FTKEN

Chapter 3

DC Circuits Analysis

1
 Chapter Outcome

 Ability to APPLY knowledge of mathematics equations

to SOLVE problems in DC circuits

2
 Chapter Outline
Method of Analysis.
 Nodal analysis
 Mesh analysis.
 Source transformation
 Thevenin and Norton Theorem
 Maximum power transfer
 Superposition

3
Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis provide a general procedure for analysing circuits
using node voltage as the circuit variable.
• Example: If you are given the following circuit, how to
determine:
(1) voltage across each resistor,
(2) current through each resistor.
(3) power generated by each current source, etc.

4
Steps to determine the node voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages v1,v2,…,vn-1 to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node.
3. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes.
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in
terms of node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain
the unknown node voltages.

5
Example
Circuit independent current source only
Apply KCL at
node 1 and 2
v1 v2

3
Gnd is acts as reference
point or node for circuit

6
 v1i i1
v2
1A 1

i3
i2

3
Node 1: Node 2:
1 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 𝑖𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑖3 +4

4 = 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖3
𝑉𝑉1 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 −0 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 3𝑉𝑉1 4𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 − 0 7𝑉𝑉1 − 7𝑉𝑉2 − 6𝑉𝑉2
1= + = =
6 2 6 6 = − =
6 7 42
6 = 4𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 (1)
168 = 7𝑉𝑉1 − 13𝑉𝑉2 (2)
answer v1 = -2 V
v2 = -14 V 7
 Current flows from higher
v1i i1
v2 potential to a lower potential
1A 1

i3 4
i2

3
Node 1: Node 2:
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
1 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑖3 +4
𝑅𝑅

4 = 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖3
𝑉𝑉1 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 −0 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 3𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 − 0 7𝑉𝑉1 − 7𝑉𝑉2 − 6𝑉𝑉2
1= + = 4𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2
6 2 6 = = − =
6 6 7 42
6 = 4𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 (1)
168 = 7𝑉𝑉1 − 13𝑉𝑉2 (2)

answer v1 = -2V,
v2 = -14V 8
2 Methods for Solving
1 : Elimination technique
2 : Cramer’s Rule

9
 Node 1: Node 2:
Example 𝑖𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑖3 𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑖4 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖5

𝑉𝑉1 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 −0

5=
𝑉𝑉1 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 −0
+ +10 = 5+
4 2 4 6
3𝑉𝑉1 − 3𝑉𝑉2 + 120 = 60 + 2𝑉𝑉2
20 = 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 2𝑉𝑉1
3𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 20 (1) −3𝑉𝑉1 + 5𝑉𝑉2 = 60 (2)

i1
i2 i4
(1)Elimination technique
i3 i5 Solve eq (1) and (2)
4𝑉𝑉2 = 80 𝑉𝑉2 = 20 𝑉𝑉
Replace V2=20 to eq (1)
40
3𝑉𝑉1 − 20 = 20 𝑉𝑉1 = = 13.333 𝑉𝑉
3

10
 Node 1: 3𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 20 (1)
Example
Node 2: −3𝑉𝑉1 + 5𝑉𝑉2 = 60 (2)

(2)Cramer’s rule
i1 To use Cramers rule, we need to put Eq
i2 i4 (1) & (2) in matrix forms

3 −1 𝑉𝑉1 20
=
i3 −3 5 𝑉𝑉2 60
i5
3 −1
Δ= = 15 − 3 = 12
−3 5
20 −1
Δ1 60 5 100+60
𝑉𝑉1 = = = = 13.333 V
Δ Δ 12
3 20
Δ2 −3 60 180+60
𝑉𝑉2 = Δ
= Δ
= = 20 V
12
11
Exercise

• Calculate voltage V1 & V2

12
Exercise

• Calculate currents i1, i2, i3, & i4

13
 Exercise
i4
Steps i1 i3
i5
1. Select reference node.
i2
2. Assign voltages v1,v2 i6
3. Apply KCL to each of
the n-1 non-reference
nodes.
4. Solve the resulting Node 1: Node 2:
simultaneous 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑖4 = 0 𝑖𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑖5 +𝑖𝑖4 = 𝑖𝑖6
equations to obtain 𝑖𝑖3 = −𝑖𝑖4 − 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 𝑖𝑖3 = 𝑖𝑖6 − 𝑖𝑖4 − 𝑖𝑖5
the unknown node −𝑉𝑉 +𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 −0
6 = 12 2 − 1 − 1
𝑉𝑉 −0 𝑉𝑉 −0 𝑉𝑉 −𝑉𝑉
6 = 2 − 1 2 2 −3
voltages. 10 5 4
60 = −5𝑉𝑉1 + 5𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 − 2𝑉𝑉1 24 = 𝑉𝑉2 − 2𝑉𝑉1 + 2𝑉𝑉2 − 12
60 = −8𝑉𝑉1 + 5𝑉𝑉2 (1) 36 = −2𝑉𝑉1 + 3𝑉𝑉2 (2)

