the floor level,
T Temperature (◦ C) which can reduce the effect of the invading cold air on the tem-
V Velocity (m/s) perature near the floor to some extent and avoid the phenomenon
CC CO2 concentration (ppm) that occurs in MV, i.e., the temperature of the occupancy zone is
tT Period of door opening (s) dominated by the incoming cold air.
tO Duration of door opening (s) Numerous studies have been carried out on the impinging jet.
lm Buoyancy jet length scale (m) Table 1 shows a short summary of these studies. It is worthy to note
M Momentum flux(kg/(m·s)) that the majority of existing studies of IJV are limited to isothermal
B Buoyancy flux (N/m2 ) and cooling conditions, while only few studies are related to the
Q Initial volume flux of the supply jet (m3 /s) heating mode [8,31]. Although cold air invading the heating room
S Area of the supply inlet (m2 ) through the opened entrance door is a common phenomenon in
Ts Temperature difference between the supply and winter, only Saïd et al. [5] studied the thermal environment in MV
indoor air (◦ C) rooms with cold outside air entering, and there is no investigation
Tr Reference temperature (◦ C) focusing on the heating performance of IJV operated in the case of
Toz,t Time-averaged temperature in the occupied zone cold air invasion. This leads to the advantages of IJV relative to MV
(◦ C) being not clear when both are used for space heating with cold air
Tuz,t Time-averaged temperature in the upper zone (◦ C) invasion, and thus restricts the application of IJV in practice.
Tin,t Time-averaged temperature of the room (◦ C) The main purpose of the present study is to investigate the tem-
Ta,t Mean time-averaged temperature of the four test perature distribution and energy consumption in the IJV heating
poles at different heights h (◦ C) room with cold outside air invading intermittently and compared
Tt Time-averaged temperature (◦ C) with those in MV, and then to provide a theoretical basis for the
A Mean amplitude of temperature fluctuating with application and improvement of IJV. The experiments are con-
time (◦ C) ducted in a climate chamber. The temperatures and velocities are
h Height (m) measured in the IJV and MV heating rooms with different frequen-
Tg Floor-to-ceiling temperature difference (◦ C) cies and durations of door opening (being equivalent to different
E Total heat loss of the room (W) frequencies and amounts of cold air invasion, respectively), and the
K Averaged heat transfer coefficient of the envelope difference of indoor thermal environment between IJV and MV is
(W/(m2 ·◦ C) then discussed. Finally, the improvement effects of changing sup-
F Total area of the building enclosure surface (m2 ) ply parameters on the indoor thermal environment and energy
G Averaged cold air invasion rate for each period consumption for IJV are analyzed and compared with MV.
(m3 /s)
Te Outdoor air temperature (◦ C)
C Specific heat capacity of air (J/(kg ◦ C)) 2. Method and experimental cases

Greek symbols
 Door opening index (= tO /tT )
 Air density (kg/m3 )
 Increased percentage of the heat loss (%)
Subscripts
1 Actual situation
2 Ideal situation
aircraft hangar buildings for cases with the entrance door opened
are 9–17 ◦ C higher than that with the door closed when MV is used
for heating. This causes a poor thermal environment and as high
as a 40% increase in required heating energy. Although the heating
energy utilization can be improved to some extent by adjusting the
supply condition or the positions of the supply and exhaust dif-
fusers in MV [7], the problem of high heating energy consumption
induced by thermal stratification cannot be solved fundamentally
for a heated space with cold air invasion.
Impinging jet ventilation (IJV), which combines the positive
effects of the DV and MV systems, was proposed as a new ven-
tilation strategy [2,4] and has been studied for many years. In an
IJV room, a high momentum supply jet is discharged downwards
2.1. Experimental set-up and measuring instruments
Fig. 1 gives the schematic diagram of the experimental system.
The tests were carried out in a climate chamber with dimensions of
3.0 m × 3.6 m × 2.6 m (Length × Width × Height), located in a large
laboratory, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The envelopes of the chamber
(including the roof, floor and side walls), with mean heat transfer
coefficients of 0.9 W/(m2 ◦ C), were made of stainless steel plates
that were hollow and full of foaming polyurethane. The test cham-
ber originally had a side-hung door, but because the door’s opening
and closing causes interference flow making it difficult to measure
the amount of invading air, the door was replaced by a sliding door
(with a height and width of 1.5 m and 0.96 m, respectively) before
the experiments were conducted. The door edges and door frame
were sealed with rubber strips to ensure that the cold air invasion
pathway was only through the opened door.
The chamber and laboratory, shown in Fig. 1, were used to
simulate the ‘indoor’ and ‘outdoor’ environments in winter, respec-
tively. The whole experimental system comprised four modules,
i.e., automatic control system, air handing unit (AHU), data record-
ing system and environmental simulation chamber. The supply air
parameters and the temperature in the large laboratory can be
adjusted to the desired conditions through these modules.
Table 1
A short summary of studies of IJV.
Beltaos and Rajaratnam
(1973) [10]
Gutmark et al. (1978) [11]
Cooper et al. (1993) [12]
Kim (1993) [13]
Yoon et al. (1997) [14]
Karimipanah et al. (2000)
[15]
Guerra et al. (2005) [16]
Varodompun and Navvab
(2007) [17]
Varodompun (2008) [18]
Xu and Hangan (2008) [19]
Chen et al. (2012) [2]
Chen et al. (2013) [3]
Chen et al. (2013) [9]
Yao et al. (2014) [22]
Yao et al. (2015) [23]
Fénot et al. (2015) [24]
Chen et al. (2015) [25]
Zuo et al. (2015) [26]
Fénot and Dorignac (2016)
[27]
Trinh et al. (2016) [28]
Ye et al. (2016) [8]
Simionescu et al. (2017)
[29]
Kobayashi et al. (2017) [30]
Ye et al. (2017) [31]
Methods
Theoretical and experimental
study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Experimental and numerical study
Experimental study
Experimental and numerical study
Experimental and numerical study
Theoretical and experimental
study
Experimental and numerical study
Experimental and numerical study
Numerical study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Numerical study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Experimental study
Numerical study
Experimental and numerical study
Experimental and numerical study
Numerical study
Main focus
Air flow field of an impinging jet.
