MAT285 Further Mathematics For Engineers

FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS (MAT285)
EQUAL MATRIX ZERO [NULL MATRIX] DIAGONAL MATRIX

Upper Triangular
Same order Every element is zero All elements are zero
Square matrix A whose elements except for the elements on
aij=0 for I > j All their corresponding 0 0  leading diagonal.
T elements are equal. A=  
a11 a12 K a1n  0 0  a 0 0
0 a R 0 b 0
 22 K a 2n  Eg.
 
I
 M M  A 0 0 c 
 
0 0 K amn  N
3 1 6 G
SPECIAL TYPE
Eg: 0 4 1 U UNIT MATRIX / IDENTITY
0 0 2 L SQUARE
OF MATRIX MATRIX
A All elements on leading diagonal
R Number of rows and
Lower Triangular 1 0 0 
M columns are equal

are 1 0 1 0

Square matrix whose elements A 2 by 2
 
aij=0 for i < j T 0 0 1 
R
 a11 0 K 0  I
a K 0 
VECTOR
 21 a 22 X SYMETRIC MATRIX
 M M  Row vector Containing a single row Square matrix where aij=aji for all
 
am1 am 2 am3 amn 
[1 4 3]
elements.
 1 0 0
 1 2 3
eg: 2 4 0 Column Vector Containing a single
Eg. 2 4 5
3 5 6 2 3 5 6
 
column 4
 
1 
1
Operation matrices
Addition
• The matrices must have the same order.
Example
if A and B has same order.
a b c   g h i
A=   B=  j k l
d e f   
A+B=X
X is the sum of the 2 corresponding elements of A and B .
a + g b + h c + i
X = d + j e + k f + l 

Theorem: If A,B and C denoted arbitrary m by n matrices ,then
i) A + B = B + A
ii) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C
iii) O + A = A where 0 is the m by n zero matrix
iv) A + (-A) = 0
2
Example:
1 2 2 0  4 1
Let A=   , B=   and C=   Then find ;
3 4 1 3 2 0 
i) A+B
 1 2  2 0 
A+B=  +  
3 4 1 3
 3 2
=  
4 7 
ii) B+A
2 0   1 2 
B+A=   +  
1 3 3 4
 3 2
=  
4 7 
iii) A+(B+C)
1 2 2 0 4 1 
A + ( B+C ) =   +  + 
3 4   1 3 2 0 
1 2 6 1
=   +  
3 4 3 3
7 3
= 
6 7 
3
 1 2 2 0   4 1 
(A+B)+C =   +
iv)
 3 4  + 1 3   2 0
  
3 2 4 1
= + 
4 7   2 0 
7 3
= 
6 7 
v) A + (-A )
 1 2   − 1 − 2
A + (-A ) =  +  
3 4 − 3 − 4
0 0
=  
0 0
Example
2 1 − 4  1 − 1 4
Let A = 3 5 − 2 and B = 2 0 6  .Then find matrix M such that M – A = B.
 
0 2 1  4 − 5 2
Answer
M–A=B
M= B + A
1 − 1 4 2 1 − 4 
M = 2 0 6 + 3 5 − 2
 
   
4 − 5 2  0 2 1 
3 0 0 
= 5 5 4 
 
4 − 3 3 
4
Subtraction
• Subtraction of two matrices is analogous with addition.

• The matrices must have the same order.
Example
a b c   g h i
Let A =   and B=   . Then find the matrix A − B .
d e f   j k l
a b c  g h i
A – B = − 
d e f   j k l
a − g b − h c − i
=  
d − j e − k f − l 
Example
 1 2 3 3 1 2
Let A = 5 6 7 and B = 2 4 5 .Then find the matrix A − B .
 
4 8 9 0 6 7
 1 2 3 3 1 2
   
A − B = 5 6 7  — 2 4 5 
4 8 9 0 6 7
− 2 1 1
=  3 2 2
 4 2 2
5
Example
1 2   − 3 − 2 p q
If A = 3 4  and B = 1 − 5 , Find D = r s  such that B – A + D = 0.

  
5 6  4 3  t u
B–A+D=0
D=A–B
1 2   − 3 − 2
= 3 4 — 1
  − 5
  
5 6  4 3 
4 6
= 2 9 
 
1 3 
6
Multiplication
i) Scalar Multiplication
If A is a matrix and α is a number, the α A is the matrix formed whose all the
elements A multiply with the number α .
a c 
if A =  
b d
αa αc 
αA=  
αb αd
Example
5 2 7  15 6 21 
Let A =   then 3A = 0 − 9 − 3
0 − 3 − 1  
Example
1 − 1 3   4 − 2 8 1
Let A =   and B =   . Find 4A + B.
2 3 − 3 6 4 2 2
1 1 − 1 3  1  4 − 2 8
4A + B = 4 +
2 2 3 − 3 2 6 4 2
4 − 4 12  2 − 1 4
=   +  
8 12 − 12 3 2 1 
6 − 5 16 
=  
11 14 − 11
7
ii) Matrix Multiplication
It is only possible if ;
A = m x n matrix.
B = n x p matrix.
(The number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B )
So, X = AB will be a m x p matrix. The definition of X is

m
Xij = ∑ aik × bkj
k =1
Example
a b
g h i
A = c d B=  
 
e f   j k l
3 by 2 2 by 3
X = AB , will be 3 x 3 matrix.
a b
g h i
X = c d × 
 j k l
e f 
ag + bj ah + bk ai + bl
= cg + dj ch + dk ci + dl 
eg + fj eh + fk ei + fl 
8
Example
Find
i)
0 6 
 4 10  − 3 5 0 
  2 − 1 4
2 8  
0 + 12 0−6 0 + 24 

= − 12 + 20 20 − 10 0 + 40 
 
 − 6 + 16 10 − 8 0 + 32 
12 − 6 24 
= 8 10 40 
 
10 2 32 
ii)
2
1 2 − 1 1 2 − 1 1 2 − 1
2 1 2  =    
  2 1 2  2 1 2 
1 0 1  1 0 1  1 0 1  Note:
[A]2 = [A] [A]

1 + 4 − 1 2 + 2 − 1 + 4 − 1 
= 2 + 2 + 2 4 + 1 − 2 + 2 + 2
 
1 + 0 + 1 2 −1+1 
 4 4 2
=  6 5 2
 
2 2 0
9
Transposition
• Converting an M by N matrix into an N by M

• It denoted by a superscript T.
a d
a b c 
Let A =   then A = b e
T
 
d e f  c f 
Example
7 2 3 
Given A = 4 5 6 Find A T .
 
1 0 8 
7 4 1 
A T
= 2 5 0
3 6 8
Example
2 4 
Given B = 7 8  .Find B T .
 
6 5 
2 7 6
BT =  
4 8 5 
Theorem:
i) (A )
T T
=A
ii) (KA)T = KAT when K is a scalar
iii) (A + B)T = A T + BT
iv) (A × B)T = BT × AT
10
Example
T
 1 − 2   3 − 1
Find the matrix A if A T + 2  = 5 
  5 0  1 7 
T
 T 1 − 2  3 − 1
A + 2  = 5 
  5 0  1 7 
T
 1 2  15 − 5
A + 2   = 
 5 0  5 35 
1 5  15 − 5
A + 2 = 
− 2 0 5 35 
2 10  15 − 5 
A+ = 
− 4 0  5 35 
15 − 5  2 10 
A=  − 
5 35  − 4 0 
13 − 15
= 
9 35 
11
Example
3 1  5 6
and if (2A + B ) + B T = 
T
Find the matrix A if matrix B is   .
 4 2 7 8 
Answer
5 6
(2A + B)T + B T =
7 8
5 6
2A T + B T + B T = 
7 8
5 6 
2A T + 2B T =  
7 8 
T
3 1  5 6
2A + 2 
T
 = 
4 2 7 8 
3 4 5 6
2A T + 2  =
1 2 7 8
6 8  5 6
2A T +  =
2 4 7 8
5 6 6 8 
2A T =  − 
7 8   2 4
 − 1 − 2
2A T = 
5 4 
1  − 1 − 2
AT = 
25 4 
1  − 1 5
A=
2 − 2 4
12
TUTORIAL
1 . Find the value of a,b, and c such that the matrices are equal.
5 − 1 0 a − b − 1 0
a)  = 
 1 2 3   c −b 3 
 7 − 9 a + b a 
b)  = 
− 6 4   b − c 4
2 . Given the following matrices;
 10 − 3 2 − 3 4   − 5 3 − 2 3 0
A=  B=  C=  D= 
− 2 12   0 6 − 5  6 0  1 − 5 2
Find;
a. 3A − 2C
b. 5D + 4 B
c. 7 A + 8B
d. D − 3C
3 . Find a,b,c, and d. If
a b   a 3   6 − c a + b 
 c d  =  2 b  + d + b 2 
    
4 . Suppose A,B,C and D are matrices with their sizes defined as follows;
A 3×3 B 2×3 C 3×2 and D 2×2
Determine the size of the matrix obtained if the following operations are performed.
a. ABT
b. CD
T
c. CD
d. DB
T
e. B C
f. ABT + CD
(
g. B C T A )
13
5 . Calculate the following matrix multiplication (if defined)

2
a. [5 − 1]  
3
 3 
b. − 2  [0 1 5]
 
 1 
4 − 3  2 
c. 0 1  − 5
  
0 7  9 − 3
d.   
 3 8  6 0 
1 0 0   2 3 5 
e. 0 1 0   − 2 0 1 
   
0 0 1   1 4 − 3
 5 − 4
f. 3 2  1 2 
  8 − 3
− 1 0   
6 . Given the following matrices;

 2 − 3 0
3 − 2 4  − 2 1 3
A =  5 − 1 4 B =   C= 
− 1 0 0  1 5 0   0 7 4
6 − 3 1   7 1 − 2 4 
D=  E=  F= 
0 2 − 5  0 8  3 − 1
Find
a. A 2
b. ABT
c. AE
d. EF
e. (FE )T
f. BT E
g. FD
h. DB
i. BA
14
Answer
1. a. a =3 b = −2 c = 1
b. a = −9 b = 16 c = 22
 40 − 15 − 2 3 16 
2. a.   b. 
− 18 36   5 − 1 − 10
c. undefined d. undefined
3. a = −3 b =1 c = 6 d=3
a. 3 × 2 e. undefined
b. 3 × 2 f. 3× 2
4.
c. 3 × 2 g. undefined
d. 2 × 3
5.
a. 7
0 3 15 

b. 0 − 2 − 10 
0 1 5 
 23 
c.  
 − 5
42 0
d. 
75 − 9
2 3 5
e. − 2 0 1 
 1 4 − 3
− 27 22 
f .  18 0 
 − 1 − 2
15
6.
− 11 − 3 − 12
− 14 21 
a.  1 − 14 − 4  e.  
 − 2 3 0   30 − 5
 12 − 13
 21 11
b.  33 0  f.  
− 3 − 1  − 14 38
− 12 14 − 22
c. undefined g.  
 18 − 11 8 
− 11 27 
d.   h. undefined
 24 − 8
− 8 − 7 − 8
i.  
 27 − 8 20 
16
Determinants
• The determinant of a square matrix is a single number calculated by combining all the
elements of the matrix.
• Let A is a square matrix, determinant of A is given by the det A or A .
Example
The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix.
a b
A=   A = ad-bc
c d
Example
Find;
2 4
i)
3 5
2 4
= 2(5) − 3( 4)
3 5
= 10 − 12
= -2
6 1
ii)
2 5
6 1
= 6(5) − (1)( 2)
2 5
= 30 - 2
= 28
17
Laplace Expansion
• An inductive way to define the determinant, det A of any square matrix.

• The idea is to defined the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix in term of determinant of 2
by 2 matrix .Then given the determinant of any 4 by 4 matrix in term of 3 by 3 matrix,
the formula is
+ − +
a b c
− + − e f d f d e
d e f = a - b +c
+ − +
h i g i g h
g h i
Note: If you take the 2nd row as the coefficient, the formula will be,
b c a c a b
= -d + e -f
h i g i g h
Note: The calculation become simpler if you take the row which has zero element as the
coefficient.
18
Example
2 3 5 
Find the determinant of A if A =  4 2 1  .
 