Solving (1) and (2)

v1 = 0 V
v2 = 12 V 14
 i8
Exercise
i6
V1 V2 i7

Steps
1. Select reference node.
2. Assign voltages v1,v2
3. Apply KCL to each of Node 1: Node 2:
the n-1 non-reference
𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖6 + 𝑖𝑖8
nodes. 𝑖𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑖4 + 𝑖𝑖8 = 𝑖𝑖7
𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 = 6 + 3 𝑖𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑖4 + 3 = 2
4. Solve the resulting 𝑉𝑉 −0
9= 1 + 1
𝑉𝑉 −0
−1 = 𝑖𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑖4
simultaneous 20 10
180 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 2𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 −0 𝑉𝑉 −0
−1 = + 2
equations to obtain 𝑉𝑉1 = 60𝑉𝑉
40 40

the unknown node −40 = 2𝑉𝑉2

voltages. 𝑖𝑖1 =
𝑉𝑉1 − 0 60
= = 3𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉2 = −20𝑉𝑉
20 20
𝑉𝑉1 − 0 60
𝑖𝑖2 = = = 6𝐴𝐴
10 10
𝑉𝑉2 − 0 −20
𝑖𝑖3 = = = −0.5𝐴𝐴
40 40
𝑉𝑉2 − 0 −20
𝑖𝑖4 = = = −0.5𝐴𝐴
40 40
Example

Find V1, V2, V3 : current with dependent current source

16
Solution
To find V1, V2, V3

Please refer page 85 to learn method 2: Using Cramer ‘s Rule

answer v1= 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V

17
Nodal Analysis with Super-node

A super-node is formed by enclosing a voltage source

(dependent or independent) connected between two non-
reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel
with it.

*Note: We analyze a circuit with super-nodes using the

same four steps mentioned above except that the super-
nodes are treated differently.

18
Steps to Solve

1. Take off all voltage sources in super-nodes and apply

KCL to super-nodes.

2. Put voltage sources back to the nodes and apply KVL to

relative loops.

19
Example
Circuit with independent voltage source

How to handle the 2V voltage source?

20
How? Super-node => 2-i1-i2-7 = 0

21
Apply KVL => v1+2-v2 = 0

ECT@SIS 22
Example
Circuit with two independent voltage sources

23
 Solution
vx-3vx+6i3-20=0

i3+10= i1+i2 i1 = i3+i5+i4 -V1+20+V2 = 0 -V3+3vx+v4 = 0

24
i3+10= i1+i2 (1)

i1 = i3+i5+i4 (2)

Loop 1:
−𝑣𝑣1 + 20 + 𝑣𝑣2 = 0 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣2 = 20 (3)
Loop 2:
−𝑣𝑣3 + 3𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣4 = 0, 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣4
3𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣3 − 2𝑣𝑣4 = 0 (4)
Loop 3:
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑖𝑖3 − 20 = 0
but 6𝑖𝑖3 = 𝑣𝑣3 − 𝑣𝑣2 & 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣4 hence
−2𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣2 + 𝑣𝑣3 + 2𝑣𝑣4 = 20 (5)
From Eq.(3), 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣2 = 20. Substituting this into Eq.(1) & (2) gives
6𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣3 − 2𝑣𝑣4 = 80 (6)

6𝑣𝑣1 − 5𝑣𝑣3 − 16𝑣𝑣4 = 40 (7)

25
 3𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣3 − 2𝑣𝑣4 = 0 (4)

6𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣3 − 2𝑣𝑣4 = 80 (6)

6𝑣𝑣1 − 5𝑣𝑣3 − 16𝑣𝑣4 = 40 (7)

Write equation 4,6 & 7 in matrix form:

26
Mesh Analysis

 Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing

circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.

 Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables

is convenient and reduces the number of equations

 Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given

circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

 A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

27
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, into the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express

the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh

currents.