Turbulent structure of a
two-dimensional thermal impinging
jet.
Turbulence model assessment.
Characteristics of flow and heat
transfer of an impinging jet.
Behaviors of a two-dimensional
oblique plate impinging jet.
Local mean age of air, ventilation
efficiency in a cooling room by DV and
IJV.
Near wall behavior of an impinging jet.
Ventilation efficiency and indoor air
quality (IAQ) for MV, DV and IJV in
cooling modes.
Factors affecting the performance of
IJV.
Effects of nozzle shape, Reynolds
number and surrounding boundaries
on the turbulent flow field of an
orthonormal impinging jet.
Airflow field of an isothermal
impinging jet in a room.
Flow and thermal field in an IJV room
with different heat loads.
Thermal environment in an IJV cooling
room.
Characteristics of an isothermal
impinging jet on a flat surface in a
closed cabin.
Flow behavior of an isothermal
impinging jet.
Heat transfer and flow structure of a
multichannel impinging jet.
Ventilation performance of IJV and MV.
Particle resuspension in an IJV cooling
room.
Heat transfer and flow structure of an
impinging jet with upstream flow.
Effect of nozzle geometry on heat
transfer.
Comparison of heating energy
consumption between IJV and MV.
Impact of a laminar circular air jet on a
flat surface.
Accuracy verification of indoor
environment in an IJV room.
Warm air supply distance of IJV.
1512
Results and findings
• The flow field of the jet is composed of three regions.
• The turbulent properties (such as turbulent stresses, mean velocity and temporal derivatives) of
the jet change from their equilibrium levels near the impingement region.
• The level of turbulence energy near the stagnation point computed by using k-ε eddy viscosity
models is higher than measured.
• The Nusselt number varies with the nozzle-to-plate distance.
• The heat transfer coefficients increase with the increase of Reynolds number.
• When the oblique angle is decreased, the stagnation point shifts to the minor flow region, and
the positions of the stagnation point and maximum turbulent intensity are almost identical.
• IJV shows better velocity distribution in the occupied zone and higher ventilation efficiency
compared to DV.
• The level of the logarithmic portion of the velocity and temperature laws of the wall increases
with increasing the maximum jet velocity and decreasing the minimum temperature.
• IJV can provide better thermal comfort and IAQ, as well as consume less HVAC energy when
X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
compared with MV and DV.
• Supply velocity is one of the important factors to determine the behavior of the jet flow.
• When the Reynolds number is increased, the maximum velocity increases and the height of the
maximum decreases.
• The position of the maximum velocity decreases with the increase of jet discharge height.
• The diffuser geometry has the most appreciable effect and the supply airflow rate is found to
have marginal impact on the studied flow features.
• With higher heat load on window, the air circulation has a tendency towards the side wall in the
opposite direction to occupant.
• With lower power on window, the air circulation has a strong tendency to the center of the room.
• All the thermal comfort indexes (such as PD, temperature difference between the ankle and head
level) can be controlled within the ranges specified by ISO 7730 [20] and ASHRAE Standard
55–2010 [21].
• The structure at the jet centerline in the lower and higher frequencies are alike in the potential
core region.
• The Reynolds shear stress exhibits negative and positive in the mixing region within and outside
the potential core.
• For small nozzle-to-plate distances, the presence of a structure modifies the flow and increases
the Nusselt number.
• IJV is more energy efficient than MV when both are used for room cooling.
• A supply velocity of less than 3 m/s does not cause particle resuspension.
• A sharp increase of supply velocity in a short time does not worsen the IAQ.
• The Nusselt number distribution is not axisymmetric for low injection-to-plate spacing.
• Round orifice causes the highest heat transfer rate among the studied three orifice.
• IJV can save at least 20% heating energy when compared with MV under the same occupied zone
temperature.
• The stagnation region is the one with the highest gradients for velocity, pressure and shear stress
distributions.
• Although the amount of energy input into the room is the same, the vertical temperature profiles
are relatively different.
• The warm air supply distance of IJV has a maximum value.
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental system (1, IJV nozzle; 2, MV inlet).
The chamber was equipped with the IJV and MV systems, with
Fig. 1(b) showing a 3-D perspective view of the test chamber. For
the IJV system, the warm supply jet was introduced from a circular
duct and discharged at a height of 0.6 m above the floor. The duct
with a diameter of 0.2 m was fixed at the middle of the east wall, as
shown in Fig. 1(b) and (c). For the MV system, warm supply air was
delivered through a double shutter (0.15 m × 0.2 m) at an angle of
15◦ from horizontal to the floor and the shutter was mounted on
the middle of the east wall at a height of 2.3 m above the floor (see
Fig. 1(b) and (d)). The exhaust device (0.2 m × 0.3 m) of the two
systems was located at the center of the ceiling.
