Unit 1

What is Mobile Computing

Definition – Mobile Computing System mean Wireless
communication and its applications  are generic technology that
refers to numerous devices that are supportable to access transmitted
data like voice, video, and text any time and any where over
the wireless network infrastructure and in which to include mobile
communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software and this react
as human-computer interaction. Cause of these has improved the
quality of our lives.

Introduction of Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to
transmit data from one device to another device without the use of any physical link or
cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice
and video via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being connected
to a fixed physical link. In this technology, data transmission is done wirelessly with the
help of wireless devices such as mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit
data from any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile
computing technology provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one
of the fastest and most reliable sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

o Mobile Communication
o Mobile Hardware
 o Mobile Software

Mobile Communication
Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of
mobile computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an
infrastructure that ensures seamless and reliable communication among wireless
devices. This framework ensures the consistency and reliability of communication
between wireless devices. The mobile communication framework consists of
communication devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to
facilitate and support the stated services. These devices are responsible for delivering a
smooth communication process.

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless

Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position,
and they are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.

For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a
position, and they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with
other devices.

For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and
some are mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.

For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can
communicate with each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any
network without the use of any wired device.

For Example, WiFi Dongle.

Mobile Hardware
 It has Mobile Device and Device Component enabled to receive and access
the Communication Service.

 Mobile hardware means those devices or mobile devices that can receive or
access the service of mobility.  It includes laptops, smartphones, tablet PCs,
smart watch and other personal digital assistants (PDA).

 It includes mobile device and device components which receive and receive
communication service.  These devices include portable laptop, smartphone,
tablet, Personal Digital Assistance (PAD).  All these devices are configured in
(full- duplex), in which they are able to send and receive signals at the same
time.  To send a signal to a device in full- duplex, one does not have to wait
until the other device finishes sending the signal.  It goes on continuously.

 There is a receptor inside these device which is designed to sense and

receive signals.  And this device works on full-duplex, ie it can also send and
receive signals at the same time.

 Mobile hardware works on wireless networks.

Mobile Software
Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware and it can work
according to the features and requirements of Mobile Application.  We can
also call this the Mobile Device Engine.

 Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware.  It can also be

called the operating system of mobile.

 Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware and it functions

according to the features and requirements of the mobile application.  In this
way, we can also call mobile Madwaas.

 It is responsible for all functions inside the device.  It is also called the engine
of the device.

 It looks at all the features and needs of mobile applications.  It offers camera,
music player, cellular connectivity, WI-FI, Bluetooth, voice recorder, speech
recognition, and video player etc.

Guided and Unguided transmission

Definition of Guided Media

Guided transmission media are more commonly known as the wired

communication or bounded transmission media. The electromagnetic signals
travel between the communicating devices through a physical
medium/conductor. As the medium for transmission is a physical conductor, it
also provides direction to the signal. But there are physical limitations of the
conductor in the guided media. Like the length of the conductor, its installation
cost, its maintenance, etc.

The guided media is categorized further into three categories that are twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable. The twisted pair cable has two
conductors wires wounded around each other and each surrounded by an
insulating material. The twisted pair cable is flexible and easy to install. But it
has low bandwidth and provide less protection from interference. Twisted pair
cable are also of two types shielded and unshielded twisted pair cable.

The coaxial cable has a central core conductor (usually copper) enclosed in an

insulating sheath, which is further encased in an outer metallic braid, it serves
as both protection against noise and as a second conductor which completes
the circuit. Now, the outer metallic covering is also covered by an insulating
sheath. The coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency than the twisted
pair cable.

The third category is the optical fibre which is made of glass or plastic, and it

transmits signals in the form of light. The optical fibre is noise resistance, has
less signal attenuation and has a higher bandwidth in comparison to twisted
pair cable and coaxial cable. But it also has some drawbacks like; it is very
expensive, it requires a lot of installation and maintenance charge as any
defect in the cable can diffuse light and alter the signals. As the optical fibre is
made of glass, it is very fragile.