0 3 − 2
Answer
2 3 5
2 5 2 3
4 2 1 = −3 −2
+ − +
4 1 4 2
0 3 −2
= -3(2(1) - 4(5)) - 2(2(2) - 4(3))

= −3(2 − 20) − 2( 4 − 12)
= −3( −18) − 2( −8)
= 54 + 16
= 70
Example
 4 2 1
Find the determinant of B if B =  1 3 2  .
 
 2 1 4 
Answer
+ − +
4 2 1
3 2 1 2 1 3
1 3 2 =4 −2 +
1 4 2 4 2 1
2 1 4
= 4(3( 4) − 1(2)) − 2(1( 4) − 2(2)) + (1 − 2(3))

= 4(12 − 2) − 2( 4 − 4) + (1 − 6)
= 4(10) − 2(0) + ( −5)
= 40 − 0 − 5
= 35
19
Example
2 − 1 0 3
1 0 5 7
Find the determinant of C if C =  .
7 9 0 2
 
4 0 0 8
Answer
+
2 −1 0 3
− −1 0 3 2 −1 0
1 0 5 7
+
= −4 0 5 7 + 8 1 0 5
7 9 0 2 + − +
7 9 0
−
9 0 2
+ − +
4 0 0 8
 5 7 0 5  0 5 1 5
= −4 − 1 +3  + 8 2 
  9 0 + 7 0
 0 2 9 0   
= −4( −10 + 3( −45)) + 8( 2( −45) + ( −35))

= −4( −10 − 135) + 8( −125)
= 580 − 1000
= −420
20
Properties Of Determinant
Theorem :Let A , B ,and C are n by m matrices.
i) If B is obtained from A by interchanging two different rows or columns , then

determinant of B
det B = - det A
Example
1 2 3 4
Find det (A) and det (B) if A =   and B=  .
3 4 1 2
Answer
A = 4−6
= -2
Since B obtained from A by interchanging row, so B = 2.
Proof:
B = 6−4
=2
Example
2 3 4 1
Let A =   and A = −10. Find the determinan t of B, if B =  
4 1 2 3 
Since B obtained from A by interchanging row, then B = 10 .
21
ii) If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row or column by a number K , then
det B = K det A
det (KB) = K n det A
Example
- 2 3  − 4 6 − 6 9 
Let A =   ,B =  − 3 4 and C = − 9 12
- 3 4    
Then find det A, det B, and det C.
Answer
A = −2( 4) − ( −3)(3 )
= −8 + 9
=1
Since 1st row of matrix B is obtained from A by multiplying 1st row by a number 2. So,
B = 2(1) = 2 .
Matrix C is obtained from A by multiplying all the row by a number 3. Then,

C = 32 (1) = 9
22
iii) If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of some row or column of A to a different

row or column , then
det B = det A
Example
- 1 3 0  - 1 3 0 
Let A =  2 1 0 and B =  2 1 0  . Find det B if det A = -7.
 
 3 2 1  5 - 4 1
Answer
− 1 3 0  - 1 3 0 
 2 1 0    →  2 1 0 
R 3 − 2 R 1 →R 3
 
 3 2 1  5 - 4 1
Since B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of some row of A to a different row, then det
A = det B, det B= -7.
iv) If A and B are square matrices, then:
T
• A = A
• A +B ≠ A + B
• AB = A B
v) If A has repeating row and column, then A = 0
23
Example
a b c
By using properties of determinant, compute A if p q r = 5 and
x y z
 a + 2 x b + 2 y c + 2z 
 
A = 3 x + 4p 3 y + 4q 3z + 4r  .
 − 2p − 2q − 2r 
Answer
a + 2x b + 2y c + 2z
2 + 2 R 3 →R 2
3x + 4p 3y + 4q 3z + 4r R  →
− 2p − 2q − 2r
a + 2 x b + 2 y c + 2z 1
R 2 →R 2
3x 3y 3z  → 3
− 2p − 2q − 2r
a + 2 x b + 2 y c + 2z 1
− R 3 →R 3
(3) x y z 
2
→
− 2p − 2q − 2r
a + 2 x b + 2 y c + 2z
R1 − 2 R 2 →R1
(3)(−2) x y z   →
p q r
a b c
2 ↔R 3
(3)(−2) x y z R →
p q r
a b c
(3)(−2)(−1) p q r
x y z
∴ A = (3)(−2)(−1)(5)
= 30
24
Inverse Matrices
Let A and B are square matrices.
• AB = BA = I. Where I is an identity matrix, then B is called the inverse for

matrix A.
• Write B = A −1
• A possessing an inverse is called non singular or invertible.
• A has an inverse if and only if the A ≠ 0 .
Properties of Inverse:
1
A −1 =
• A
• (AB )−1 = B −1A −1
Formula to Find Inverse Matrix For 2 by 2:
a b
If A =   , then A −1 is given by
c d
1  d − b
A −1 = − c a 
ad − bc  
25
Example
 4 1
Given matrix A =   , find A −1 .
2 3
Answer
1  3 − 1
A −1 =
4(3) − (1)( 2) − 2 4 
1  3 − 1
=
12 − 2 − 2 4 
1  3 − 1
=
10 − 2 4 
Example
1 2  −1
Given matrix B =   , find B .
 0 1 
Answer
1 1 − 2
B −1 =
1 − 0 0 1 
1 − 2 
= 
0 1 
Example
Given A −1 = 3 and B −1 = −5 . Find

a. AB −1
b. (AB )−1
Answer
AB −1 =
1
(− 5)
3
−5
=
3
(AB) = B −1A −1
−1
= (− 5)(3)
= −15
26
Minors
• Formed by deleting the row and column containing that element.

• If determinant of order n, then minors are of order (n-1).
• Mij denotes the minor and it is called the minor of aij
Example
a b c 
If A = d e f  , then the minor are.
 
g h i 
Answer
e f d f d e
M11 = M12 = M13 =
h i g i g h
b c a c a b
M21 = M22 = M23 =
h i g i g h
b c a c a b
M31 = M32 = M33 =
e f d f d e
27
Example
5 2 4
Find all minors of A =  4 0 1  .
 
1 6 3 
Answer
0 1 4 1 4 0
M11 = M12 = M13 =
6 3 1 3 1 6
2 4 5 4 5 2
M21 = M22 = M23 =
6 3 1 3 1 6
2 4 5 4 5 2
M31 = M32 = M33 =
0 1 4 1 4 0
 − 6 11 24 
M =  − 18 11 28 
 2 − 11 − 8
Example
2 5 6 
Find all minors of B =  3 3 − 4  .
 
1 4 8 
Answer
3 −4 3 −4 3 3
M11 = M12 = M13 =
4 8 1 8 1 4
5 6 2 6 2 5
M21 = M22 = M23 =
4 8 1 8 1 4
5 6 2 6 2 5
M31 = M32 = M33 =
3 −4 3 −4 3 3
 40 28 9 

M =  16 10 3 
 − 38 − 26 − 9 
28
Cofactors
The cofactors of an element are minor multiplying by the appropriate sign.
Cij = (− 1) × Mij
i+ j
Example
 a11 a12 a13 

If A = a 21 a 22 a 23  , then the cofactor C

a 31 a 32 a 33 
C11 = (− 1) C12 = (− 1) C13 = (− 1)

1+1 1+ 2 1+ 3
⋅ M11 ⋅ M12 ⋅ M13
C21 = (− 1) C22 = (− 1) C23 = (− 1)
2 +1 2+2 2+3
⋅ M21 ⋅ M22 ⋅ M23
C31 = (− 1) C32 = (− 1) C33 = (− 1)
3 +1 3+ 2 3+ 3
⋅ M31 ⋅ M32 ⋅ M33
Example
a b c 
If M = d e f  is a minor of a matrix. Find the cofactor.
 
g h i 
Answer
 a −b c 
C =  − d e − f 
 g − h i 
29
Example
 − 5 − 4 − 3
If the minor of matrix B is M =  − 2 1 − 6  . Find the cofactor of matrix B.
 
 0 3 4 
Answer
− 5 4 − 3
C =  2 1 6 
 0 − 3 4 
The Adjoint of Square Matrix
• [ ]
Let A = aij be a n- square matrix and Cij be the cofactor of aij , then by definition,
[ ]
adjoint A = adj A = Cij
T
Example
a b c 
Find the adjoint of the matrix A if the cofactor of matrix A is C = d e f  .
 
g h i 
Answer
T
a b c 
Adj A = d e f 
g h i 
a d g
= b e h
c f i 
30
Example
2 3 4 
Find the adjoint of the following matrix A = 0 5 1
 
6 2 0 
Answer
Step1: Find the minors
5 1 0 1 0 5
 
2 0 6 0 6 2
3 4 2 4 2 3
M=  
2 0 6 0 6 2
3 4 2 4 2 3
5 1 0 1 0 5 

 −2 − 6 − 30 
M =  − 8 − 24 − 14 

 − 17 2 10 
Step2: Find the cofactor
 −2 6 − 30 

C= 8 − 24 14 
 − 17 − 2 10 
Step 3: Transpose the cofactor
 −2 8 − 17 

Adj A =  6 − 24 − 2 
− 30 14 10 
31
Example
 − 1 6 − 2
Find the adjoint of the following matrix C =  2 4 1  .
 
− 3 0 5 
Answer
Step1: Find the minor
 4 1 2 1 2 4
 
 0 5 −3 5 −3 0
6 −2 −1 − 2 −1 6
M= 
0 5 −3 5 −3 0
6 −2 −1 − 2 −1 6
4 1 2 1 2 4 

20 13 − 12 
M = 30 − 11 18 
14 3 − 16 
 20 − 13 − 12
C = − 30 − 11 − 18
 14 − 3 − 16
 20 - 30 14 
Adj C = - 13 - 11 - 3 
- 12 - 18 - 16 
32
Inverse By Using Adjoint Method
Theorem: Let A be any square matrix, if det A ≠ 0 then
1
A −1 = adj A
det A
Example
1 2 3
Find the inverse of the following matrix B = 0 3 1 .
 
 1 2 4 
Answer
Step1: Find the minor
3 1 0 1 0 3
 
2 4 1 4 1 2
2 3 1 3 1 2
M= 
2 4 1 4 1 2
2 3 1 3 1 2
3 1 0 1 0 3 

 10 − 1 − 3 
M =  2 1 0 
 − 7 1 3 
 10 1 − 3 
C =  − 2 1 0 
 − 7 − 1 3 
33
10 - 2 - 7 
Adj B =  1 1 - 1
- 3 0 3 
Step 4: Find det B
1 3 1 2
B =3 −
1 4 1 2
= 3(4 - 3) - 0
=3
Step 5: Find B −1 .
1
B −1 = adj B
det B
 10 − 2 − 7
1
= 1 1 − 1
3
− 3 0 3 
Example
 1 4 2
Find the inverse of matrix A = 0 2 1 by using adjoint method.
 
3 5 3
Step1: Find the det A
1 2 1 4
A =2 −
3 3 3 5
= 2(3 - 6) - (5 - 12)
= −6 + 7
=1
34
Step 2: Find the minor
2 1 0 1 0 2
 
5 3 3 3 3 5
4 2 1 2 1 4
M= 
5 3 3 3 3 5
4 2 1 2 1 4
2 1 0 1 0 2 

 1 − 3 − 6
M = 2 − 3 − 7 
0 1 2 
Step 3: Find the cofactor
 1 3 − 6
C =  − 2 − 3 7 

 0 − 1 2 
 1 −2 0 
Adj A =  3 − 3 − 1
 − 6 7 2 
Step 5: Find the A −1
1
A −1 = adj A
A
 1 −2 0 
=  3 − 3 − 1
1
1
− 6 7 2 
 1 −2 0 
=  3 − 3 − 1
− 6 7 2 
35
Example
2 3 − 2
Find the inverse of matrix D = 1 4 − 1  by using adjoint method.
 