Generally, public spaces with the entrance door opened inter-
mittently are of all sizes (either small or large). For small spaces
(such as small stores and restaurants), the entrance door is usu-
ally a side-hung door and only partly opened (about 0.6 m) when
people come in and out. In fact, the effective ventilation area
is usually smaller than the opened area during the air inva-
sion time because the human body obstructs the opening width,
and, briefly, it is assumed to be one-third of the size of the
opening width, i.e., 0.2 m. For large spaces (e.g., airport termi-
nals, station halls, shopping malls, etc.), the entrance door is
usually an automatic sliding door, and the door is almost fully
opened when people come in and out. Take a large space building
(Height × Depth × Width = 10.0 m × 9.0 m × 12.0 m) for an exam-
ple, and it is assumed that this building has an entrance door with a
size of 1.2 m × 2.4 m (Width × Height). So the ratio of the entrance
door’s area to the floor area is 0.027. According to the similitude law,
for an equivalent situation the opening width of this experiment’s
chamber’s door should be 0.195 m due to the fact that the floor area
of the chamber is 10.8 m2 and the height of the chamber’s door
is 1.5 m. Therefore, the chamber’s door with an opening width of
0.2 m was chosen as a representative for both situations (small and
large spaces). Moreover, in order to obtain a similar amount of the
invading cold air per unit time for all experiments, the influences of
the temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor air as
well as the indoor temperature gradient (i.e., the effects of thermal
pressure) on the cold air invasion rate was reduced by increasing
the wind pressure. A portable fan was used to blow against the
chamber’s door no matter whether the door was closed or opened.
The fan was put outside the chamber and the wind speed at the
position where the lateral axis of the fan intersects with the door
was about 0.6 m/s.
The measuring poles were arranged at four different positions
of the chamber. Seven measuring points (Point-1 to Point-7) were
set on each pole with same distance along the room height, and two
other measuring points (Point-0 and Point-8) were placed on the
ceiling and the floor, which were on the extension line of the pole,
respectively. Fig. 2 gives the plan view of the four poles (denoted by
‘×’) and the sketch of the measuring point height at each position.
Each measuring point on the pole was instrumented with omnidi-
1513
rectional hotwire anemometer (HD103T.0, Delta OHM Inc., Italy),
Type-K thermocouple and CO2 transmitter (EE 85, E + E Elektronik,
Austria). Point-0 and Point-8 were instrumented with Type-K ther-
mocouples to measure the temperature in the near wall regions.
Table 2 summarizes the detailed parameters of the measuring
instruments. All the thermocouples were covered with aluminum
foil tape to eliminate radiation effects. The recording system and
all measuring instruments were calibrated before the experiment.
2.2. Measurement process and test results for determining the
cold air invasion rate
The method for determining the air change rate of a room pro-
posed by Roulet and Foradini [32] was employed to measure the
cold air invasion rate through the opening door. This method cal-
culates the air change rate (ACE) as:
ACE = −lnC N /t (1)
where t is the time elapsed since the start of CO2 decay, and CN is the
normalized CO2 concentration for each time, which is determined
by:
C(t) − Co
CN = (2)
C(0) − Co
where C(0) is the CO2 concentration at the beginning of the decay
period, C(t) is the CO2 concentration at time t, and Co is the steady-
state CO2 concentration.
CO2 was used to conduct the test of cold air invasion rate since
it is easy to measure in the present study. The chamber’s door
was opened and kept open with a width of 0.2 m before each test
run. The temperature and CO2 concentration in the large labora-
tory were always controlled at 12.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C and 1250 ± 50 ppm,
respectively, by adjusting the operation and the supply air vol-
ume of the air conditioning in the laboratory. When the experiment
began, the supply air system was first turned on to supply warm
air into the chamber. Meanwhile, the measuring instruments and
data recording system were also switched on to record the varia-
tion of temperature, velocity and CO2 concentration in the chamber.
After the flow condition (velocity and temperature) in the cham-
ber approached a steady state (both the measured temperature
and velocity for all measuring points did not vary with time), the
temperature difference between the supply and indoor air To
was calculated. If the value of To did not meet the experimen-
tal requirement, the fan frequency and the operating power of
the heating device in the AHU were adjusted till To met the
requirement. Then it began to inject CO2 into the chamber slowly
from a CO2 cylinder (with an injection rate of about 0.2 m3 /h at
normal atmospheric pressure) till the averaged CO2 concentration
(calculated by the averaged value for all measuring points on the
measuring poles) reached the value of 4350 ± 50 ppm in the cham-
1514 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522

Fig. 2. Arrangements of the measuring poles and the sketch of the measuring point at each position.

Table 2
Detailed parameters of the measuring instruments.

Instrument Test parameter Working principle Measuring range Resolution Accuracy

Omnidirectional Air velocity Thermal sensor 0.05 ∼ 5.00 m/s 0.01 m/s ±2 fpm
hotwire anemometer (± 0.01 m/s)
Type-K thermocouple Air temperature Thermistor − 20 ∼ 80 ◦ C 0.1 ◦ C ±0.3 ◦ C
CO2 transmitter CO2 concentration Infrared absorption 0 ∼ 5000 ppm 0.1 ppm ±50 ppm

Table 3 The results shown in Fig. 3 indicate that the temperature and
Experimental cases for the determination of the cold air invasion rate.
CO2 concentration at Point-1 (the ceiling level) were higher than
Case No. Supply system Vs (m/s) Ts (◦ C) To (◦ C) those at Point-7 (the ground level), this is because the cold and fresh
1 IJV 1.5 38.2 9.5 outside air enters the chamber continuously, which flows down-
2 IJV 2.5 41.9 14.6 wards to the floor and then exerts significant cooling and dilution
3 MV 2.1 34.2 9.7 effects on the air in the vicinity of the floor. Fig. 3 also indicates that
4 MV 3.0 40.1 14.8 the room averaged CO2 concentration (the averaged value of the
data for all measuring points on the poles) decreased rapidly in the
early stage of decay and then slowly decreased to the steady-state
value.