Definition of Unguided Media

The unguided media is also called wireless communication. It does not require

any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals. In unguided media,
the electromagnetic signals are broadcasted through air to everyone. These
signals are available to one who has the device capable of receiving those
signal.

The unguided media is also called unbounded media as it does not have any
border limitation. The unguided media allows the user to connect all the time,
as the communication is wireless the user can connect himself from anywhere
to the network.

The unguided media is categorized into radio waves, microwaves and infrared

waves. The radio waves are generated easily; they are low-frequency
signals and can travel a long distance. The radio waves can penetrate through
the buildings.

The microwaves are transmitted in a straight line and hence require the line-of-

sight transmission. The distance covered by the microwave signal depend on
the height of the two antenna. More the taller are antennas longer is the
distance covered by the signal. The microwave has a frequency higher than
the radio waves. Microwave are used for telephone communication mobile
phones, television distribution, etc.

Infrared waves are used for short range communication. Like, the remote
control for televisions, VCRs, etc. uses infrared waves. It can not penetrate
through obstacles. The government licence is not required, to operate an
infrared system as it is more secure against eavesdropping.
 Mobile Computing Applications

There are different types of real life applications which are used in

the Mobile computing, such as:

Traffic:-
During traveling in traffic if we require to know road situation, latest
news and when if feel more stress in driving then can play music and
other important broadcast data are received through digital audio
broadcasting(DAB). If we forget the road then we can know our exact
location with the help of global positioning system (GPS).In case if
got accident then can to inform police and ambulance via an
emergency call to the service provider, which help to improve
organization and save time & money.
Emergencies Situation:-

To play a vital role in the medical sector can hire an ambulance with
great quality wireless connection and help of this can carry significant
information about injured persons. The useful step can prepare for a
particular accident and doctor can be consulted for diagnosis.
Only Wireless networks work of communication in nature disaster 2
such as earthquakes, tsunami, flood, and fire. In worst conditions only
decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive. Means that can
handle Emergencies situation by mobile computing easily.
Use in Business:-

As per business point of view CEO help of this computing system can
represent the presentation at the front of their clients while can access
hot news of the market. Help of video conference could be discuss at
the topic without hindrance any time. Another side if traveling
salesman wants to access the company database as per requirement
then can be retrieved data on his wireless device and maintain the
consistency company’s database. Cause of these every employee are
updated up to date.

Credit Card Verification:-

Credit card verification using this computing most secure. In respect of

Sale terminals(POS) when customer buy items in malls and other
small shops when and pay bill in the form of swap credit card for
transactions then need to establish network in between POS terminal
and bank central computer then over protected cellular network verify
the credential information of card fastly, if match it then proceed
further otherwise denied get boost up speed of transaction process
and relieve the burden at the POS network.

Credit card verification using this computing most secure. In respect of

Sale terminals(POS) when customer buy items in malls and other
small shops when and pay bill in the form of swap credit card for
transactions then need to establish network in between POS terminal
and bank central computer then over protected cellular network verify
the credential information of card fastly, if match it then proceed
further otherwise denied get boost up speed of transaction process
and relieve the burden at the POS network.
Replacement of Fixed Networks:-
 Wired network has been replaced in wireless network e.g. trade
shows, remote sensors and historical buildings. in wired networks,
weather forecasting, earthquake detection and to get environmental
data are impossible. This is possible only in adapting the replacement
of fixed networks in this computing.

Infotainment:-

Wireless networks are capable to deliver the latest information at any

suitable regions and can download knowledge about concert at
morning through wireless network that concert is conducting in any
region as well as Another growing field of wireless network
applications lies in entertainment and games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc
gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together. So
Infotainment by wireless computing is more easy.

Advantage of Mobile Computing

Now these days, Mobile Computing has more need because there are

various benefits such as:
 Increasing Productivity –  Mobile devices can be used in the
field of various instruments, so reducing time and cost for customers
and themselves.
 Entertainment – For entertainment purposes, mobile
computing devices can be used for both people and customers for
personal and even presentations.
 Portability – The main advantages of this, you are not bound to
one Zone . It help to access any wireless devices without place
boundation.
 Cloud Computing – This service is available to save documents
on online servers and whenever you make a connection to the
Internet, they are able to access them at any time and anywhere and
these files can be used for many mobile devices or even That can also
access on PC.