28
Mesh Analysis

Note:
i1 and i2 are mesh current (imaginative, not measurable directly)
I1, I2 and I3 are branch current (real, measurable directly)
I1 = i1; I2 = i2; I3 = i1 - i2

29
Example 6 – circuit with independent voltage sources

I1 = i1;
I2 = i2;
I3 = i1 - i2
Example 6 – circuit with independent voltage sources

I1 = i1;
I2 = i2;
I3 = i1 - i2

Mesh 1: Mesh 2:
−15 + 5𝑖𝑖1 + 10 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 + 10 = 0 6𝑖𝑖2 + 4𝑖𝑖2 − 10 + 10 𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑖𝑖1 = 0
15𝑖𝑖1 − 10𝑖𝑖2 = 5 20𝑖𝑖2 − 10 = 10𝑖𝑖1
3𝑖𝑖1 − 2𝑖𝑖2 = 1 (1) 𝑖𝑖1 = 2𝑖𝑖2 − 1 (2)

Insert (2) to (1) I1 = i1 =1 A;

𝑖𝑖2 = 1 I2 = i2 = 1 A;
3(2𝑖𝑖2 − 1) − 2𝑖𝑖2 = 1
4𝑖𝑖2 = 4 𝑖𝑖1 = 1 I3 = i1 - i2 = 0 A 31
Example - Circuit with dependent voltage sources

32
Example - Circuit with dependent voltage sources
Mesh 1:
−24 + 10(𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 ) + 12 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖3 = 0
11𝑖𝑖1 − 5𝑖𝑖2 − 6𝑖𝑖3 = 12 (1)

Mesh 2:
24𝑖𝑖2 + 4(𝑖𝑖2 −𝑖𝑖3 ) + 10(𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑖𝑖1 ) = 0
−5𝑖𝑖1 + 19𝑖𝑖2 − 2𝑖𝑖3 = 0 (2)

Mesh 1:
4(𝑖𝑖3 −𝑖𝑖2 ) + 4𝑖𝑖0 + 12(𝑖𝑖3 − 𝑖𝑖1 ) = 0
4(𝑖𝑖3 −𝑖𝑖2 ) + 4(𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖𝑖3 − 𝑖𝑖1 ) = 0
−𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 + 2𝑖𝑖3 = 0 (3)

11 −5 −6 𝑖𝑖1 12 i1 =2.25 A
−5 19 −2 𝑖𝑖2 = 0 i2 = 0.75 A i0 =i1 - i2 = 2.25 - 0.75 = 1.5 A
−1 −1 2 𝑖𝑖3 0 I3 = 1.5 A
33
 Mesh Analysis with Supermesh
Circuit with current source

 A super-mesh results when two meshes have a:

dependent or independent current source in common as shown in (a)
(current source exists between two meshes).
 A super-mesh created by excluding the current source and any
elements connected in series with it as shown in (b).
 If a circuit has two or more supermeshes, that intersect, they should
be combined to form a larger supermesh. 34
Supermesh (3.23b) Apply KVL

−20 + 6𝑖𝑖1 + 10𝑖𝑖2 + 4𝑖𝑖2 = 0

6𝑖𝑖1 + 14𝑖𝑖2 = 20 (1)

Supermesh (3.23a) Apply KCL to the node 0

𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑖𝑖1 =6 𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 6 (2)

Solving (1) & (2)

i1 = -3.2 A
i2 = 2.8 A 35
 For circuit in Fig. 3.24, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis.

36
 For circuit in Fig. 3.24, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis.
• Meshes 1 & 2 form a supermesh
because they have independent current
source in common.
• Meshes 2 & 3 form another supermesh
because they have dependent current
source in common.
• The two supermeshes intersect and
form a larger supermesh as shown here

Apply KVL in mesh 4:

2𝑖𝑖1 + 4𝑖𝑖3 + 8(𝑖𝑖3 − 𝑖𝑖4) + 6𝑖𝑖2 = 0
𝑖𝑖1 + 3𝑖𝑖2 + 6𝑖𝑖3 − 4𝑖𝑖4 = 0 (1) 2𝑖𝑖4 + 8 𝑖𝑖4 − 𝑖𝑖3 + 10 = 0
5𝑖𝑖4 − 4𝑖𝑖3 = −5 (4)
Apply KCL to node P:
𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 5 (2) From Eq(1) to Eq(4):
𝑖𝑖1 = −7.5 𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖3 = 3.93 𝐴𝐴
Apply KCL to node Q: 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = −𝑖𝑖4
(3) 𝑖𝑖2 = −2.5 𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖4 = 2.143 𝐴𝐴
𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖3 + 3𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖3 − 3𝑖𝑖4 37
The properties of a super-mesh

1. The current source in the super-mesh is not completely

ignored; it provides the constraint equation necessary to
solve for the mesh currents.