Based on Eq. (2) and the test values of CO2 concentration in Fig. 3,
the values of lnCN at different times are calculated, with the results
shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4(a) shows the variation curves of lnCN with
time t for I, II and III, where t is measured from the start of CO2
decay for each span, and Fig. 4(b) gives the variations of lnCN with
time t for one time span of CO2 decay for the four cases given in
Table 3.
It is seen from Fig. 4(a) that the three curves for lnCN varying
with t are quite similar and the slopes of them in the first 1.2 h are
Fig. 3. Measured curves of temperature and CO2 concentration in IJV (To = 9.5 ±
0.3 ◦ C).
almost the same, which implies good repeatability of the experi-
ment. According to the results in Fig. 4(b) and Eq. (1), it is known
that the air change rate ACE ranges from 5.0 to 5.5 ± 0.05 h−1 in
ber. Then the CO2 concentration in the chamber started to decay. both the IJV and MV rooms and the difference was less than 10%,
When the CO2 concentration in the chamber almost did not vary, suggesting that the effects of the thermal pressure caused by To
CO2 was injected into the chamber once again. The process of CO2 and indoor temperature gradient on the cold air invasion rate can
injection and decay for each experiment was repeated three times be ignored by enhancing the wind pressure effect (i.e., by the fan).
to evaluate the consistency and repeatability of the test. When the The volume of the chamber is 28.08 m3 and therefore, the volumet-
averaged CO2 concentration in the chamber approached the steady ric flow rate of the incoming cold air Gin is 0.041 ± 0.002 m3 /s. In the
state again after the last injection of CO2 , the air supply system of subsequent experiments with cold outside air intermittently invad-
the chamber was turned off. During the whole process, the temper- ing the heating room, the value of Gin is taken as the calculation
ature and CO2 concentration in the chamber were recorded every criterion of the invading cold air volume.
1 s. The averaged data for 1 min were used for the further analysis.
A total of four cases for both the IJV and MV systems were
conducted herein. Table 3 gives the details of the experimental con- 2.3. Experimental procedures and cases for measurements of cold
ditions of IJV and MV, in which Vs and Ts are the supply velocity and air intermittent invasion
temperature, respectively, and To is the temperature difference
between the indoor and outdoor air. The experiments with cold air intermittently invading the
Fig. 3 gives the test curves of the temperature T and CO2 con- heating room were run by using the following procedure. The air-
centration CC in IJV with To = 9.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C (i.e., case 1), where I, II conditioning system in the laboratory was turned on first to keep
and III represent three time spans of CO2 decay, respectively. the temperature inside it at a constant value of about 6.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 4. Test results of the decay of CO2 concentrations in the IJV and MV rooms.
and no obvious air flow inside the laboratory before each test case.
Then the air supply system of the chamber was turned on to deliver
warm air into the chamber, and the fan frequency and operating
power of the heating device in the AHU were adjusted to achieve
the desired supply velocity and temperature, respectively, and the
data recording system was turned on at the same time. When it
started to heat the chamber, one investigator stood in the large lab-
oratory (away from the door) to open and close the door by using
a long bar connected to the doorknob, and another person held a
timer to record the time of door opening and closing. The chamber’s
door was opened (with a width of 0.2 m) and closed in a similar pat-
tern until the indoor thermal environment reached a steady state
(the fluctuations of the temperature and velocity for all measuring
points tend to be stable), and maintained the steady-state condition
for about 1.5 h to 2.5 h to thoroughly equilibrate the indoor envi-
ronment. The velocity and temperature at each measuring point
were recorded every 1 s during the whole process.
A total of three sets of experiments were carried out to investi-
gate the effects of frequency and duration of door opening (being
equivalent to the frequency and amount of cold air invasion, respec-
tively) on the indoor thermal environment of IJV and MV, as well
as to evaluate the effects of supply parameters on the temperature
in the lower parts of the heated room with cold air invasion.
Some definitions are used in the subsequent discussions:
(1) Period of door opening tT (s): defined as the duration between
two adjacent starting points of door opening (including two
time spans, i.e., an opening span and a closing span);
(2) Door opening index : defined as tO /tT , where tO (s) is the cor-
responding duration of door opening in tT .
Thus, in the following discussion the situations of a constant
 (= tO /tT ) with different values of tO and tT are corresponding to
different frequencies of door opening, and the cases of a varying
 with different values of tO and a constant tT represent different
durations of door opening for a fixed period. The amount of the
invading cold outside air is determined by the product of tO and
the above volumetric flow rate of the incoming cold air Gin .
2.3.1. Experimental cases – the effect of door opening frequency
on thermal environment
The first set of experiments was performed to investigate the
effect of door opening frequency on the indoor thermal environ-
ment. Four different values of tT with the same  (5/80, 10/160,
20/320 and 40/640), which had the same amount of cold air inva-
sion but different door opening frequencies within 640 s, were
conducted for IJV and MV. The supply parameters of the two air
supply systems were the same and kept constant for the four door
opening frequencies, and the supply velocity and temperature were
1515
2.5 ± 0.1 m/s and 37.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C, respectively. A total of eight experi-
ments were performed.
2.3.2. Experimental cases – the effect of door opening duration on
thermal environment
In order to study the effect of door opening duration on the
indoor thermal environment, the second set of experiments was
conducted under a varying  with different values of tO and a con-
stant tT of 320 s (i.e., the number of times to open the door is the
same but the duration of door opening is different in every 320s).
The indoor air temperature and velocity were measured with six
different values of  (i.e.,  = 0/320, 20/320, 40/320, 80/320, 160/320
and 240/320) for IJV and MV. In this set of experiments, the sup-
ply temperature and velocity for IJV and MV were 45.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C
and 1.5 ± 0.1 m/s, respectively, and one more supply velocity of
2.5 ± 0.1 m/s was performed for MV. So a total of eighteen tests
were done.