 3 0 5 
Answer
Step 1: Find the D.
3 −2 2 3
D =3 +5
4 −1 1 4
= 3(−3 + 8) + 5(8 − 3)
= 15 + 25
= 40
Step 2: Find minor
4 −1 1 −1 1 4
 
0 5 3 5 3 0
3 −2 2 −2 2 3
M= 
0 5 3 5 3 0
3 −2 2 −2 2 3
4 −1 1 −1 1 4 

 20 8 − 12
M = 15 16 − 9 
 5 0 5 
Step 3: Find the cofactor
 20 − 8 − 12 
C = − 15 16 9 
 5 0 5 
 20 - 15 5 
Adj D =  - 8 16 0 
- 12 9 5 
36
Step 5: Find the D −1 .
1
D −1 = adj D
D
 20 − 15 5
1 
=  − 8 16 0
40
− 12 9 5
 1 3 1
 2 −
8 8
 1 2 
=− 0
 5 5 
− 3 9 1
 10 40 8 
Elementary Row Operation
The matrix operation of
a) Interchanging two rows Ri ↔ R j , i ≠ j .
Example
2 3  R1 ↔ R2 1 4
 1 4   →  
  2 3 
37
b) Adding a multiple of one row to another row, Ri + kR j .
Example
1 2 1
2 3 1  R 2 − 2R1 → R 2
 →

1 0 2
1 2 1
0 − 1 − 1  R 3 − R1 → R3
 →

1 0 2 
1 2 1
0 − 1 − 1
 
0 − 2 1 
c) Multiplying any row by a non zero element kR i , k ≠ 0.
Example
3 1 21 R2 →R2 3 1
2 4  →1 2
   
Note: We can use elementary row operations in finding the determinant and the inverse.
38
Determinant By Using Elementary Row Operation
Example
Find the determinant of the following matrix by using properties of determinant.
− 2 4 3 
A =  1 0 2 
 4 1 − 1
Answer
−2 4 3 1
R 2 + R1 →R 2
1 0 2  
2
→
4 1 −1
−2 4 3
7 R 3 + 2 R 1 →R 3
0 2   →
2
4 1 −1
−2 4 3 1
7 2 R 2 →R 2
0 2 →
2
0 9 5
−2 4 3
(2) 0 1 7 
R 3 −9 R 2 → R 3
 →
4
0 9 5
−2 4 3
7
(2) 0 1
4
43
0 0 −
4
43 − 2 4
A = (2)(− )
4 0 1
 43 
= (2) − (− 2) = 43
 4
39
Example
2 −3 −4
Find B = 1 0 −2 .
0 −5 −6
Answer
2 −3 −4 1
R 2 − R1 → R 2
1 0 − 2  
2
→
0 −5 −6
2 −3 −4
3
0 0
2
0 −5 −6
3 2 −4
B=
2 0 −6
=
3
(− 12)
2
= −18
40
Finding Inverse Of Matrix By Using Elementary Row Operations.
• Suppose A is a square matrix and there exist a sequence of elementary row

operation that carry A → I . Then A is invertible and this same sequence carries
I → A −1
• [ ] [−1
]
Thus A I → I A where the row operations on A and I are carried out
simultaneously.
Example
1 3
Find the inverse of matrix A =   by using elementary row operation.
 2 5
1 3 1 0  R 2 − 2 R 1 → R 2
     →
2 5 0 1
1 3 1 0 R1 +3R 2 →R1
    
→
0 − 1 − 2 1 
1 0 − 5 3 − R 2 →R 2
   →
 0 − 1 − 2 1
1 0 − 5 3 
 
0 1 2 − 1
− 5 3 
∴ A −1 =  
 2 − 1
41
Solve Using Inversion Method A −1 .

(Only for non zero determinant, unique solution)
Theorem: If the coefficient matrix A of a system of n equations is n unknowns is

non-singular (det A ≠ 0), then the system AX = B has the unique solution.
X = A −1B
Example
1 1 0 
Find the inverse of matrix A = 0 − 1 2  .
 
1 0 1 
Answer
1 1 0 1 0 0
  R3 −R1→R3
0 − 1 2 0 1 0    →
1 0 1 0 0 1
 
1 1 0 1 0 0
  −R 2 →R2
0 − 1 2 0 1 0  →
0 − 1 1 − 1 0 1
 
1 1 0 1 0 0
  R3 +R2 →R3
0 1 − 2 0 − 1 0    →
0 − 1 1 − 1 0 1
 
1 1 0 1 0 0
  −R3 →R3
0 1 − 2 0 − 1 0  →
0 0 − 1 − 1 − 1 1
 
42
1 1 0 1 0 0 
  R2 + 2R3 →R2
0 1 − 2 0 − 1 0    →
0 0 1 1 1 − 1
 
1 1 0 1 0 0 
  R1 − R2 →R1
0 1 0 2 1 − 2    →
0 0 1 1 1 − 1
 
1 0 0 − 1 − 1 2 
 
0 1 0 2 1 − 2
0 0 1 1 1 − 1
 
− 1 − 1 2 
∴A −1
=  2 1 − 2
 1 1 − 1
Solve the system of linear equation using the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
x+y = 4
− y + 2z = 5
x+z = 6
Answer
X = A −1B
4
B = 5 
6 
− 1 − 1 2  4 
X =  2 1 − 2 5 
 1 1 − 1 6
3
= 1
3
43
Example
Find the inverse of the following matrix using elementary row operation.
 1 4 2
A =  1 2 3
3 5 3
Answer
1 4 2 1 0 0
  R 2 − R1 → R 2
1 2 3 0 1 0    →
3 5 3 0 0 1
1 4 2 1 0 0
  R 3 −3R1 →R 3
0 − 2 1 − 1 1 0    →
3 5 3 0 0 1
1 4 2 1 0 0 R
  − 22 →R 2
 0 − 2 1 − 1 1 0   →
0 − 7 − 3 − 3 0 1
1 4 2 1 0 0
 1 1 1  3 + 7 R 2 →R 3
0 1 − − 0 R  →
 2 2 2 
 0 − 7 − 3 − 3 0 1
 
1 4 2 1 0 0
 1 1 1  − 2 R 3 →R 3
0 1 − − 0 
13
 →
 2 2 2 
0 0 − 13
1
1 7
−
 2 2 2 
 
1 4 2 1 0 0 
 1 1 1  R 2 + 1 R 3 →R 2
0 1 − − 0    2
→
 2 2 2 
0 0 1 − 1 7
− 
2
 13 13 13 
44
 
1 4 2 1 0 0 
 6 3 1  R1−4R2 →R1
0 1 0 − −    →
 13 13 13 
0 0 1 − 1 7
− 
2
 13 13 13 
 11 12 4 
 −
1 0 2 613 133 13 
0 1 0 1
− −   R1 −2R3 →R1
 →
 13 13 13 
0 0 1 1 7 2
 − − 
 13 13 13 
 9 2 8 
 − −
1 0 0 613 13 13 
0 1 0 3 1
− − 
 13 13 13 
0 0 1 1 7 2
 − − 
 13 13 13 
 9 2 8 
− 13 −
13 13 
 6 3 1
∴ A −1 =  − − 
 13 13 13 
− 1 7
− 
2
 13 13 13 
45
Solve the system of linear equation using the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
x + 4 y + 2z = 2
x + 2y + 3z = −1
3 x + 5 y + 3z = 3
Answer
X = A −1 B
2
B = − 1
 3 
 9 2 8 
−
 13 −
13 13  2
 6 1
X= −
3
−  − 1
 13 13 13   
− 1  3 
− 
7 2
 13 13 13 
 8 
 13 
 12 
= 
 13 
− 15 
 13 
46
TUTORIAL
Question 1
a b  e f
Given A =   and B =  . If A = 4 and B = 6 , find
c d  g h 
i. A 3 BT
ii. 6 A −1
Question 2
a b c 
Given matrix A = d e f  . If the A = 4 , use the properties of determinant to find
 
g h i 
i. 3A
2c + a 2b 2a
ii. 2f + d 2e 2d
2i + g 2h 2g
Question 3
Consider the following system of linear equations.
2 x + 2 y − 3z = 4
3y + 6z = −3
2 y − 2 x + 6z = 5
i. Write the above system in the matrix form, AX = B . Then, find A-1 by using the
adjoint method.
ii. Hence, solve the system of linear equations by using the inversion method.
47
Question 4
 1 −5 4 
Given B =  3 1 − 1 find B −1 using cofactor expansion.

 − 2 1 − 1
Hence, solve the following system of linear equations

x − 5 y + 4z = 5
3 x + y − z = −5
− 2x + y − z = 0
Question 5
Consider the system of linear equations
x−y=2
y − 2z = 2
x − 4z = 4
i. Find the coefficient matrix for the above system.

ii. Find the inverse of matrix obtained from (i) using the adjoint method.
iii. Hence, solve the system of linear equations using the inversion method.
Question 6
− 1 2 0 

Given matrix A = 3 1 − 1 .

 
 2 1 0 
i. Find A
ii. Find adj A
iii. Find A −1
Hence, solve the following system of linear equations using the inversion method.
− x + 2y = 2
3x + y − z = 0
2 x + y = −4
48
Question 7
1 2 3

Find the inverse of matrix P = 2 1 1  using elementary row operation.

− 1 − 1 − 1
Question 8
2 − 1 1 1 3 − 1
  
Given A = 1 0 1 and B = − 1 5 − 1

   
3 − 1 4 − 1 − 1 1 
i. Find AB and hence, derive the inverse of A.

ii. Using the above result, solve the following system of linear equations.
iii.
2x − y + z = 3
x + z =1
3x − y + 4 z = 0
Question 9
1 2 − 3
 
If A = 2 − 1 − 1 , find the adjoint method.
 
3 2 1 
Then, solve the following system of linea equations using the inversion method.
x + 2 y − 3z = 3
2 x − y − z = 11
3x + 2 y + z = −5
Question 10
3 5 
Given matrix P −1Q −1 =   . Hence find QP.
2 4
49
Solving System Of Linear Equation
• System of linear equations or simply a system is a finite collection of linear equations.
Consider a system of m linear equations in the n unknowns x1, x 2 ,......, x n .
a11x1 + a12 x 2 + ..... + a1n x n = b1

a 21x1 + a 22 x 2 + ..... + a 2n x n = b 2
M M
am1x 1 + am 2 x 2 + ..... + amn x n = bm
In matrix notation the system of linear equations may written in the form AX = B .
 a11 a12 L a1n   x1   b1 

a    
 21 a 22 L a 2n   x 2  =  b 2 
 M M  M   M 
    
am1 am 2 L amn   x n  bm 
[ ]
Where A = a ij is the coefficient matrix, x = [x1, x 2 , x 3 ,......, x n ] and B = [b1, b 2 , b 3 ,....., bm ] .
T T
The augmented matrix can be write in the form A B . [ ]

 a11 a12 L a1n b1 
 
 a 21 a 22 L a 2n b 2 
 M M M 
 
am1 am 2 L amn bm 
50
Type of Linear Equation
LINEAR EQUATION
Homogeneous Non Homogeneous
a1x1 + a 2 x 2 + ..... + an xn = 0 a1x1 + a 2 x 2 + ..... + an xn = b

Where b ≠ 0 .
Type of Linear Equation System
SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
System of homogeneous equations System of non homogeneous

equations
AX = 0
AX = B , where B ≠ 0
Solution by Cramer’s Rule
• If AX = B is a system of linear equation and det A ≠ 0 , then the system has solution.
Let det A ≠ 0 and AX = B is a system of linear equation. If X is the unique solution of

AX = B then,
A1 A2 A3 An
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , ……., x n = .
A A A A
Where Ai , (i = 1,2,3,.....) the matrix obtained from A by replacing its ith column with the
column of constants.
 b1 
b 
B =  2
M
 
b n 
51
Example
Solve the linear system of equation by using Cramer’s Rule.
2x1 − 5 x 2 + 7 x 3 = 9
− x + 4 y + 2 z = −2
3 x + 3 y − 6z = 5
Answer
Step 1: Convert the system to matrix notation.
 2 −5 7   x1   9 
− 1 4 2   x  =  − 2
  2  
 3 3 − 6  x 3   5 
Step 2: Find the det A.
4 2 −1 2 −1 4
A =2 +5 +7
3 −6 3 −6 3 3
= 2( −24 − 6 ) + 5( 6 − 6) + 7( −3 − 12)
= 2( −30 ) + 0 + 7( −15 )
= −165
Step 3: Find A1 by replacing 1st column of A with constant matrix B.
 9 −5 7 
A 1 =  − 2 4 2 
 5 3 − 6 
Step 4: Find det A 1 .
4 2 −2 2 −2 4
A1 = 9 +5 +7
3 −6 5 −6 5 3
= 9(−24 − 6) + 5(12 − 10) + 7(−6 − 20)