Disadvantages of Mobile Computing

In Mobile Computing, there are many drawbacks and challenges.

 Its main disadvantage is its security because mobile devices can be

hacked and important and sensitive information stored in them can be
stolen.

 If we use someone else's wi-fi then he can easily hack our phone.

 On one hand, productivity increases through these devices but on the

other hand it also causes distraction.  Users also use it during their work
to see useless things.

 Many accidents have occurred due to phone talk while driving.

 The battery capacity in mobile devices is very low and these batteries
last for a short time.  If you get stuck in a place where there is no
electricity and your battery is exhausted.  (Because their battery lasts
only for 1 or 2 days and they have to charge again.)

 You must have seen that sometimes 4G networks are coming full in
your phone, but the speed of internet is very low.  So this is a drawback
of this.  2g speed is also not available in 4g network.

 The price of new technology and devices is expensive, which can be

difficult to buy.

 The display screen of mobile devices is very small.

 If we take the phones with us, then there is a risk of theft due to which
someone can misuse your phone

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile Computing Architecture

Mobile computing architecture refers to the definition of multiple layers between user

application interfaces, devices, and network hardware. A well-defined architecture is
necessary for systematic calculations and access to data and software objects.

Mobile computing usually implies wireless transmission but, wireless transmission does

not imply mobile computing. Mobile computing follows some of the attributes. List of
attributes are mentioned in this earlier post. Attributes of Mobile Computing.
 3-Tier Architecture of Mobile computing
A 3-tier architecture is an application program that is organized into three major parts,
comprising of:

1. Layer-1 : Presentation Layer (UI)

2. Layer-2: Application Layer(AL)
3. Layer-3: Data Access Layer(DA)
3 Tier Architecture Mobile Computing

Each tier is distributed to a different place or places in a network.  These tiers do not
necessarily correspond to physical locations on various computers on a network, but rather
to logical layers of the application.

1. Presentation Layer (UI):

o This layer presents data to the user and optionally permits data
manipulation and data entry, also this layer requests the data form Business layer.
o This layer accomplished through use of Dynamic HTML and client-side
data sources and data cursors.
2. Application Layer (AL):
o The business logic acts as the server for client requests from
workstations. It acts according Business rules fetch or insert data through the Data
Layer.
o In turn, it determines what data is needed (and where it is located) and
acts as a client in relation to a third tier of programming that might be located on a
local or mainframe computer.
 o Because these middle-tier components are not tied to a specific client,
they can be used by all applications and can be moved to different locations, as
response time and other rules require.

3. Data Access Layer (DA):

o The third tier of the 3-tier system is made up of the DBMS that provides
all the data for the above two layers.
o This is the actual DBMS access layer.

o Avoiding dependencies on the storage mechanisms allows for updates or

changes without the application tier clients being affected by or even aware of the
change.
Note: As more users are uses the system a three tier architecture is more scalable
than the other solutions you can add as many middle tiers. Security is also the best
in the three tier architecture because tier protects the database tier.

Mobile Computing Devices

Mobile computing devices are known as “Mobile Computer Devices”
because they allow users to make connection to internet with all parts
of your mobile devices. These devices are designed to be portable
that means they are comfortable on your lap, pocket or palm of your
hand. So users can carry those devices from one location to other
location without any headache.

Examples of Mobile Computing Devices

There are different types of mobile computing devices, below explain

each one:
Personal Digital Assistant
The name of PDA is Pocket computer; this device is capable to
transmit data from one terminal to other terminal with
synchronization. In the PDA have all functionality such as making call
voice/video, calendar, and more. Today, PDAs are available in
different types of operating system like as Apple iOS, Windows
Mobile, Blackberry, and Google’s Android.