2.3.3. Experimental cases – the effect of supply parameter on
thermal environment
The higher the inlet velocity and the smaller the temperature
difference between the supply and indoor air, the more easily and
quickly the warm supply jet can be mixed with room air, thus mit-
igating the adverse effects of the invading cold air on the indoor
thermal environment. This is because the effect of inertia relative
to buoyancy on the supply jet increases with the increase of supply
velocity and the decrease of temperature difference of the supply
and indoor air. Sandberg and Etheridge [33] concluded that the ratio
of the inertia to buoyancy force of the supply air is determined by
the thermal length of the supply jet or buoyancy jet length scale
(lm ), where lm is calculated by [33–36]:
M 3/4
lm = (3)
B1/2
where M and B are the momentum and buoyancy fluxes, respec-
tively, which are defined as:
Q2
M= (4)
S
gQTs
B= (5)
Tr
where Q and S are the initial volume flux of the supply jet and the
area of the supply inlet, respectively.
The term g is the gravitational acceleration, Ts is the temper-
ature difference between the supply and indoor air, and Tr is the
reference temperature, which is set at 20.5 ◦ C in this study.
The length scale lm is used to quantitatively describe the com-
bined effects of the buoyancy and inertia of the warm supply jet
on the indoor thermal environment with cold air invasion in the
third set of experiments. The experiments were carried out on
1516 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522

Fig. 5. Time series of the air temperatures in the IJV and MV rooms at steady thermal state.

Table 4 experimental parameters for IJV and MV, respectively, where Tin ,t
Experimental parameters for the IJV heating system.
is the time-averaged temperature of the room.
Case No.  (tO /tT ) Vs (m/s) Ts (◦ C) Tin ,t (◦ C) lm (m)

1 0/320 1.18 38.5 20.6 0.64

2 0/320 1.5 34.2 20.6 0.94 3. Results and discussions
3 0/320 1.98 30.4 20.9 1.48
4 0/320 2.45 28.6 20.4 1.97 3.1. Effects of door opening frequency on the indoor thermal
5 40/320 1.15 41.1 20.9 0.59
6 40/320 1.55 35.9 20.9 0.92
environment
7 40/320 2.13 31.9 21.2 1.50
8 40/320 2.51 29.8 20.7 1.92 Time variations of the indoor air temperature of the eight exper-
9 80/320 1.05 43.1 21.0 0.52 iments with the same  introduced in Section 2.3.1 were measured
10 80/320 1.49 37.7 21.0 0.84
for analyzing the effects of door opening frequency (i.e., the fre-
11 80/320 2.1 32.9 20.3 1.36
12 80/320 2.49 31 20.6 1.78 quency of cold air invasion) on the indoor thermal environment of
13 160/320 0.98 46.5 21.5 0.45 IJV and MV, with Fig. 5 giving the time series of temperature (T)
14 160/320 1.51 41.5 20.6 0.76 at different measuring points of Pole-1 (near the door) and Pole-4
15 160/320 2.03 36.1 20.9 1.20 (near the supply inlet) in the IJV and MV rooms under steady-state
16 160/320 2.58 33.2 20.5 1.73
thermal conditions, where the time is displayed in minutes and
measurements started when a steady-state indoor environment
was achieved.
Table 5
Experimental parameters for the MV heating system. It can be seen from Fig. 5 that for both the IJV and MV sys-
tems, the temperature in the lower part of the room (e.g. Point-6
Case No.  (tO /tT ) Vs (m/s) Ts (◦ C) Tin ,t (◦ C) lm (m)
and Point-7) fluctuates with the opening and closing of the door
1 0/320 1.50 37.1 21.8 0.87 because cold outside air enters the room during the door opening.
2 0/320 1.98 33.5 21.6 1.31 The temperature near the ground (Point-7) fluctuates most remark-
3 0/320 2.52 31.4 21.9 1.86
ably. When the door is opened, the temperature sharply drops, and
4 40/320 1.45 38.6 22.1 0.83
5 40/320 1.95 34.6 22.0 1.25 once the door is closed, it gradually returns to its normal value.
6 40/320 2.45 32.6 21.9 1.71 Whereas the temperature in the vicinity of the ceiling (Point-1) is
7 40/320 3.5 29.1 21.7 2.87 almost unaffected by the incoming cold air and remains high at
8 80/320 1.5 39.9 22.2 0.81
all times during the test. This implies that when cold outside air
9 80/320 2.1 35.8 22.2 1.29
10 80/320 2.55 33.6 22.0 1.70 invades the heating room, the temperature of the occupied zone
11 80/320 3.48 30.2 22.1 2.73 is significantly decreased and the thermal stratification becomes
12 160/320 1.45 44.1 22.1 0.70 serious.
13 160/320 1.98 38.2 21.8 1.11 Fig. 5 also shows that the vertical temperature gradient near
14 160/320 2.5 35.8 21.8 1.52
the door (Pole-1) is much higher than that near the supply inlet
15 160/320 3.55 32.2 21.7 2.57
(Pole-4), and the temperature at the lower part of Pole-1 is far less
than that of Pole-4 in both the IJV and MV rooms. This is due to the
fact that the incoming cold air first flows downward to the floor
the premise that the time-averaged temperature in the occupied after it invades the room, then exerts strong cooling effects on the
zone (to a height of 1.8 m) (Toz ,t ) is at the comfortable value of air near the ground in the vicinity of the door (Pole-1), while the
about 20.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C [21]. Table 4 and Table 5 summarize the detailed warm supply air has the weakest heating effect on thermal state in
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 6. Profiles of the mean amplitude of temperature fluctuation and time-averaged temperature of the four poles at different heights h for the same .