= −442
52
Step 5: Find x1 .
A1
x1 =
A
- 442
=
- 165
442
=
165
Step 6: Find A 2 by replacing 2nd column of A with constant matrix B.
2 9 7 

A 2 =  − 1 − 2 2 
 3 5 − 6 
−2 2 −1 2 −1 − 2
A2 = 2 −9 +7
5 −6 3 −6 3 5
= 2(12 − 10) − 9(6 − 6) + 7( −5 + 6)

= 11
Step 8: Find x2 .
A2
x2 =
A
11
=
− 165
Step 9: Find A 3 by replacing 3rd column of A with constant matrix B.
 2 −5 9 
A 3 =  − 1 4 − 2
 3 3 5 
53
4 −2 −1 − 2 −1 4
A3 = 2 +5 +9
3 5 3 5 3 3
= 2(20 + 6) + 5( −5 + 6) + 9( −3 − 12)
= −78
Step 11: Find x3 .
A3
x3 =
A
− 178
=
− 165
178
=
165
Step 12: Write X in matrix form
 442 
 
 x 1   165 
 x  = − 11 
 2   165 
 x 3   178 
 165 
54
Example
Solve the linear system of equation by using Cramer’s Rule.
x+y = 4
− y + 2z = 5
x+z = 6
Answer
1 1 0   x   4 
0 − 1 2   y  = 5 
    
1 0 1   z  6 
−1 2 0 2
A = −
0 1 1 1
= -1 + 2
=1
4 1 0 
A1 = 5 − 1 2 
6 0 1 
−1 2 5 2
A1 = 4 −
0 1 6 1
= 4( −1) − (5 − 12)
= −4 + 7
=3
1 4 0
A 2 = 0 5 2
 1 6 1
5 2 0 2
A2 = −4
6 1 1 1
= −7 + 8
=1
55
 1 1 4
A 3 = 0 − 1 5 
 1 0 6 
1 4 1 1
A3 = −6
−1 5 0 −1
= (5 + 4) + 6( −1)
= 9−6
=3
 x1  3
 x  = 1
 2  
 x 3  3
56
Example
Solve the linear system of equation by using Cramer’s Rule
x + 4 y + 2z = 2
x + 2 y + 3 z = −1
3 x + 5 y + 3z = 3
Answer
1 4 2 x   2 
1 2 3  y  = − 1
     
3 5 3  z   3 
 1 4 2
A =  1 2 3
3 5 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
A = −4 +2
5 3 3 3 3 5
= −9 − 4( −6) + 2( −1)
= 13
 2 4 2
A 1 =  − 1 2 3
 3 5 3
2 3 −1 3 −1 2
A1 = 2 −4 +2
5 3 3 3 3 5
= 2(6 − 15) − 4( −3 − 9) + 2( −5 − 6)
= −18 + 48 − 22
=8
A1
x=
A
8
=
13
57
1 2 2 
A 2 = 1 − 1 3 
3 3 3 
−1 3 1 3 1 −1
A2 = −2 +2
3 3 3 3 3 3
= (-3 - 9) - 2(3 - 9) + 2(3 + 3)

= −12 + 12 + 12
= 12
A2
y=
A
12
=
13
1 4 2 
A 3 = 1 2 − 1
3 5 3 
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
A2 = −4 +2
5 3 3 3 3 5
= ( 6 + 5) − 4(3 + 3) + 2(5 − 6)
= −15
A3
z=
A
15
=−
13
 8 
 
 x   13 
 y  =  12 
   13 
 z   15 
 − 13 
58
TUTORIAL
Question 1
Given the following system of linear equations

x+y+z=3
y − z = −1
x + ky − 2z = −5
Find the value of k by using Cramer’s Rule such that the solution of z = 2 . Hence, solve for x
and y.
Question 2
Using Cramer’s rule, find x satisfying the following system of equations.
λ 1 0   x   1 
1 λ 1   y =  0 
    
 0 1 λ   z  − 1
Question 3
Given the following system of linear equations

2 x 1 − 3x 2 + x 3 = −9
− x 1 + kx 3 = 10
2 x 1 − x 2 − x 3 = −11
Using Cramer’s Rule
i. Find k such that the solution of x 2 = 3 .

ii. Calculate x 1 and x 3 .
Question 4
Consider the following system of linear equations. Using Cramer’s rule, solve for y.
x + 3y − z − 5 = 0
x − 5y + 4 = 0
y − 4z − 5 = 0
Question 5
Using Cramer’s rule, solve for z in the system f linear equations.
3y + z = 4
2 x + 3y − z = 10
4 x + 2 z = −1
59
Solve Using Gauss Elimination Method
Gauss Elimination Method
• More general and efficient direct procedure for solving systems of linear equations.
• The give system of equation is transformed into an equivalent system, which has
upper triangular form.
• A process called back- substitution can solve this new form easily.
Solution by back-substitution
• Obtaining z from row 3, then y from row 2 and x from row 1.
Example
Solve for x,y, and z by using Gauss Elimination Method.
x+y−z = 2
x + 2y + z = 6
2x − y + z = 1
Answer
Step1: Convert the system to augmented matrix.
1 1 − 1 2
 
1 2 1 6
2 − 1 1 1

Step 2: Solve by using Gauss Elimination Method.
 1 1 − 1 2
  R 2 − R1 → R 2
1 2 1 6   →
2 − 1 1 1
 
1 1 − 1 2
  R 3 − 2R1 → R3
0 1 2 4   →
 2 − 1 1 1
 
60
1 1 − 1 2 
  R 3 + 3R 2 → R 3
0 1 2 4   →
0 − 3 3 − 3
 
1 1 − 1 2
 
0 1 2 4
0 0 9 9 
 
Step 3: Using back-substitution.
9z = 9
z =1
y + 2z = 4
y + 2(1) = 4
y=2
x+y-z = 2
x + 2 -1 = 2
x =1
Step 4: Write the answer in matrix form.
 x   1
 y  = 2
   
 z   1
This system is consistent and has unique solution.
61
Example
x+y = 4
− y + 2z = 5
x+z = 6
Answer
Step 1: Convert the system to augmented matrix.
1 1 0 4
 
0 − 1 2 5
1 0 1 6
 
 1 1 0 4
  R3 − R1 →R3
0 − 1 2 5     →
1 0 1 6
 
 1 1 0 4
  R3 − R 2 → R3
0 − 1 2 5     →
0 − 1 1 2
 
1 1 0 4 
 
0 − 1 2 5 
0 0 − 1 − 3
 
62
− z = −3
z=3
− y + 2z = 5
− y + 2(3) = 5
− y = −1
y =1
x+y = 4
x +1 = 4
x=3
 x  3
 y  = 1
   
 z  3
Gauss elimination method can be used for the system, AX = B and det A = 0
63
Example
2 x − 6 y + 8z = 7
2 y − 10z = 2
2 x − 4 y − 2z = 9
Answer
2 − 6 − 8 7
 
0 2 − 10 2
2 − 4 − 2 9
 
2 − 6 − 8 7 
  R3 − R1 → R3
0 2 − 10 2   →
2 − 4 − 2 9 
 
2 − 6 − 8 7 
  R3 − R 2 → R3
0 2 − 10 2   →
0 2 − 10 2
 
2 − 6 − 8 7 
 
0 2 − 10 2
0 0 0 0

Note : The system is constant and has infinitely many solution since all the elements in the
bottom’s now is zero.
64
let z = t
2y - 10z = 2
2y - 10t = 2
2y = 2 + 10t
y = 1 + 5t
2x - 6y + 8z = 7
2x - 6(1 + 5t) + 8t = 7
2x - 6 − 30t + 8t = 7
2x = 7 + 6 + 30t - 8t
2x = 13 + 22t
13
x= + 11t
2
13 
 x   − 11t 
2
 y  =  1 + 5t 
   
 z   t 
 
65
Example
Solve for x, y and z by using Gauss Elimination Method.
− 2x + 2 y − z = 4
x − 3y + z = 0
4 x − 4 y + 2z = 2
Answer
− 2 2 − 1 4
 
 1 − 3 1 0
 4 − 4 2 2
 
 − 2 2 − 1 4 1
  R 2 + R1 →R 2
 1 − 3 1 0   →
2
 4 − 4 2 2
 − 2 2 − 1 4
 1  3 + 2 R1 →R 3
 0 − 2 2 2 R  →
 4 − 4 2 2
 
− 2 2 − 1 4 
 1  Non zero
 0 −2 2 2 The system is inconsistent
0 0 10
 0 and has no solution.
Zero row
66
Example
3x + 6 y + 15z = 3
30 y + 24z = 4
6 x − 3y + 18z = 9
Answer
3 6 15 3
 
0 30 24 4
6 − 3 18 9
 
3 6 15 3
  3 −2R1 →R 3
0 30 24 4 R  →
6 − 3 18 9 
3 6 15 3 1
  R 3 + R 2 →R 3
0 30 24 4  
2
→
0 − 15 − 12 3
3 6 15 3
  Non zero
0 30 24 4 The system is inconsistent
0 0 0 5  and has no solution.
Zero row
67
A system of linear equations is called homogenous if all the constant terms are zero.
Homogeneous system always has the trivial solution (x=0, y=0, z=0) if number of
variable is equal to number of equation in a system.
Example
x + 2y + 3 z = 0
− x + 3 y + 2z = 0
2 x + y − 2z = 0
Answer
 1 2 3 0
 
− 1 3 2 0 
 2 1 − 2 0
 
 1 2 3 0
  R2 +R1→R2
− 1 3 2 0    →
 2 1 − 2 0
 
1 2 3 0
  R3 −2R1 →R3
0 5 5 0   →
2 1 − 2 0 
 
68
1 2 3 0 3
  R3 + 5 R2 →R3
0 5 5 0   →
0 − 3 − 8 0
 
1 2 3 0
 
0 5 5 0
0 0 − 5 0
 
− 5z = 0
z=0
5y + 5z = 0
5y + 0 = 0
y =0
x + 2y + 3z = 0
x+0+0=0
x =0
 x  0 
 y  = 0 
   
 z  0 
69
• Non trivial solution is a solution where at least one of the variables is non
zero.
• Homogeneous system of linear equation has more variables than equations.
Example
Solve the following homogeneous system
x1 − 2x 2 + x 3 + x 4 = 0
− x1 + 2x 2 + x 4 = 0
2x 1 − 4 x 2 + x 3 = 0
Answer
 1 − 2 1 1 0
 
− 1 2 0 1 0 
 2 − 4 1 0 0
 
 1 − 2 1 1 0
  R1 + R2 →R2
− 1 2 0 1 0    →
 2 − 4 1 0 0
 
1 − 2 1 1 0
  R3 − 2R1 →R3
0 0 1 2 0   →
2 − 4 1 0 0 
 
1 − 2 1 1 0
  R3 + R 2 → R3
0 0 1 2 0   →
0 0 − 1 − 2 0
 
1 − 2 1 1 0
 
0 0 1 2 0
0 0 0 0 0
 
70
x 3 + 2x 4 = 0
Let x 4 = t
x 3 + 2t = 0
x 3 = −2 t
x1 − 2 x 2 + x 3 + x 4 = 0
x 1 − 2 x 2 − 2t + t = 0
x1 − 2 x 2 = t
Let x 2 = s
x1 − 2s = t
x 1 = t + 2s
 x1  t + 2s
x   s 
 2 =  
 x 3   − 2t 
   
x 4   t 
Conditions to be in row echelon form (row echelon matrix)
• All zero row at the bottom.