Smart Phone
Smartphone connect a mobile phone and a computer in one hand to
the same device. Smartphone allows users to access and store
information (such as e-mails) and installs the program (apps) while
being able to use a mobile phone in one device.

Tablet PC
Notebook computers are not running and a stylus is also used to write
in it, handwriting is digitized and can be converted into standard text
through handwriting recognition or it is written in text form is. The
stylus can also be used to type on a pen-based key layout, where letter
keys are arranged differently than a standard QWERTY keyboard.
These computers also have a keyboard and a mouse for input.

iPad
I Pad tablet is a tablet PC designed by Apple Inc. The iPad has a 9.7
inch touch screen that users can talk directly through the finger
stroke. This portable device can be used to browse the web, listen to
music, watch movies, read eBooks and play games in addition to other
things.

Other Examples of Mobile Computing Devices

E-Readers: E-reader means “E-Book Reader”. It is a portable electronic
device, and its main objective of designing is to read digital content
like as E-book, E-newspaper etc.

Portable Gaming Devices: It is self-contained video game console

along with in-built screen, speaker, mice, and game controller as well.
These devices are small in size compare to home video consoles.

Netbook: Netbook is a portable mobile computing device as well as it

contains light weight, less power consumption, less processing power
compare to laptop. Main goal of designing is to operate word
processing and internet on the web browsers.

Ultra-Mobile PCs: It is a portable hardware device that having capacity

to run Windows operating system. It offers amazing functionality
compare to laptop and palmtop. Its screen size is 5-7 inches and
weight not exceed to 2 pounds.
Graphing Calculator: Graphing calculator is special calculator
hardware device that allow displaying plotted graph for solving of
complicated equation like as parabolas and another plotted output.

Pocket PCs: Pocket PCs are also known as Microsoft as a name

Windows Mobile classic device that is different types of PDA which
have ability to run Windows mobile operating system. It can perform
some tasks as modern PCs.

PC Engine GT: PC Engine GT is also known as “TurboGrafx-16” that is

portable version of PC Engine, and it was introduced by Japan, in 1990
and after that USA also released as TurboExpress.

Atari Lynx: It is 8/16 bit portable game device that was developed by
Atari Lynx, in 1989.

GP32: GP32 stands for (GamePark 32). it is also portable  hardware

device of video game that was released by Game Park company, in
2001.

Gizmondo: It is also handheld hardware gaming console that was

designed by Tiger Telematics Company.

PlayStation Portable (PSP): It is also slim gaming console that is

released by Sony Computer Entertainment.

N-Gage: N-Gage was a Symbian Smartphone as well as combining

features of handheld gaming system that was introduced by Nokia, in
2002.
 Mobile System Networks

1. Cellular or mobile network:-

A Cellular network or Mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called
cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station.
In a cellular network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, to
avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each cell.

Features of Cellular Systems

Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases
user capacity. The features of cellular systems are as follows −
 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
 Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
 Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users
by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
 Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between
mobiles).
 Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small
geographic area called a cell.
 Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel
groups may be reused to cover different cells.
 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.

Advantages of Cellular networks :

● It is flexible enough to use the features and functions of almost all public
and private networks.
● It has increased capacity.
● It consumes less power.
● It can be distributed to larger coverage area.
● It reduces interference from other signals.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Cellular Network

 Following are the disadvantages of Cellular Network:
It offers less data rate compare to wired networks such as fiber optics, DSL
etc. The data rate varies based on wireless standards such as GSM,
CDMA, LTE etc.
 Macro cells are affected by multipath signal loss.
 The capacity is lower and depends on channels/multiple access
techniques employed to serve subscribers.
 As the communication is over the air, it has security vulnerabilities.
 It requires higher cost in order to setup cellular network infrastructure.
 The wireless communication is influenced by physical obstructions,
climatic conditions and interference from other wireless devices.
 The installation of antennas for cellular network require space and
foundation tower. This is very cumbersome and requires both time and
effort.