2. A super-mesh has no current of its own.

3. A super-mesh requires the application of both KVL and

KCL.

38
Nodal vs Mesh Analysis
To select the method that results in the smaller number of equations.
For example:

 Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than meshes.
 Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes than nodes.
 Networks that contain many series connected elements, voltage
sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for mesh analysis.
 Networks with parallel-connected elements, current sources, or
supernodes are more suitable for nodal analysis.
 If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal
analysis.
 If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to use
mesh analysis.

39
 Source Transformation
 We have noticed that series-parallel combination and
wye-delta transformation help simplify circuits. Source
transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits
 It is the process of replacing a voltage source vS in
series with a resistor R by a current source iS in parallel
with a resistor R, or vice versa.

40
Source Transformation (2)
+ +
-
(a) Independent source transform
-
+ +
- -
(b) Dependent source transform
• The arrow of the current
source is directed toward the
positive terminal of the voltage
source.
• The source transformation
is not possible when R = 0 for
voltage source and R = ∞ for
current source.
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 =
𝑅𝑅
41
Example – Source Transformation

Step 1: transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the circuit in
Fig. 4.18(a)

V=IR V=IR
=4x3 I =12/3
= 12 = 4A

Figure 4.18(a)
42
Step 2: Combining the and resistors in series and transforming the 12V
voltage source gives us Fig. 4.18(b)

V=IR
I =12/6
= 2A
Figure 4.18(b)
Step 3: Now combine the and resistors (6Ω & 3Ω) in parallel (now become
2Ω). We also combine the 2A and 4A current sources to get a 2A source.
Thus, by repeatedly applying source transformations, we obtain the circuit in
Fig. 4.18(c).

Figure 4.18(c)
4A+(-2A)=2A 43
 Exercise
Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.

44
 Exercise
Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.

Answer: 1.78 A
45
Thevenin’s Theorem
It states that a linear two-terminal circuit (Fig. a) can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit (Fig. b) consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with
a resistor RTH, where

• VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the

terminals.

• RTH is the input or equivalent resistance

at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

46
Example
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the
left of the terminals in the circuit shown below. Hence find i.

47
1. To find RTH, turn off the 12V (short circuit) and 2A current (open circuit)

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

12 × 4
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 6 + 6 ||4 = = 3Ω
12 + 4

2. To find VTH, we can used ‘source transformation’ rules

48
Now combine the 2A and 2A current sources to get a 4A source.

12 × 4
=3
Using voltage divider in figure (c) 12 + 4

49
3. To find VTH, Using nodal analysis
V
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
i3
i1
i2

𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖3

12 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 − 0 4
+2= 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉( )
6 10 6+4
60 − 5𝑉𝑉 + 60 = 3𝑉𝑉 4
= 15( )
10
120 = 8𝑉𝑉
=6V
𝑉𝑉 = 15 V

ECT@SIS 50
Example
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of 5Ω Ix 3Ω a

the circuit shown below to the left of

+
the terminals. 6V
+ i2 VTh
− i1 4Ω −
1.5Ix
i1 i2

o
b
(a)

0.5Ix 3Ω Ix a
i

5Ω 1.5Ix 4Ω + 1V
−
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 1.5𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥  𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = −0.5𝑖𝑖2 (1)
(2)
(b)
b
Solving (1) & (2) 𝑖𝑖2 =1.3333 A

51
 0.5Ix 3Ω Ix a
i

5Ω 1.5Ix 4Ω + 1V
−

(b)
b

52
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit of
a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN,

Where
• IN is the short circuit current through
the terminals.

• RN is the input or equivalent resistance

at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

The Thevenin’s and Norton equivalent circuits are related

by a source transformation.
53
Example Norton’s Theorem
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.39 at terminals a-b.

IN RN

54
Norton equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.40
Example Norton’s Theorem
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.39 at terminals a-b.