• The 1st non zero entry from the left in each non zero row is a 1, called
the leading 1 for that row.
• Each leading 1 is to the right of all leading is in the row above it
1 2 3 
• Eg: 0 1 4 
 
0 0 0 
71
Addition Condition for a row-echelon matrix is said to be in reduced row-echelon form.
• Each leading 1 is the only non zero entry in its column.
1 0 0 
• Eg: 0 1 0 
 
0 0 1 
A system of n non-homogeneous equations in unknowns has unique solution provided

the rank of its coefficient matrix is n that det A, A ≠ 0 .
The Rank Of The Matrix
• The rank of the matrix is the maximum number of independent rows (Because we
used elementary row operation). Zero matrix is said to have zero rank.
• The rank of A is denoted by r[A].
72
Example
1 2 − 1
Find the rank of A = 1 0 1 

 4 − 4 5 
Answer
1 2 − 1
1 0 1  R2 − R1 →R 2
 →

4 − 4 5 
1 2 − 1
0 − 2 2  R 3 − 4 R1 →R 3
 →

4 − 4 5 
1 2 − 1 1
0 
− 2 2  
− R 2 →R 2
2
→

0 − 12 9 
1 2 − 1
0 1 − 1 R 3 +12 R 2 → R 3
 →

0 − 12 9 
1 2 − 1
0 1 − 1

0 0 − 3
∴ r[A ] = 3
73
Example
 − 1 2 − 1
Find the rank of B =  1 − 2 1 
 
 4 − 4 3 
Answer
− 1 2 − 1
 1 − 2 1  − R1 →R1
→
 
 4 − 4 3 
 1 − 2 1
 1 − 2 1 
R2 − R1 → R2
 →
 
4 − 4 3
 1 − 2 1
0 0 0  R2 ↔ R3
 →
 
4 − 4 3
 1 − 2 1
4 − 4 3 
R2 − 4R1 →R 2
 →
 
0 0 0
1 − 2 1 
0 4 − 1
 
0 0 0 
∴ r[B] = 2
74
System Of Equations And Linear Dependence.
Every system of simultaneous equations can be interpreted geometrically.
Example
3x + 4 y = 2
− 2 x − 3y = − 1
The solution x=2, y=1 as the point of intersection of two lines.
3x+4y=2
-2x-3y=-1
The system has a unique solution if the graphical representation shows the two line
crossing over to give a point of intersection.
When two lines corresponding to two equations are parallel there is no solution to the
set of simultaneous linear equations.
Parallel lines do not give a point of intersection.
y=3x+2
y=3x-1
Two lines are parallel. There is no solution to the set of simultaneous linear equations.
When one equation is a combination of multiples of other equations that equation is said to
be linearly dependent on the others. The entire set is linearly dependent. Thus, only linearly
independent system of simultaneous equation has unique solutions.
75
Testing For Linear Dependence By Using ERO (Elementary Row Operation)
Gaussian row reduction produces a row with zero elements corresponding to the
system is said to be linearly dependent.
2 2 − 3 10 
 
0 − 4 7 26
0 0 0 0 

Linear dependent system will correspond to a matrix with zero determinants.
Summary
a b c g
 
0 d e h
0 0 f i 
 
i) Unique solution Linearly independent

f ≠0 i≠0 Constant
ii) Infinitely many solution
f =0 i=0
iii) No solution In constant Linearly dependent
f =0 i≠0
76
77
TUTORIAL
Question 1
Using Gaussion elimination method, discuss the dependency, consistency and type of the
solution for the following system of linear equations.
x+y+z =6
x + 2 y + 4z = 5
2 x + y + 3z = 9
Hence find the values of x,y, and z if the system has no solution.
Question 2
Use Gauss elimination to solve the following system of linaer equations.
x + 4 y − 2z − w = 5
− 3x − 8 y + 6z + 15w = −19
x + 2 y − 2z − 6 w = 9
Question 3
(Consider the non-homogeneous system
2 x + 6 y + 2z = 2
2 y + 10z = −2
x + 2 y + (a 2 − 8)z = a
Find the values of a such that the system of equations will be
i. Inconsistent
ii. Has a unique solution
iii. Has an infinitely many solutions.
Question 4
Find the value of λ such that the following system of homogeneous equations
x − y + 3z = 0
− 5 x + λy + 3z = 0
4 x − 3y + λ z = 0
Has no trivial solution.
78
Question 5
Consider the non homogeneous system below
2 x + 4 y + z = −2
3x + 6 y + 2 z = 3
2 x + y + 2z = 1
i. Write the augmented matrix of the system.

ii. Determine whether the system is linearly dependent or linearly independent.
iii. Is the system consistent or inconsistent? If consistent, give the solution by using
backward substitution method.
Question 6
Consider the system of non homogeneous equations AX = B , where
1 2 3   x1  5
A = 3 − 1 2 , x =  x 2  and B =  8 
4 6 10  x 3  18
i. Discuss on the dependency, consistency and type of solution.

ii. If the system is consistent, give the solution.
Question 7
By using Gaussian elimination method, determine the value of k so that the following system
of equations below:
x + y + 2kz = 5
3x + 4 y + 2 z = 4 k
2 x + 3y − 4z = 1
i. Has no solution
ii. Has unique solution
79
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
 v1 
Let A be a square matrix. A non zero vector v =  v 2  is called an eigenvector of A if
 
 v 3 
and only if there exists a number (real or complex) λ such that
Av = λ v
If such a number λ exist, it is call an eigenvalue of A. The vector v is called eigenvector

associated to the eigenvalue λ .
Computing Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
Eigenvalues
We can rewrite the condition Av= λ v as
Av − λv = 0
(A − λI)v = 0
Where I is the n × n identity matrix. In order for non zero vector v to satisfy the equation,
A − λ I must not be invertible. The determinant (A − λI) must be equal to zero. We called
det (A − λI) the characteristic polynomial of A and denoted as p(λ ) . The eigenvalues of A
are simply the roots of the characteristic polynomial of A.
Eigenvectors
 v1 
Let λ1 and λ 2 are eigenvalues of A, to find the eigenvectors v =  v 2  corresponding to
 
 v 3 
λi , i = 1,2,.....
We are simply solve the system of linear equation given by (A − λI)v = 0 .
Normal Eigenvector
v
Normalize eigenvector, u = where v is eigenvector and v = v12 + v 22 + ...... + v n2
v
80
Example
3 2 1
Given H=  1 2 − 1 .Find
 − 1 1 4 
i) All the eigenvalues of H.
3−λ 2 1
1 2−λ −1 = 0
−1 1 4−λ
2 − λ −1 1 −1 1 2−λ
(3 − λ ) −2 − =0
1 4−λ −1 4 − λ −1 1
(3 − λ )((2 − λ )(4 − λ ) + 1) − 2(4 − λ − 1) + (1 + 2 − λ ) = 0

(3 − λ )(8 − 6λ + λ2 + 1) − 8 + 2λ + 2 + 3 − λ = 0
24 − 18λ + 3λ2 + 3 − 8λ + 6λ2 − λ3 − λ − 8 + λ + 5 = 0
− λ3 + 9λ2 − 26λ + 24 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ − 3)(4 − λ ) = 0
λ = 2,3,4
i) The normal eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of H.
1 2 1 0
  2 − R1 →R 2
 1 0 −1 0 R  →
− 1 1 2 0
1 2 1 0
  R 3 + R1 →R 3
 0 − 2 − 2 0   →
− 1 1 2 0
81
1 2 1 0 3
  R 3 + 2 R 2 →R 3
 0 − 2 − 2 0    →
0 3 3 0
1 2 1 0
 
0 − 2 − 2 0 
0 0 0 0
x3 = t
− 2x 2 − 2x 3 = 0
− 2x 2 + 2t = 0
x 2 = −t
x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0
x 1 + 2(− t ) + (t ) = 0
x1 − t = 0
x1 = t
 t 
V = − t 
 t 
v
u=
v
 t 
− t 
 
 t 
u=
t 2 + (− t ) + (t )
2 2
1
t − 1
1
1
u=  
1  
u= −1
t 3 3 
 1 
82
Example
 2 2 0
Given H=  1 0 1 .Find
4 − 4 5
i) All the eigenvalues of H.
Answer
2−λ 2 0
1 −λ 1 =0
4 −4 5−λ
−λ 1 1 1
(2 − λ ) −2 =0
−4 5−λ 4 5−λ
(2 − λ )(− λ(5 − λ ) + 4) − 2(5 − λ − 4) = 0

(2 − λ )(− 5λ + λ2 + 4) − 2(1 − λ ) = 0
− 10λ + 2λ2 + 8 + 5λ2 − λ3 − 4λ − 2 + 2λ = 0
− λ3 + 7λ2 − 12λ + 6 = 0
(1 − λ )(λ − 1.2679)(λ − 4.7321) = 0
λ = 1, 1.2679, 4.7321
ii) The normal eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of H.
 1 2 0 0
  R2 −R1 →R2
 1 − 1 1 0    →
4 − 4 4 0 
 
1 2 0 0
  R3 − 4R1 →R3
0 − 3 − 1 0   →
4 − 4 4 0 
 
1 2 0 0
  R 3 − 4R 2 → R 3
0 − 3 − 1 0   →
0 − 12 4 0

1 2 0 0
 
0 − 3 − 1 0
0 0 0 0

83
x3 = t
3x 2 + x 3 = 0
3x 2 + t = 0
t
x2 = −
3
x 1 + 2x 2 = 0
 t
x 1 = −2 − 
 3
2t
x1 =
3
 2t 
 3 
− t 
V= 
 3 
 t 
 
v
u=
v
 2t 
 3 
− t 
 
 3 
 t 
 
u=
 2t   − t 
2 2
  +  +t
2
3  3 
 2
 3
 − 1
t 
 3
1 
 
u=  
 14 
t  
9
2
3
3  − 1
u=  
14  3 
1 
 
84
Example
− 3 1− 1
Find the eigenvalues of matrix  − 7 
5 − 1 .
 − 6 6 − 2
Find the eigenvector for the largest eigenvalue.
Answer
−3−λ 1 −1
−7 5−λ −1 =0
−6 6 −2−λ
5−λ −1 −7 −1 −7 5−λ
(− 3 − λ ) − − =0
6 −2−λ −6 −2−λ −6 6
(− 3 − λ )[(5 − λ )(− 2 − λ ) + 6] − [− 7 − (− 2 − λ ) − 6] − [− 7(6) + 6(5 − λ )] = 0
(− 3 − λ )(λ2 − 3λ − 4) − (7λ + 8) − (− 12 − 6λ ) = 0
(− 3λ2
)
+ 9λ + 12 − λ3 + 3λ2 + 4λ − 7λ − 8 + 12 + 6λ = 0
− λ3 + 13λ + 12 − λ + 4 = 0
− λ3 + 12λ + 16 = 0
λ1 = 4, λ 2 = −2, λ 3 = −2
Eigenvector
− 3 − λ 1 −1 0
 
 −7 5−λ −1 0
 − 6 6 − 2 − λ 0
− 7 1 − 1 0
  R 3 ↔ R1
− 7 1 − 1 0  →
− 6 6 − 6 0
− 6 6 − 6 0
  R 3 −R 2 →R 3
− 7 1 − 1 0    →
− 7 1 − 1 0
− 6 6 − 6 0 7
  R 2 − 6 R1 →R 2
− 7 1 − 1 0   →
 0 0 0 0
85
1
− R1 →R1
− 6 6 − 6 0 6
1
  − R 2 →R 2
 0 − 6 6 0   6
→
 0 0 0 0
1 − 1 1 0
 
0 1 − 1 0 
0 0 0 0
Let x 3 = t
x2 − x3 = 0
x2 − t = 0
x2 = t
x1 − x 2 + x 3 = 0
x1 − t + t = 0
x1 = 0
0 
V =  t 
 t 
86
Example
1 2 − 1
Given matrix M = 1 0 1 

4 − 4 5 
a) Find the eigenvalues of M

b) Find the normal eigenvector for λ = 2
Answer
1− λ 2 −1
1 −λ 1 =0
4 −4 5−λ
−λ 1 1 1 1 −λ
(1 − λ ) −2 − =0
−4 5−λ 4 5−λ 4 −4
(1 − λ ) [(− λ )(5 − λ ) + 4] − 2(5 − λ − 4) − (− 4 + 4λ ) = 0