2. WLAN network:-
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local
Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local
Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path
sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired
equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building
or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still
connected to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable,
while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the
public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Examples of WLANs that are available today are NCR's waveLAN and Motorola's ALTAIR.

WLAN architecture

.
Advantages of WLANs

o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction.

Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also
non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
 o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous
planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices which can
for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of
small notepads, PDAs, etc.
o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc.
whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down completely in
disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower than the
cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two reasons. First, after
providing wireless access to the wireless network via an access point for the first user,
adding additional users to a network will not increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN
eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the labor associated with installing and
repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new information
to take advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs

o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired networks. The
main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is radio transmission,
higher error rates due to interference and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive
error correction and detection mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have
come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality plus many
enhanced features. Most components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE 802.11a
or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the operation
and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national and
international frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power consuming,
also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN design should take this
 into account and implement special power saving modes and power management
functions.
o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license to be
able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license free band, such as the
2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many other
electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train engines, hair
dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect transmission is a
standard office or production environment.

3. Mobile Ad hoc Network

(MANET)
MANET stands for Mobile adhoc Network also called a wireless adhoc network or adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link
Layer ad hoc network.. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a
self-configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET
nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node
behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network. 

 Characteristics of MANET – 
 

 Dynamic Topologies: 
Network topology which is typically multihop, may change randomly and
rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links. 
 
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: 
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity
as compared to a wired network
 Autonomous Behavior: 
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous
behavior. 
 
 Energy Constrained Operation: 
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for
their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and
lightweight features. 
 
 Limited Security: 
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall
is absent due to its distributed nature of the operation for security, routing,
and host configuration. 
 
 Less Human Intervention: 
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network,
therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature. 
Pros and Cons of MANET –
Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing
autonomous nature.
3. Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human
intervention.
Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference
conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
 GSM Services

GSM is the most successful digital mobile telecommunication system in the world today. It
is used in more than 190 countries. GSM permits the integration of different voice and data
services and the inter working with existing networks. Services make a network interesting
for customers. GSM has defined three different categories of services:

1. Telephony (also referred as tele-services) Services

2. Data (also referred as bearer services) Services
3. Supplementary Services

1. Tele-Services or Telephony Services:

GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented Teleservices. These comprise encrypted voice
transmission, message services, and basic data communication with terminals as known
from the PSTN or ISDN

1. Voice Calls: The most basic Tele-Services supported by GSM is telephony. This

includes full rate speech at 13 Kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest
emergency service provider is notified by dialing three digits.
2. VideoText and Facsimile: Another group of Tele-Services includes Videotext
access, Teletext transmission, and Facsimile alternate speech and facsimile Group 3,
automatic facsimile Group 3 etc.
3. Short Text Messages: SMS service is a text messaging which allow you to send
and receive text messages on your GSM mobile phones.
4. Multimedia Message Services: Multimedia Messaging Service is a standard way
to send messages that include multimedia content to and from a mobile phone over a
cellular network. Users and providers may refer to such a message as a PXT, a picture
message, or a multimedia message.

5. Location Based Services: Location-based services (LBS) refers to services that

are based on the location of a mobile user as determined by the device's
geographical location. LBS applications provide services and information that are most
relevant to the user at that location.

2. Data Services or Bearer Services

Using your GSM phone to receive and send data is the essential building block leading
to widespread mobile Internet access and mobile and mobile data transfer. GSM
 currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k. New development that will push up data
transfer rated for GSM users HSCSD are now available.