Fig. 7. Vertical profiles of the time-averaged temperature along the four poles for different  in IJV (Vs = 1.5 ± 0.1 m/s, Ts = 45.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C).
the region far away from the supply inlet, because the spreading
distance of the warm air is constrained by the buoyancy effect, so
the lower parts near the door (Pole-1) are the coldest (Figs. Fig. 5(a)
and (c)).
Comparing Figs. 5(a)–(d), it can be observed that for the same
value of  and supply parameter, the thermal stratification around
the door (Pole-1) in IJV and MV are almost the same (see Fig. 5(a)
and (c)), while the vertical temperature gradient near the supply
nozzle (Pole-4) in IJV is much less than that in MV and the temper-
ature near the ground in the former is noticeably higher than that
in the latter (see Fig. 5(b) and (d)).
Fig. 6(a) and (b) presents the mean amplitude of the temperature
fluctuation with time (A) and time-averaged temperature of the
four test poles (Ta,t ) at different heights h for the same  in the IJV
and MV rooms, respectively.
Fig. 6 shows that the door opening frequency imposes the
strongest effect on A in the lower zones of both IJV and MV. The
values of A near the ground for the case with the smallest fre-
quency (i.e., the case of  = 40/640) in the two rooms are almost 3.5
times higher than those with the largest frequency (i.e., the case of
 = 5/80). Furthermore, Fig. 6 also shows that for the four different
door opening frequencies, the value of A at the same height h varies
obviously but the value of Ta,t remains almost unchanged. Thus, it
can be concluded that the door opening frequency only influences
the value of A but exerts no impact on Ta,t .
3.2. Effects of duration of door opening on the indoor thermal
environment
To investigate the effects of door opening duration (being equiv-
alent to the amount of cold air invasion) on the time-averaged
thermal and airflow fields, experiments were conducted under a
constant frequency, i.e., open the door once every 320 s (tT = 320),
with the six different door opening indexes  given in Section 2.3.2.
The profiles of the time-averaged temperature (Tt ) along the four
poles for the six different values of  in IJV and MV are shown in
1517
Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Only the results for MV with the supply
velocity Vs of 2.5 ± 0.1 m/s are given herein.
Fig. 7(a) shows that the time-averaged temperatures in IJV are
almost uniformly distributed along the room height when there is
no cold air entering the room. When tO is increased, see Fig. 7(b)
to (f), the values of Tt at all measuring points are decreased and
an obvious increase in the vertical temperature gradient appears
gradually.
Fig. 7 also indicates that for the cases with short duration of
door opening (e.g., the cases of  = 0/320, 20/320 and 40/320), the
Tt along Pole-4 (closes to the supply nozzle) is higher at the ground
level and lower in the upper parts of the room, which is contrary to
those along other three poles. With the increase of tO , the variation
trend of Tt along Pole-4 gradually becomes similar to other three
poles (Fig. 7(d)–(f)), i.e., the temperature is lower near the ground
and higher at the ceiling level. This is mainly attributed to the fact
that when tO is increased, the diffusion area of the incoming cold
air is expanded and the buoyancy effect on the warm supply air
is strengthened. This leads to the warm supply air rising upwards
to the ceiling before it reaches Pole-4, thus the temperature in the
lower region of Pole-4 is no longer affected by the warm supply jet.
The results in Fig. 8 show that there exists an evident thermal
stratification in the MV room, regardless of whether there is cold
outside air invading the room or not, and the vertical tempera-
ture gradient increases with the increase of tO . The temperature
distribution in the MV is similar to the results by Saïd [5], which
indicate that there exists two air layers, i.e., a warm air layer in
the upper part and a cold air layer in the lower part, in the hangar
bay area when MV is used for heating, and when cold air enters
into the hangar through the opened door, the temperature dif-
ference between the ceiling and floor are increased by at least
9 ◦ C. Moreover, it is seen that when tO is increased, the unifor-
mity of the temperature distribution along the horizontal direction
is decreased and the temperatures at the middle region of Pole-4
become higher than those of other three poles, see Fig. 8(d)–(f).
Additionally, the thermostat is the key component to achieve
automatic control of HVAC systems, and the locations of the
1518 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 8. Vertical profiles of the time-averaged temperature along the four poles for different  in MV (Vs = 2.5 ± 0.1 m/s, Ts = 45.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C).
thermostats are particularly important in such a space with non-
uniform temperature distribution. It can be seen from Figs. 7 and 8
that for both IJV and MV systems, although the temperature
changes obviously along the vertical direction, a uniform distribu-
tion forms along the horizontal direction except in the region near
the supply inlet (Pole-4), e.g., the temperatures on Pole-1 to Pole-
3 are almost the same at the same measuring height. Therefore, a
representative temperature can easily be obtained unless the ther-
mostat is close to the inlet. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 also indicate that the
vertical influence range of the invading cold air in the IJV and MV
are about to a height of 0.8 m and 1.3 m above the floor, respec-
tively, for different amounts of cold air invasion. Hence, when the
number of thermostats is limited, the thermostat can be placed at
the height of 0.4 m in IJV and 0.6 m in MV, respectively. When more
thermostats are need for precise operating control, the thermostats
can be uniformly arranged at different heights in the occupied zone
for both the IJV and MV systems.
Fig. 9 shows the floor-to-ceiling temperature difference (Tg ),
which is determined by the difference of the mean time-averaged
temperature between Point-0 and Point-8 of the four poles, and the
time-averaged temperature of the room (Tin ,t ) for different  in IJV
and MV.
It is seen from Fig. 9 that Tg increases with the increase of tO
for both IJV and MV, and when tO is increased to a certain extent,
Tg no longer varies significantly. In addition, Tg in IJV is much
less than that in MV and Tin ,t shows the opposite trend under the
condition of the same supply air parameters (Ts and Vs ) and , which
suggests that IJV may be more energy efficient than MV.