(1 − λ ) (− 5λ + λ2 + 4) − (2 − 2λ ) + 4 − 4λ = 0
(− 5λ + λ 2
)
+ 4 + 5λ2 − λ3 − 4λ − 2 + 2λ + 4 − 4λ = 0
− λ + 6λ − 9λ + 4 − 2 + 2λ + 4 − 4λ = 0
3 2
− λ3 + 16λ2 − 11λ + 6 = 0
λ 1 = 3, λ 2 = 1, λ3 = 2
Eigenvector
− 1 2 − 1 0
  R1 + R 2 → R 2
 1 − 2 1 0    →
 4 − 4 3 0
− 1 2 − 1 0
  2 →R 3
0 0 0 0 R 
→
 4 − 4 3 0
− 1 2 − 1 0
  R 2 + 4 R1 →R 2
 4 − 4 3 0    →
 0 0 0 0
− 1 2 − 1 0
 
 0 4 − 1 0
 0 0 0 0
87
4 − x 1 + 2x 2 − x 3 = 0 4x 2 − x 3 = 0
− x 1 + 2x 2 − t = 0 x3 = t
t
− x 1 + 2  − t = 0
4
t
4x 2 = t
x1 = −
2 t
x2 =
4
 t
− 2 
 t  − x1 + 2 x 2 − x 3 = 0
V= 
 4  − x1 + 2 x 2 − t = 0
 t 
  t
− x1 + 2  − t = 0
4
t
x1 = −
2
Normal Eigenvector
 1
− 2 
v  1 
u= t 
v  4 
 1 
 t  
− 2  =  
 t   21 
  t  
 4   16 
 t   1
  − 2 
=
2
 t t
2 4  1 
 −  +   + (t )
2 =  
 2 4 21  4 
 1 
 
88
TUTORIAL
Question 1
0 0 − 2 

Given A = 1 2 1

 
1 0 3 
i. Show that the characteristic equation is (λ − 2 ) (λ − 1) (2 − λ ) = 0 .
ii. Find the eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue.
Question 2
1 − 4 0
 
If Q = 1 − 5 3 , find
 
0 − 2 1
i. The characteristic polynomial and determine the eigenvalues.

ii. The normal eigenvector corresponding to the real eigenvalue.
Question 3
2 2
Given matrix A =  , show that the eigenvector of A are v1 = [− 2 t t ] and v 2 = [t t] .
T T
1 3 
Hence, find the normal eigenvector corresponding to v1 .
Question 4
1 2 − 1

Given A = 1 0 1 

4 − 4 5 
i. Prove that the characteristic equation of A is (2 − k ) (k − 3) (k − 1) = 0

ii. Find the eigenvalues of A
iii. Find the eigenvector of matrix A corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue.
89
Question 5
3 2 1
 
Given A = 1 2 − 1 . Find
 
− 1 1 4 
i. All the eigenvalues of A

ii. The eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of A.
Question 6
1 2 − 1

Given M = 1 0 1  . Find

4 − 4 5 
i. All the eigenvalues of M

ii. The normal eigenvector corresponding to the largest eigenvalue of M.
90
VECTOR
Definition
• A vector represents the length or magnitude and direction of a line segment.
Eg: velocity, acceleration, and force.
• Represent by a directed line segment.
• Direction indicated by an arrow pointing from the initial point to the terminal point.
• Initial point A, terminal point B
• The vector from A to B, AB
• The length or magnitude of vector is written AB (always non-negative real
number).
Line Segment
B (Terminal Point or Tip)
A (Initial Point or tail)
Symbols that can be used to denote vector:

• u ,v
• u,v
• u, v
• u, v
Scalar
Real number, scalar quantities that only has magnitude but not direction.
Eg: Mass, volume, temperature, density, work, etc.
91
Equality Of Vector
2 vectors are equal vectors if and only if they have the same magnitude and the direction.
A
D
Parallelogram
(BA = CD)(BC = AD)
B C
Definition
v = Vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial point O (0,0) and terminal point P (a,b).
v = OP = ai + b j or a, b
a and b are called the components of v .
OP = a2 + b2
The Position Vector
Q
OP = x 1 i + y1 j
P
OQ = x 2 i + y 2 j
∴ PQ = (x 2 − x1 ) i + (y 2 − y1 ) j
PQ = −OP + OQ
Magnitude of
PQ = PQ = (x 2 − x 1 )2 + ( y 2 − y 1 )2
92
Arithmetic Operation
A Vector Addition And Subtraction
Let u = ai + b j and v = ci + d j
( ) (
u + v = a i + b j + ci + d j ) ( )(
u − v = ai + b j − ci + d j )
= (a + c) i + (b + d ) j = (a − c ) i + (b − d ) j
Theorem: Let u, v, and w be vectors and k, l be scalars.
i. u + v = v + u (Commutative)
ii. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (Associative)
iii. u + 0 = u where 0 = <0,0> or <0,0,0>
iv. u + (-u) = 0 where –u = (-1)u
v. k(l u) = (k l ) u (Distributive law)
vi. k(u + v) = ku + kv
vii. (k+l) u = ku + lu
viii. 1u = u
Multiplying Vector By Scalars
• Characteristic: Let C is a scalar

• Notation: Cu if C=0 then Cu=0
• Magnitude: C u = Cu
• Direction: If C > 0, same as that of u
If C<0, opposite to that of u
93
Zero Vector
• The vector 0 = 0 i + 0 j is called zero vector. It is only vector whose length is zero.
Unit Vector In 2 Space
• A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.

• If v ≠ 0 then the unit vector has the same direction as v .
∧ v
• Direction of u =
v
• If v make an angle θ with the x-axis then a = v cos θ and b = v sin θ
94
Vector In 3 Dimension (Vector In 3 Spaces)
P is a point, then the vector r = OP from the origin to a point P is called the position vector
of P.
r = OP = x 0 , y 0 , z 0
or = x 0 i + y 0 j + z 0 k
Where x 0 , y 0 , and z 0 are called components of v .
Theorem:
Let A = a, b, c and B = x, y, z
i. A = B iff a=x, b=y and c=z
ii. A = x 2 + y 2 + z2
iii. A = 0 iff A = 0
iv. t A = t A for any scalar t.
95
Vector Operation
i. Addition and multiplication by scalar.
a. A ± B = (a ± x )i + (b ± y )j + (c ± z )k
b. t A = tai + tb j + tck
ii. Length (magnitude) of vector
A = x 2 + y 2 + z2
iii. Vector between two point
AB = − OA + OB
= x − a, y − b, z − c
Distance Between Two Points
AB = (x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 + z1 )2
Unit Vector
• A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.

v
• Direction of u =
v
96
Product Of Two Vector
Dot (Scalar) Product
Definition 1
The dot product of two vectors v 1 and v 2 is defined equation
v1 • v 2 = v1 v 2 cos θ
Where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
Definition 2
Let v 1 = a, b, c and v 2 = d, e, f . Then v 1 • v 2 = ad + be + cf .
Example
→ → → →
The angle between vector U = 2,−1,3 and v = 3,1,1 is 450 . Find U• v .
Answer
→ → → →
U• v = U v cos θ
→
U = 2 2 + (− 1) + (3) = 14
2 2
→
v = 3 2 + 12 + 12 = 11
→ →
U• v = 14 11 cos 45 0
= 8.77496
97
Example
→ → → →
The angle between vector U = − 1,3,−2 and V = 4,1,3 is 520 . Find U • V .
Answer
U • V = U V cos θ
U = (− 1)2 + (3)2 + (− 2)2 = 14
V = (4)2 + (1)2 + (3)2 = 26
U • V = 14 26 cos 52 ο
= 11.7461
Theorem: Angle between 2 vectors
The angle θ between 2 nonzero vectors, v 1 and v 2 is given by
 
 v1 • v 2 
−1
θ = cos  
 v1 v 2 
 
98
Example
→ →
Find the angle θ between vectors v = 2,−3,2 and w = 3,2,1 .
Answer
 
v•w
−1
θ = cos  
 vw 
 
v • w = 2,−3,2 • 3,2,1
= 6-6+2
=2
v = 4 + 9 + 4 = 17
w = 9 + 4 + 1 = 14
 2 
θ = cos −1  
 17 14 
= 82.55 0
Example
→ → → →
Consider the vectors u = 2,−1,1 and v = 1,1,2 . Find u • v and determine the angle θ
→ →
between u and v .
Answer
u • v = 2,−1,1 • 1,1,2
= 2 −1+ 2
=3
u = (2)2 + (− 1)2 + (1)2 = 6
v = (1)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 = 6
 3 
θ = cos −1  
 6 6
= 60 ο
99
Properties Of Dot Product
If u , v and w are any vectors and c is a scalar, then
1. u• v = v •u
( )
2. u • v + w = u • v + u • w
3. c ( u • v ) = ( cu )• v
2
4. v • v = v
Orthogonal Vectors
Perpendicular vectors are called orthogonal vectors. Two vectors u and v are orthogonal if
and only if u•v = 0.
Direction Cosines and Direction Angles
γ
β
Angle α, β, and γ are called the direction angles of u . The number cos α, cos β and cos γ are
called the direction cosine of u .
Theorem: The three direction cosines of a nonzero vector u = a, b, c in 3-space are:

a b c
cos α = cos β = cos γ =
u u u
Theorem: The three direction angle of a nonzero vector u = a, b, c in 3-space are:

a b c
α = cos −1 β = cos −1 γ = cos −1
u u u
100
Example
→
Find the direction cosines of vector u = − 1,1,2 and approximate the direction angles to the
nearest degree.
→
u = 1+1+ 4 = 6
Direction Cosines Direction Angle

−1 −1
cos α = α = cos −1 = 114.09 0
6 6
1 1
cos β = β = cos −1 = 65.910
6 6
2 2
cos γ = γ = cos −1 = 35.26 0
6 6
Example
→
Find the direction cosines of vector u = 2,−4,4 and approximate the direction angles to the
nearest degree.
Answer
u = 2,−4,4
u = (2)2 + (− 4)2 + (4)2 = 36
Direction Cosines Direction Angle

2 1 1
cos α = = α = cos −1   = 70.53 0
6 3  3
4 2  2
cos β = − =- β = cos −1  −  = 131.810
6 3  3
4 2 2
cos γ = = γ = cos −1   = 48.19 0
6 3 3
101
Orthogonal Projections of Vectors
In many applications it is of interest to “decompose” a vector u into a sum of two vectors, one
parallel to a specified nonzero vector b and the other perpendicular to b .
u u = w1 + w 2
w2
b
w1
As indicated in figure:
• w 1 is parallel to b .
• w 2 is perpendicular to b .
• u = w1 + w 2 = w1 + u − w1 ( )
w 1 is called the vector component of u along /onto b .
w 2 is called the vector component of u orthogonal to b .
The vector component of u along b is also called the orthogonal projection of u on b and is
denoted by projb u .
Theorem
If u and b are vectors in 2-space or 3-space and if b ≠ 0 , then

u•b
w 1 = projb u = 2
b (Vector component of u along b )
b
u•b
w 2 = u − projb u = u − 2
b (Vector component of u orthogonal b )
b
The scalar projection of u onto b is defined to be magnitude of the vector projection.
Scalar projection of u onto b , proj b u = u • b

b
102
Example
→ →
Let u = 2,−1,3 and b = 4,−1,2 . Find
→ →
a) The vector component of u along b .
→ →
b) The vector component of vector component of u orthogonal to b .
→ →
c) The scalar projection u onto b .
Answer
→ →
a) The vector component of u along b .
2,−1,3 • 4,−1,2
w 1 = Pr oj b u = 2
4,−1,2
 (4 )2 + (− 1)2 + (2 )2 
 
8 +1+ 6
= 4,−1,2
21
15
= 4,−1,2
21
60 15 30
= ,− ,
21 21 21
→ →
b) The vector component of vector component of u orthogonal to b .
w 2 = u − Pr oj b u
60 − 15 30
= 2,−1,3 − ,− ,
21 21 21
= − 11.0931, 2.2733, − 3.5465
→ →
c) The scalar projection u onto b .
u•b
Pr ojb u =
b
15
=
21
103
Cross (vector) Product.
If u = u1, u2 , u3 and v = v 1, v 2 , v 3 are vectors in 3-space, the cross product u× v is the

vector defined by
i j k
u × v = u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
u2 u3 u u3 u u2
= i− 1 j+ 1 k
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
Example
→ → → →
Find u× v , where u = 1,2,−2 and v = 3,0,1 .
Answer
i j k
u×v = 1 2 −2
3 0 1
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
= i− j+ k
0 1 3 1 3 0
= 2,−7,−6
104
Theorem: If u and v are vector in 3-space, then