3. Supplementary Services
Supplementary services are provided on top of TeleServices or bearer services, and include
features such as caller identification, call forwarding, call waiting, multi-party conversation. A
brief description of supplementary services is given here:

1. Multiparty Service or conferencing: The multiparty service allows a mobile

subscriber to establish multiparty conversations. That is, conservation between three or
more subscribers to setup a conference calls. This service is only applicable to normal
telephony.
2. Call Waiting: This service allows a mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming
call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject or ignore the incoming
call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using circuit
switched connection.
3. Call Hold: This service allows a mobile subscriber to put an incoming call on hold
and then resume this call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal telephony.
4. Call Forwarding: The call forwarding supplementary service is used to divert calls
from the original recipient to another number, and is normally set up by the subscriber
himself. It can be used by the subscriber to divert calls from the Mobile Station when
the subscriber is not available, and so to ensure that calls are not lost. A typical
scenario would be a salesperson turns off his mobile phone during a meeting with
customer, but does not wish to lose potential sales leads while he is unavailable.
5. Call Barring: The concept of barring certain type of calls might seem to be a
supplementary disservice rather than service. However, there are times when the
subscriber is not the actual user of the Mobile Station, and as a consequence may wish
to limit its functionality, so as to limit charges incurred. If the subscriber and users and
one and same, the call barring may be useful to stop calls being routed to international
destinations when they are route. The reasons for this are because it is expected that
are roaming subscriber will pay the charges incurred for international re-routing of calls.
So, GSM devised some flexible services that enable the subscriber to conditionally bar
calls.

GSM – Architecture

Introduction:
GSM is the short form of Global System for Mobile Communications. It is called
2G or Second Generation technology. There are various GSM standards such as
GSM900, EGSM900, GSM1800 and GSM 1900 which uses different frequency
bands for their operation. GSM uses TDMA/FDMA access technique. GSM 900
uses uplink frequency band from 890 to 915 MHz and downlink frequency band
from 935 to 960 MHz. It uses bandwidth of 200 KHz.

GSM Network Architecture

A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are
explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −
 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

The Mobile Station

This Mobile station is GSM mobile phone equipment which houses DSP,RF chip
and SIM(subscriber Identity Module). This SIM is enough to carry to avail the
service of GSM network. SIM contains subscriber related all the information,
network with which subscriber is subscribed with and encryption related
information.

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station
controller (BSC). The BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio
connections to an MS, coding/decoding of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the
wireless network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS contains several BTSs.

The BSS is composed of two parts −

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)


The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e.,antennas, signal processing, amplifiers

necessary for radio transmission. A BTS can form a radio cell or, using
sectorized antennas, several cells , and is connected to MS via the Um interface
(ISDN U interface for mobile use), and to the BSC via the Abis interface. The Um
interface contains all the mechanisms necessary for wireless transmission
(TDMA, FDMA etc.) and will be discussed in more detail below. The Abis interface
consists of 16 or 64 kbit/s connections. A GSM cell can measure between some
100 m and 35 km depending on the environment (buildings, open space,
mountains etc.) but also expected traffic.

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reserves radio frequencies, handles the
handover from one BTS to another within the BSS, and performs paging of the
MS. The BSC also multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network
connections at the A interface.
GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

 The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation
and support system (OSS).
Here are some of the OMC functions−
 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging,
and statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the
Telecommunication Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T
series M.30.

The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls
the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for
centralized, regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required
for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and
support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance
organizations.

Introduction:

GSM has an additional feature of worldwide localization of user’s .GSM System always
know where a user currently is, and the same phone number is valid worldwide.

Localization:

 GSM performs periodic location updates even if a user does not use the mobile
station.
 The HLR always contains information about the current location
 The VLR currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about location
changes.
 As soon as an MS moves into the range of a new location area (new VLR) the
HLR sends all user data needed to the new VLR.
 Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all services is also called
roaming.
Following are some numbers which are needed to locate an MS and to address:

GSM Calling:-
GSM Handover
Types of GSM handover
Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only systems:

 Intra-BTS handover:   This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency or
slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the
mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot.
 Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover:   This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the mobile
moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance
the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before
releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile.
 Inter-BSC handover:   When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a
more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from one BTS to another but
one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC.
 Inter-MSC handover:   This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two
MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.
 Security in GSM

Introduction:

Different security services are provided by GSM for security issues. Confidential
information is stored in AuC and in the individual SIM. SIM Contains personal, secret
data and is protected with a PIN against unauthorized use.