From Fig. 9 it can also be found that when Ts is fixed in MV, the
increase of Vs leads to a decrease in Tg and an increase in Tin ,t .
The reason is that the high momentum of the supply air weakens
the effect of buoyancy on the warm supply air, thus allowing it to
be more easily distributed into the lower part of the room, so the
thermal stratification is reduced.
Figs. 10 and 11 present the measured velocities (V) at different
measuring points of the four poles for the six  in the IJV and MV
rooms, respectively.
Fig. 10 shows that the incoming cold air in IJV mainly influences
the velocity in the lower parts of the room near the door (Pole-
1) and supply inlet (Pole-4), with the former increased and the
latter decreased as tO increases. This is because the temperature
difference between the supply and indoor air increases when tO is
increased, which causes the warm supply air to separate from the
floor and rise to the ceiling earlier and earlier, thereby resulting in
a decrease in velocity around the nozzle (Pole-4).
For the MV system, it can be found from Fig. 11 that the incoming
cold air imposes a significant effect only on the velocity near the
ground in the vicinity of the door (Pole-1). With the increase of tO ,
the velocity at the lower measuring point of Pole-1 is increased.
This increase near the base of Pole-1 is similar to the results for IJV.
It should be noted that the velocities above the floor except those
in the region close to the door (Pole-1) do not exceed 0.25 ± 0.1 m/s
in both the IJV and MV rooms, which are in the acceptable range
recommended by ISO 7730 [20].
3.3. Effects of supply parameters on the indoor thermal
environment
The above discussions indicate that when cold outside air
invades the heating room, the temperature in the occupied zone is
greatly reduced and the vertical temperature gradient is increased.
This leads to poor indoor thermal environment and increases the
heating energy consumption.
In order to investigate the effects of supply parameters on the
thermal environment in rooms with cold air invasion, the mean
time-averaged temperatures of the four poles (Ta,t ) at different
heights h in the IJV and MV rooms with different  are shown in
Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. The time-averaged temperature in
the occupied zone, Toz ,t , remains constant (Toz ,t = 20.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C) for
all of the tests (as listed in Tables 4 and 5), where the thermal length
of the supply jet lm corresponds to the supply parameters.
It is found from Figs. 12 and 13 that Ta,t in IJV and MV show a
similar pattern, i.e., for a fixed door opening index , the larger the
value of lm , the more uniform the distribution of Ta,t along the room
height. This can be explained by the fact that the momentum of the
supply jet increases as lm is increased (Eq. (3)), resulting in a better
mixing between the supply and indoor air. In addition, it can also
be found from Figs. 12 and 13 that when the values of  and lm in
IJV are almost the same as those in MV, the vertical temperature
gradient in the former is much less than that in the latter.
Fig. 14 shows the variations of Tg and the time-averaged tem-
perature of the upper zone (h > 1.8 m) (Tuz ,t ) with lm for IJV and MV
with the same time-averaged occupied zone temperature (Toz ,t ).
Fig. 14(a) indicates that Tg decreases with the increase of lm
and increases with increasing tO in both the IJV and MV rooms, but
the value of Tg in the former is much less than that in the latter
when the value of tO and the value of lm in IJV and MV are similar.
The results in Fig. 14(b) show that for every lm and , when Toz ,t
is 20.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C, Tuz ,t in the IJV room is around 22.0 ± 0.6 ◦ C, only
slightly higher than Toz ,t . Whereas in MV the values of Tuz ,t are
much greater than 20.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C, and the larger the value of tO or
the smaller the value of lm , the higher the value of Tuz ,t . It appears
that MV would result in much more excess heat loss caused by the
higher upper zone temperature when compared with IJV.
The increasing percentage of the heat loss of the room with an
evident thermal stratification (i.e., actual situation) relative to that
with a uniform indoor air temperature distribution (i.e., ideal sit-
uation), , is defined in this paper to quantitatively determine the
excess heat loss due to thermal stratification, allowing for a com-
parison of the heating energy consumption between the IJV and MV
systems. The expression for  is given by:
E1 − E2
= × 100% (6)
E2
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522 1519

Fig. 9. Variations of the floor-to-ceiling temperature difference and the time-averaged temperature of the room with  for IJV and MV.

Fig. 10. Measured velocities at different measuring points under different values of  for IJV with Vs = 1.5 ± 0.1 m/s and Ts = 45.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C.

Fig. 11. Measured velocities at different measuring points under different values of  for MV with Vs = 2.5 ± 0.1 m/s and Ts = 45.0 ± 0.3 ◦ C.

Fig. 12. Vertical profiles of the mean time-averaged temperature of the four poles in IJV with the same Toz ,t for different values of .
1520 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 13. Vertical profiles of the mean time-averaged temperature of the four poles in MV with the same Toz ,t for different values of .
Fig. 14. Variations of Tg and Tuz ,t with lm for different values of  at the same Toz ,t .
where E1 and E2 are the total heat loss of the actual and ideal
rooms, respectively. The larger the value of , the more the required
heating energy.
The total heat loss of the heating room usually includes the heat
loss through the building envelope (i.e., surrounding walls, floor
and ceiling) and the heat loss caused by cold air invasion, and its
expression is described as:
E i = K · F · (T in,i − Te ) + CG · (T in,i − T e )
where i = 1, 2 represents the actual and ideal situation, respectively.
E is the total heat loss. K is the averaged heat transfer coefficient of
the envelope, F is the total area of the building enclosure surface
and G is the averaged cold air invasion rate for each period.  and C
are the air density and its specific heat capacity, respectively. Tin,i
is the time-averaged indoor air temperature for the situation of i
and Te is the outdoor air temperature, which is 6.5 ± 0.3 ◦ C herein.
Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (6) yields the expression of :
Tin,1 − Tin,2
= × 100%
Tin,2 − Te
The variations of  with lm for different values of  in the IJV and
MV rooms at the same mean Toz ,t are presented in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15 indicates that  decreases with the increase of lm for
both the IJV and MV cases. When there is no cold air entering (i.e.,
 = 0/320), the values of  in MV are around 4% (Fig. 15(b)), which
are almost 4 times higher than that in IJV (Fig. 15(a)) for each lm ,
implying that the required heating energy for MV is much more
than that for IJV.
When there is obvious cold outside air invading the heating
room, the values of  in IJV and MV increase with the increase of
tO . The value of  does not exceed 20% for each lm and tO in the IJV
room, and the values of  are within 10% for most cases (Fig. 15(a)).
However, it is observed from Fig. 15(b) that  may be up to 44% for
a small value of lm and a large value of tO and barely reduce to 10%
when the supply air with a high value of lm is provided in the MV
room.
Consequently, it can be concluded that the improving effect
of the supply parameter on the indoor thermal environment and
heating energy consumption is much better in IJV than in MV.
(7)
3.4. Limitations and future works
The higher the room height, the stronger the thermal buoyancy
effect, and the more significant the effect of the invading cold air on
the indoor thermal stratification. Hence, the advantage of IJV versus
MV in resisting the bad effects caused by the invading cold air is
much more obvious in large-height buildings than in low-height
buildings. For space with a great depth (e.g. airport terminal), the
influence of the invading cold air through the opened entrance door
on the indoor thermal environment at a certain zone is related to
(8) the distance between this area and the entrance door, i.e., the hor-
izontal distribution of indoor temperature is also affected by the
invading cold air. Additionally, the outdoor air speed and temper-
ature, size of the entrance door and its open-shut method would
also affect the flow path of the cold air flowing into the room, and
thus influence the indoor thermal environment.
The present study was carried out by a series of experiments
in a climate chamber, so the building configurations (including the
height and width of a space, the depth of the room, etc.) and the
outdoor climate conditions cannot be taken into account due to the
limitations of the measurement method and conditions. The advan-
tages of IJV in resisting the adverse effects caused by the invading
cold air are only given under the condition of constant room height
and size and outside air temperature when compared with MV.
 X. Ye et al. / Energy and Buildings 158 (2018) 1510–1522
Fig. 15. Variations of  with lm for different values of  in IJV and MV at the same Toz ,t .
Therefore, to get more information of the heating performance
of IJV in large-height buildings of different sizes with various out-
door climates, some other techniques, e.g., numerical simulation,
full-scale experimental system, field measurement, etc., can be
employed to evaluate the indoor thermal environment.
4. Conclusion
During the winter heating season, masses of cold outside
air invade the heating room through the intermittent opened
entrance door due to occupants coming in and out frequently,
which decreases the temperature in the lower parts of the room
and strengthens the indoor thermal stratification. Although MV
is widely used for space heating, it consumes a large amount of
energy to meet the requirement of thermal comfort. IJV has excel-
lent energy conservation potential because it supplies a warm jet
directly into the occupied zone and weakens the disturbance of the
incoming cold outside air on the indoor air temperature.
In the present study, the heating performance of IJV and MV
are compared by conducting systematic experiments in a climate
chamber with cold outside air invading the heating space. The
intrusion of cold outside air is simulated by opening the door of
the chamber intermittently, and both the frequency and duration
of the door opening are considered, which are corresponding to the
frequency and amount of cold air invasion, respectively.
The measured results indicate that the air temperature in the
lower parts of the room fluctuates with the opening and closing
of the door. When the duration of the door opening is the same,
the frequency of the door opening only influences the amplitude
of temperature fluctuation with time and has no effect on the
time-averaged temperature for both the IJV and MV systems. The
temperatures in the occupied zone in IJV and MV are decreased by
at least 2.0 ◦ C when cold air invades the room. With the increase of
the duration of door opening, the decrease of temperature is fur-
ther increased and the floor-to-ceiling temperature difference in
IJV and MV are increased but the former is always much less than
60% of the latter. The results also show that when compared with
the ideal situation (i.e., the indoor air temperature distributes uni-
formly), the increasing rate of the heat loss of the room with an
evident thermal stratification for MV is almost 2.4 ∼ 4 times higher
than that for IJV. For most IJV cases, the increasing rates are within
10%, while this increasing rate can be up to 44% and barely reduce
to less than 10% even though the supply jet with large buoyant
jet length scale is present for MV. Therefore, the adverse effects
caused by the invading cold air on the indoor thermal environment
and heating energy consumption can be weakened in IJV by chang-
ing the supply parameters, but it does not work well in MV. It can
be concluded that compared with MV, IJV will have higher energy
1521
efficiency for heating spaces with cold air invasion, and the tem-
perature distribution in the occupied zone will be more uniform.
The present study mainly focused on investigating the temper-
ature distribution and energy consumption in an IJV heating room
with cold air invasion intermittently and compared these with MV.
On one hand, the results can be used to provide a theoretical basis
for the application and optimization of IJV. On the other hand,
the designers can optimize the air supply system according to the
results given in Section 3.3, i.e., the unnecessary energy consump-
tion can be reduced by increasing the thermal length of the supply
jet appropriately.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51278094 and 51478098), the
Innovation Foundation of Shanghai Education Commission, China
(Grant No. 13ZZ054) and the Chinese Universities Scientific Fund
(Grant No. CUSF-DH-d-15D311311). The authors would like to
thank Dr. D. Gottfried for his helpful discussions and recommenda-
tions.
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