• ( )
u• u× v = 0 (u × v is orthogonal to u)
• v • (u × v ) = 0 (u × v is orthogonal to v )
•
2 2
( )
u× v = u v − u• v
2 2
Note: Because of u • (u × v ) = 0 and v • (u × v ) = 0 , thus vector u× v is orthogonal to both
u and v .
Theorem: If u and v are vector in 3-space, then u × v = 0 if and only if u and v are
parallel vector.
Theorem: If u , v and w are vector in 3-space and k is any scalar, then
a) ( )
u× v = − v ×u d) ( ) ( ) ( )
k u × v = ku × v = u × k v
b) u × (v + w ) = (u × v ) + (u × w ) e) u× 0 = 0×u = 0
c) (u + v )× w = (u × w ) + (v × w ) f) u ×u = 0
105
Area Of Triangle And Parallelogram
Theorem states that
2
u×v = u v − u•v
2 2
( )2
If θ denotes the angle between u and v , then u • v = u v cos θ , so the preceding equation
can be written as
2 2
u × v = u v − u v cos θ
2
( )
2
2 2 2 2
= u v − u v cos 2 θ
( )
2 2
= u v 1 − cos 2 θ
2 2
= u v sin 2 θ
u × v = u v sin θ
The parallelogram determined by u and v .
θ
u
Parallelogram is a four-sided geometrical figure with opposite sides parallel to each other.
But v sinθ is altitude of the parallelogram determined by u and v . Thus, the area A of this
parallelogram is given by
Area, A = (base )(altitude )

= u v sin θ
= u× v
106
Example
Find the area of triangle that determined by points P(2,2,0), Q(− 1,0,2) andR(0,4,3) .
Answer
PQ = −OP + OQ
= − 2,2,0 + − 1,0,2
= − 3,−2,2
QR = −OQ + OR
= − − 1,0,2 + 0,4,3
= 1,4,1
i j k
PQ × QR = − 3 − 2 2
1 4 1
−2 2 −3 2 −3 −2
= i− j+ k
4 1 1 1 1 4
= − 10, 5, − 10
Area =
1
(− 10)2 + (5)2 + (− 10)2
2
15
=
2
107
Example
Find the area of triangle with vertices P(− 2,4,5), Q(0,7,−4) andR(- 1,5,0) .
Answer
PQ = −OP + OQ
= − − 2,4,5 + 0,7,−4
= 2, 3, − 9
QR = − 0,7,−4 + − 1, 5, 0
= − 1, − 2, 4
i j k
PQ × QR = 2 3 −9
−1 − 2 4
3 −9 2 −9 2 3
= i− j+ k
−2 4 −1 4 −1 − 2
= − 6,1, − 1
Area =
1
(− 6)2 + (1)2 + (− 1)2
2
1
= 38
2
= 3.0822
108
Example
The points A(1,1,1), B(- 2,0,-4), C(1,2,-3) andD(4,3,2) are vertices of a parallelogram. Find the
area of the following figures
i) ABCD
ii) Triangle ABC
Answer
AB = −OA + OB
= − 1,1,1 + − 2,0,−4
= − 3,−1,−5
BC = −OB + OC
= − − 2,0,−4 + 1,2,−3
= 3,2,1
i j k
AB × BC = − 3 − 1 − 5
3 2 1
−1 − 5 −3 −5 − 3 −1
= i− j+ k
2 1 3 1 3 2
= 9,−12,−3
Area = (9)2 + (− 12)2 + (− 3)2

= 234
1
Area of triangle ABC = 234
2
= 7.6485
109
Triple Scalar Product
( )
Note : The symbol a • b × c make no sense since we cannot form the cross product of a
scalar and a vector. Thus, no ambiguity arises if we write ( )

a • b × c rather than a • b × c .
( ) ( )
a• b×c = a×b •c
Example
→
→ →
Calculate the triple scalar product a •  b× c  of the vectors
 
→ → →
a = 3,−2,−5 , b = 1,4,−4 and c = 0,3,2 .
Answer
3 −2 −5
a •b×c = 1 4 −4
0 3 2
3 −5 3 −2
= −3 −2
1 −4 1 4
= (− 3)(− 7 ) − 2(14 )
= 21 − 28
= −7
110
Computing Volume With The Triple Scalar Product
Parallelepiped determined by u , v and w .
v
u
The parallelepiped has volume
V = (area of base)(altitude)
= Ah
= u × v w cos θ
( )
= u× v • w
= u • (v × w )
Volume of parallelepiped is zero if the vector lie in the same plane (coplanar).
Example
→ → →
Use the scalar triple product to show that the vector a = 1,4,−7 , b = 2,−1,4 , and c = 0,−9,18
are coplanar.
Answer
111
1 4 −7
V = 2 −1 4
0 − 9 18
1 −7 1 4
=9 + 18
2 4 2 −1
= 9 (4 + 14 ) + 18(−1 − 8)
=0
∴ a , b, and c are coplanar
Example
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determine by vectors

→ → →
u = 1,−2,3 , v = − 4,7,−11 , and w = 5,9,−1 .
Answer
1 −2 3
u • v× w = − 4 7 − 11
5 9 −1
7 − 11 − 4 − 11 −4 7
= +2 +3
9 −1 5 1 5 9
= 92 + 2(59 ) + 3(−71)
= −3
112
Triple Vector Product
( )
The product a × b × c is called the triple vector product because it is a vector quantity.
Example
→ → →
→ → →
If u = − 1,2,1 , v = 1,−1,−1 , and w = 1,1,−2 . Evaluate  u× v  × w .
 
Answer
i j k
u × v = −1 2 1
1 −1 −1
2 1 −1 1 −1 2
= i− j+ k
−1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
= 1,0,−1
i j k
u × v × w = 1 0 −1
1 1 −2
0 −1 1 −1 1 0
= i− j+ k
1 −2 1 −2 1 1
= 1,1,1
113
TUTORIAL
Question 1
If M = 6,1,2 and N = 8,5,−3 , find the direction angle and direction cosines of the vector
N − M.
Question 2
Given O (0,0,0 ) , A (1,2,3) and B(2,2k ,−1) are points in space. If k = 1, find
i. The projection of AB onto OB
ii. The direction cosines of AB
Question 3
Given u = 1, −2,6 , v = 4,5,−3 and w = 2,−7,3 , are vector in R 3 .
i) Find the angle between u and v .

ii) Find the unit vector that is perpendicular to both v and w .
iii) Find the volume of parallelepiped that is spanned by u , v and w .
iv) Are vectors u , v and w .coplanar? State the reason for your answer.
Question 4
Given three points F(2,4,-1), G(-3,5,-2) and H(1,4,1) in R 3 , find

i) Vector projection of FG onto GH.
ii) The equation for the plane S that passes through point F and perpendicular to the
line L : x = 1 − 2t, y = 4 + 3t, z = −5 + 6t .
iii) The equation for the line M that passes through points G and H. State your
answer in Cartesian form.
iv) The intersection point of the plane S and line M.
Question 5
Let A, B, and C be the positive vectors of A(0,1,−2 ), B(1,−2,4 ) and C(3,0,1) respectively. Find
i. The direction cosines of AB
ii. The projection of C onto AB
iii. The area of triangle ABC
iv. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by A , B ancd C .
114
Question 6
The position vector of OP , OQ, and OR is 0,0,0 , 1,2,3 and 2,1,−1 respectively. Find
i. The area of the triangle PQR
ii. The projection of QR onto OR
iii. The direction angles of vector QR
Question 7
If a and b are two non-colinear vectors and given

R = (x + 4 y ) a + (2 x + y + 1) b
S = (y − 2 x + 2 ) a + (2 x − 3y − 1) b
Find the values of x and y such that 3R = 2S .
Question 8
A (1,−1,−2), B(1,2,−6 ), C(0,3,−2) and D(− 1,4,1) are points in space.

i. Find the direction angles of AB
ii. Find the projection of AC onto AD
iii. Determine if the vectors AB , AC and AD are coplanar.
Question 9
Let u = 3,0,2 and v = − 1,1,1 .Find
i. (
The projection of u on u + 3v )
ii. ( )
A vector perpendicular to both v − u and u + 3v .( )
iii. The area of parallelogram defined by u and v
Question 10
Given three points A (2,−3,5), B (3,−4,5) and C (12,1,−4 ) . Find

i. The angle between AB and BC
ii. The area of triangle ABC
115
Application Of Vector
Equations of lines
A line in 2-space or 3-space can be determined uniquely by specifying a point on the line and
a nonzero vector parallel to the line.
A unique line L passes through P and is parallel to v .
Q (x 0 , y0 , z0 )
P(x,y,z)
If P(x, y, z ) is any point on L, and Q(x 0 , y0 , z0 ) is the point on L, then the vector QP is
parallel to the vector v = a , b, c and must satisfy the vector equation
QP = t v for some number t.
We can write the vector equation as
(x − x 0 )i + (y − y 0 ) j + (z − z 0 ) k = t (ai + b j + ck ) or
x − x 0 , y − y 0 , z − z 0 = t a , b, c
Thus the vector equation in 2-space s given by
(x − x 0 )i + (y − y 0 ) j = t (ai + b j)
x − x 0 , y − y 0 = t a, b
116
Theorem:
The line in 2-space that passes through the point P(x, y) and is parallel to the nonzero
vector v = a , b has parametric equations as follow;
x = x 0 + at y = y0 + bt
The line in 3-space that passes through the point P(x, y, z ) and is parallel to the nonzero
vector v = a , b, c has parametric equations as follow;
x = x 0 + at y = y0 + bt z = z0 + ct
Example
(Discuss in class)
a) Find the parametric equations for the line that contains the point (3,1,4) and is aligned
→
with the vector v = − 1,1,−2 .
b) Find the parametric equations of the line

→
i. Passing through (4,2) and parallel to v = − 1,5 .
→
ii. Passing through the origin in 3-space and parallel to v = 1,1,1
c) Find the parametric equations of the line passing through the points P(2,4,−1) and
Q(5,0,7) . Where does the line intersect the xy-plane?
d) Determine whether A(1,−5,15) and B(− 1,1,4) lie on the line with parametric equations
x = −2 + t, y = 4 − 3t, z = −3 + 6t .
e) Determine whether the lines

L1 : x = 2 − 5t, y = −1 + t, z = 3t
L 2 : x = t, y = −3 + 2t, z = 5 + t
are perpendicular.
f) Determine whether the lines

L1 : x = 2 − t, y = 5 + 2t, z = −1 + 3t
L 2 : x = 3 + 2s, y = 2 − 3s, z = −6 − 4s
intersect and if they do, find the point of intersection.
117
Plane Determined By A Point And A Normal Vector
A plane in 3-space is uniquely determined by specifying a point in the plane and a vector
perpendicular to the plane. A vector perpendicular to the plane is called a normal to the
plane.
n = a, b, c
Q(x, y, z)
P(x0, y0, z0 )
Let Q(x, y, z) is a point moves anywhere in the plane and PQ is perpendicular to n , thus
n • PQ = 0
a , b, c • x − x 0 , y − y 0 , z − z 0 = 0
a (x − x 0 ) + b(y − y 0 ) + c(z − z 0 ) = 0
This equation is called the point-normal form of the equation of the plane.
Example
(Discuss in class.)
a) Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (3,−1,7) and perpendicular to
→
the vector n = 4,2,−5 .
b) Determine whether the planes 3 x − 4 y + 5 z = 0 and − 6 x + 8 y − 10z − 4 = 0 are
parallel.
c) Determine whether the line x = 3 + 8t, y = 4 + 5t, z = −3 − t is parallel to the plane
x − 3 y + 5z = 12 . Find the intersection of the line and the plane.
d) Find the equation of the plane passing through the point P(4,−2,1) and perpendicular
to the straight line containing points A(2,−1,2) and B (3,2,−1) .
118
TUTORIAL
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Question 4
Question 5
Question 6
119
Question 7
Question 8
Question 9
Question 10
120
Question 11
Question 12
Question 13
Question 14
121
Power Series
In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form
∑ a (x − c ) = a0 + a1 (x − c ) + a2 (x − c ) + a3 (x − c ) ..........
n 2 3
n
n=0
• Is called a power series in term of (x − c ) .