Alternative Method:

𝑖𝑖3 = 2 𝐴𝐴

25𝑖𝑖4 − 4𝑖𝑖3 − 12 = 0 𝑖𝑖4 = 0.8 𝐴𝐴

𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 5𝑖𝑖4 = 4𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 4 Norton
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = = = 1𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = = =4Ω equivalent of the
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4 𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 1
circuit 4.39
55
Example Norton’s Theorem
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit
below at terminals a-b.
Short circuit

𝑣𝑣0 = 1

Step 1: To find RN we set the independent

voltage source equal to zero and connect a
voltage source of V0=1V(or any unspecified
voltage)

56
To find IN, consider the circuit in Fig. (b). Because the 2 ohm resistor is
shorted, vx = 0 and the dependent source is inactive.

Hence, IN = Isc = 10A.

57
Maximum Power Transfer

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power

to a load.
There are applications in areas such as communications where it is
desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power
a linear circuit can deliver to a load.
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load
(RL = RTh).

58
Maximum Power Transfer (1)
If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin
equivalent except for the load, the power
delivered to the load is:
2
V
RL = RTH ⇒ Pmax = Th
4 RL

2
 VTh 
P = i 2 RL =   RL
 RTh + RL 

For a given circuit, VTH and RTH are fixed. We

notice that the power is small for small or
large values of RL but maximum for some
value of between 0 and ∞. The maximum
power occurs when RTH is equal to RL. This The power transfer profile with
different RL
is known as the maximum power theorem. ECT@SIS 59
Example
Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from the rest of
the circuit shown below. Calculate the maximum power.

ECT@SIS 60
 I1 I2
I1 = i1; i1 = i2+ i3
I3
I2 = i2; Hence
I3 = i1 - i2 i3 = i1 - i2

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1: −12 + 6𝑖𝑖1 + 12(𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 ) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2: 𝑖𝑖2 = −2𝐴𝐴

ECT@SIS 61
 Superposition

 If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one

way to determine the value of a specific variable (voltage
or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis.
 Another way is to determine the contribution of each
independent source to the variable and then add them up.
 The approach is known as the superposition.

ECT@SIS 62
Superposition Theorem

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find

the output (voltage or current) using nodal or mesh analysis.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the

contributions due to the independent sources.

ECT@SIS 63
Two things have to be keep in mind

1. When we say turn off all other independent sources:

 Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V
(short circuit) and
 Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A
(open circuit).

2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are

controlled by circuit variables.

ECT@SIS 64
Example
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit shown
below.

65
 Solution

 Since there are two sources (6V and 3A) , let  To get v2, set the voltage to 0 as shown in
(b), used current division:
 To obtain v1 ,we set the current source to
zero, as shown in Fig. (a). Applying KVL to
the loop in (a)
8 + 4 𝑖𝑖1 − 6 = 0  Hence,
𝑣𝑣2 = 4𝑖𝑖3 = 4×2
𝑖𝑖1 = 0.5𝐴𝐴 = 8V
 Hence;  So:
𝑣𝑣1 = 0.5x4
= 2V 66
 Example
Use superposition to find vx in the circuit.

2A is discarded by 10V is discarded

Dependant source
open-circuit by open-circuit
keep unchanged
20 Ω v1 20 Ω v2

+ 4Ω 0.1v1
10 V − 2A
4Ω 0.1v2

(a) (b)

*Refer to in-class illustration, text book, answer Vx = 12.5V 67

 Solution
20 Ω 20 Ω v2
v1

+ 4Ω 0.1v1
10 V 2A
− 4Ω 0.1v2

(a) (b)

Applying KVL to the loop in (a) To get v2, set the voltage to 0 as shown
in (b), used current division:
𝑣𝑣1 − 10 𝑣𝑣1 − 0
+ − 0.1𝑣𝑣1 = 0 𝑣𝑣2 − 0 𝑣𝑣2 − 0
20 4 + − 0.1𝑣𝑣2 − 2 = 0
20 4
𝑣𝑣1 − 10 5𝑣𝑣1 2𝑣𝑣1 𝑣𝑣2 5𝑣𝑣2 2𝑣𝑣2 40
+ − =0 + − − =0
20 20 20 20 20 20 20
𝑣𝑣1 = 2.5V 𝑣𝑣2 = 10V
V= 2.5 + 10V = 12.5V 68
TRY THIS….

69
TRY THIS….

70
TRY THIS….

71
 End
of
Chapter 3

72