• The numbers a0,a1,a2,......,an are the coefficients of the power series.
• n is a positive integer.
The series usually arise as Taylor Series. In many situation when c is equal to zero so its
call Maclaurin Series.
∞
If c=0, the series has the form ∑a x
n=0
n
n
= a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3..................
Taylor Series of f at x=c
Taylor series in term (x − c ) .
f ' (c )
(x − c ) + f (c ) (x − c )2 + f (c ) (x − c )3 + .........
'' ' ''
f (x ) = f (c ) +
1! 2! 3!
Taylor series in term of x.

y = x−c
x = y+c
f ' (c )
(x − c ) + f (c ) (x − c )2 + ......
''
f (x ) = f (c ) +
1! 2!
f (c ) 2
' '
f (y + c ) = f (c ) + f ' (c )y + y + .....
2!
f ' ' (c ) 2
f (x + c ) = f (c ) + f ' (c )x + x + .....
2!
122
Example
π
Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of cos x as a power series about the point x = .
3
Hence approximate cos220 correct to four decimal places.
Answer
π  π 1
f (x ) = cos x f   = cos  =
3 3 2
π π − 3
f ' (x ) = − sin x f '   = − sin  =
3 3 2
π π
f ' ' (x ) = − cos x
1
f ' '   = − cos  = −
3 3 2
 π π
f ' ' ' (x ) = sin x
3
f ' ' '   = sin  =
3 3 2
π  f ' ' (c )  f ' ' ' (c ) 

2 3
 π π
f (x ) = f (c ) + f (c ) x −  +
'
x −  +  x −  + ......
 3 2!  3 3!  3
2 3
1 3 π 1 π 3 π
= − x −  + x −  +  x −  + ......
2 2  3 4 3 12  3
cos x = cos 22 0
x = 220
11
= π
90
2 3
 11  1 3  11 π  1  11 π 3  11 π
f π = −  π− +  π−  +  π −  + ......
 90  2 2  90 3  4  90 3  12  90 3 
= 0.9223
123
TRY THIS!!!
 π
Expand sin x as a series of ascending powers of  x −  as far as the third term. Use this
 6
series to find the approximate value of sin320 .
Answer
124
Example
 π
Use Taylor series to find first four terms of the expansion of sin x +  in power of x. Hence,
 4
estimate sin 460 correct to 4 decimal places.
Answer.
f ' (c ) f '' (c ) 2
f (x + c ) = f (c ) + x+ x + ......
1! 2!
 π 1
f ( x ) = sin x f  =
4 2
π
f ' (x ) = − cos x
1
f'  = −
4 2
π
f '' (x ) = − sin x
1
f ''   = −
4 2
 π 1
f ''' ( x ) = cos x f '''   =
4 2
 π 1
f ( 4 ) ( x ) = sin x f (4)   =
4 2
1 1 1 1
− −
 π 1 2 x+ 2 x2 + 2 x3 + 2 x4
f x +  = +
 4  2 1! 2! 3! 4!
 π 1 x x2 x3 x4
sin x +  = − − + + + .........
 4 2 2 2 2 6 2 24 2
125
 π
sin 46 0 = sin x + 
 4
 23   π
sin π  = sin x + 
 90   4
π 23
x+ = π
4 90
23 π
x= π−
90 4
π
=
180
2 3 4
π  π   π   π 
     
( )
sin 46 0 =
1
− 180 −  180  +  180  +  180 
+ .........
2 2 2 2 6 2 24 2
= 0.7193
126
Maclaurin Series of f at x=c
Maclaurin series of f is the special case of Taylor Series where c=0.

f ' (0 )
(x ) + f (0) (x )2 + f (0) (x )3 + .........
'' ' ''
f (x ) = f (0 ) +
1! 2! 3!
Example
Find the Maclaurin series of f (x ) =

1
as far as the term containing x 3 . Hence, estimate
4−x
1 1
∫0 4 − x5
dx correct to three decimal places.
f (x ) = = (4 − x ) f (0 ) =
1 −1 1
4−x 4
f ' (x ) = −1(4 − x ) (− 1) = (4 − x )− 2 f ' (0 ) =
−2 1
16
f ' ' (x ) = −2(4 − x ) (− 1) = 2(4 − x )− 3 f ' ' (0 ) =
−3 1
32
f ' ' ' ( x ) = −6(4 − x ) (− 1) = 6(4 − x )− 4 f ' ' ' (0 ) =
−4 3
128
1 3
f (x ) = +
1 x 32 2 128 3
+ x + x + ...........
4 16 2! 3!
1 x x2 x3
= + + + + ..........
4 16 64 256
( )
f x5 =
1
4 − x5
fx ( )
5 1 x5
= + +
x5 ( ) ( ) ( )
+
x5
2
+ ..........
3
4 16 64 256
1 x 5 x10 x15
= + + + + ..........
4 16 64 256
127
1 1
1 1 x 5 x10 x15
∫0 4 − x 5 dx = ∫0 4 + 16 + 64 + 256 + .......dx
1
 x x 6 x 11 x16 
= + + + + ......
 4 96 704 4096 0
1 1 1 1 
= + + + + .....  − 0
 4 96 704 4096 
= 0.262
Example
Obtain expansion of
i. ex
ii. sin x
As far as the term x 3 . Use the result obtained to estimate
∫ 3 (e )
3
1 x
− sin x dx
1
Correct to three decimal places.
Answer
i.
f (x ) = e x f (0 ) = 1
f (x ) = e
' x
f ' (0 ) = 1
f ' ' (x ) = e x f ' ' (0 ) = 1
f ' ' ' (x ) = e x f ' ' ' (0 ) = 1
1 1 1
ex = 1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + ....
1! 2! 3!
2 3
x x
= 1+ x + + + .......
2 6
128
ii.
f (x ) = sin x f (0 ) = 0
f ' (x ) = cos x f ' (0) = 1
f ' ' (x ) = − sin x f ' ' (0) = 0
f ' ' ' (x ) = − cos x f ' ' ' (0) = −1
1 0 −1 3
sin x = 0 + x + x2 + x + ........
1! 2! 3!
x3
= x− + ........
6
( x 
)
e − sin x = 1 + x +
x2 x3  
2
+  −  x − 

6  

x3 
6 

x2 x3
= 1+ + + .........
2 3
( )
3 3
1 x 1 x2 x3
∫1 3 e − sin x dx =
3 ∫1
1 +
2
+
3
dx
3
1 x3 x 4 
= x + + + ....
3 6 12 1
1  3 3 3 4   13 14 
=   3 + +  − 1 + + 
3  6 12   6 12 
= 5.1667
129
TRY THIS!!!!!!
Use Maclaurin’s series. Expand the following functions as series in ascending powers of
x 5 or x 6 .
f (x ) = ln(1 + x )
Using the Maclaurin’s series above,

Expend
i. ln(1 − x )
 1+ x 
ii. ln 
 1− x 
iii. ln(1 − 2x )
iv. ln(1 + 2x )
v. (
ln 1 − 4x 2 )
130
131
TUTORIAL
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Question 4
Question 5
132
Question 6
Question 7
Question 8
Question 9
Question 10
133
Question 11
Question 12
Question 13
Question 14
134
Question 15
Question 16
Question 17
Determine the Maclaurin’s series for f (x ) = ln (1 + 2 x ) as far as the term containing x 3 . Hence
1
estimate ∫ ln(1 + 2x )dx correct to three decimal places.
0
Question 18
Use Taylor’s series to find the first four terms of the expansion of the expansion of 4 + x in
power of x. Hence estimate 4.5 correct to four decimal places.
135
Binomial Series
If k is any number and x < 1, then,

∞
k n
(1 + x )k = ∑   x
n =o n
Where
 k  k (k − 1)(k − 2 ).......(k − n − 1)
  = n = 1,2,3
n n!
k
  = 1
0 
Therefore,
k (k − 1) 2 k (k − 1)(k − 2) 3
(1 + x )k = 1+ k x + x + x + ....
2! 3!
Example
1
Find the binomial series for .
(1 + x )2
Answer
= (1 + x )
1 −2
(1 + x ) 2
(1 + x )−2 = 1 + (− 2 ) x +
(− 2)(− 3) x 2 + (− 2)(− 3)(− 4) x 3 + (− 2)(− 3)(− 4)(− 5) x 4 + ...
2! 3! 4!
= 1 − 2 x + 3x 2 − 4 x 3 + 5x 4 − ...........................
136
Example
Write down the first four terms in the binomial series for 9−x
Answer
1
 x  x  x  x 2
9 − x = 9 − 1 −  = 9 1 −  = 3 1 −  = 31 − 
 9  9  9  9
1
  x  2
= 31 +  −  
  9 
  1  1   1  1  1  
1
 1    − 1 2    − 1  − 2  3 
  x   x 2 2  x   − x  + .........
= 31 +  −  +     2  2  2
2
31 +  −   −  +  
  9   2 9 2!  9 3!  9 
 
 
  1  1   1  1  3  
 1  −  2  − −  3 
 x 2 x   2   2   2   − x  + .........
= 31 +  −  +   
2
−  +  
 2 9 4  9 6  9 
 
 
x x2 x3
= 3− − − − ........................
6 216 3888
137

MAT285 Further Mathematics For Engineers

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MAT285 Further Mathematics For Engineers

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FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS (MAT285)

EQUAL MATRIX ZERO [NULL MATRIX] DIAGONAL MATRIX

• The matrices must have the same order.

if A and B has same order.

X is the sum of the 2 corresponding elements of A and B .

Theorem: If A,B and C denoted arbitrary m by n matrices ,then

iii) O + A = A where 0 is the m by n zero matrix

• Subtraction of two matrices is analogous with addition.

ii) Matrix Multiplication

(The number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B )

So, X = AB will be a m x p matrix. The definition of X is

[A]2 = [A] [A]

• Converting an M by N matrix into an N by M

2 . Given the following matrices;

3 . Find a,b,c, and d. If

A 3×3 B 2×3 C 3×2 and D 2×2

5 . Calculate the following matrix multiplication (if defined)

6 . Given the following matrices;

The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix.

• An inductive way to define the determinant, det A of any square matrix.

= -3(2(1) - 4(5)) - 2(2(2) - 4(3))

= 4(3( 4) − 1(2)) − 2(1( 4) − 2(2)) + (1 − 2(3))

= −4( −10 + 3( −45)) + 8( 2( −45) + ( −35))

Theorem :Let A , B ,and C are n by m matrices.

i) If B is obtained from A by interchanging two different rows or columns , then

Since B obtained from A by interchanging row, so B = 2.

Since B obtained from A by interchanging row, then B = 10 .

ii) If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row or column by a number K , then

det (KB) = K n det A

Then find det A, det B, and det C.

Matrix C is obtained from A by multiplying all the row by a number 3. Then,

iii) If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of some row or column of A to a different

iv) If A and B are square matrices, then:

v) If A has repeating row and column, then A = 0

Let A and B are square matrices.

• AB = BA = I. Where I is an identity matrix, then B is called the inverse for

Formula to Find Inverse Matrix For 2 by 2:

Given A −1 = 3 and B −1 = −5 . Find

• Formed by deleting the row and column containing that element.

The cofactors of an element are minor multiplying by the appropriate sign.

 a11 a12 a13 

C11 = (− 1) C12 = (− 1) C13 = (− 1)

The Adjoint of Square Matrix

Step1: Find the minors

Step2: Find the cofactor

Step 3: Transpose the cofactor

Step1: Find the minor

Step2: Find the cofactor

Step 3: Transpose the cofactor

Inverse By Using Adjoint Method

Theorem: Let A be any square matrix, if det A ≠ 0 then

Step1: Find the minor

Step2: Find the cofactor

Step 3: Transpose the cofactor

Step 4: Find det B

Step1: Find the det A

Step 2: Find the minor

Step 3: Find the cofactor

Step 4: Transpose the cofactor

Step 5: Find the A −1

Step 1: Find the D.

Step 2: Find minor

Step 3: Find the cofactor