GSM security services:

Different security services provided by GSM are:

 Access control and authentication: To access the SIM user needs a secret PIN
(Personal Identification number). By this authentication of the user is done.
 Confidentiality: After authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data, and
signaling. This confidentiality exists only between MS and BTS, but it does not exist end-to-
end or within the whole fixed GSM/telephone network.
 Anonymity: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and
user identifiers are not used over the air. Instead, GSM transmits a temporary identifier
(TMSI), which is newly assigned by the VLR after each location update. Additionally, the VLR
can change the TMSI at any time.
 Three algorithms have been specified to provide security services in GSM.
Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5 for encryption, and A8 for the generation of
a cipher key.

Authentication:

 To access any of the service of GSM authentication is must. Authentication uses a

challenge-response method:
 Access control AC generates a random number RAND as challenge and the SIM within
the MS answers with SRES (signed response) as response.
 The AuC performs the basic generation of random values RAND, signed responses
SRES and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this information to the HLR.
 The current VLR requests the appropriate values for RAND, SRES, and Kc from the
HLR.
 For authentication, the VLR sends the random value RAND to the SIM
 The MS sends back the SRES generated by the SIM; the VLR can now compare both
values. If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise the subscriber is
rejected.
 Figure 8.10 Subscriber authentication

Encryption:

 After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption by applying the cipher key
Kc.
 Kc is generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the
algorithm A8.
 The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface. MS and BTS can now encrypt
and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the cipher key Kc. Figure 8.11 shows, Kc should
be a 64 bit key – which is not very strong, but is at least a good protection against simple
eavesdropping.

Figure 8.11 Subscriber Encryption

What is CDMA Technology?

CDMA technology is used in commercial cellular communications to make
better use of radio spectrum when compare to other technologies. This
technology was used as a military technology for first time in the World War II
by the English associates to break the German attempts of jamming
transmissions.

CDMA technology is known as a spread-spectrum technique which allows

many users to occupy the same time and frequency allocations in a given
band and space. Individual conversations are encoded with the help of
pseudo-random digital sequence.

What is CDMA?

CDMA belongs to two basic categories:

 Synchronous CDMA
 Asynchronous CDMA
Synchronous CDMA
Synchronous CDMA is defined as exploiting the mathematical properties
orthogonally between vectors representing the data strings. This digital
modulation method is analogous to the one used in simple radio transceivers.

For example, let us consider a binary string “1011” which is represented by

the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). These vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot
product and sum of products with respect to the components. If dot product is
zero, then the two vectors are said to be in orthogonal.

Asynchronous CDMA
If mobile-to-base links are not exactly matched, particularly due to handsets
mobility, a different approach is required. This type of CDMA is not
mathematically possible to create signature sequences which are orthogonal
for arbitrarily random starting points, and thus make use of the code space.
Pseudo-random or pseudo-noise sequences are used in asynchronous CDMA
systems.

This CDMA system offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of

resources. Asynchronous CDMA is best suited to a mobile network wherein
large numbers of transmitters produce relatively small amount of traffic at
irregular intervals.

CDMA is a form of direct sequence spread spectrum communications. This

spread spectrum communication can be illustrated by using these key
elements:

Multiple accesses: The use of spreading codes which is independent for each

user along with synchronous reception will allow multiple users to access the
same channel simultaneously.

Use of Wide Bandwidth: CDMA like other spread-spectrum technologies uses

a wider bandwidth than would otherwise be needed for the transmission of
data. This results in a number of advantages including an increased immunity
to interference and multiple user access.

Level of Security: In order to receive the data, the receiver synchronizes the
code to recover the data. The use of an independent data and synchronous
reception allows multiple users to access the same frequency band at same
time.

Working of CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access is entirely a different approach from the Time
Division Multiple Access. CDMA, after digitizing the data, spreads out the date
over the entire available bandwidth. Multiple calls are overlapped to each
other on a channel which is assigned with a unique sequence code. CDMA is
a form of spread-spectrum technique, which means data can be sent in small
pieces over a number of frequencies available to use at any time in the
specified range.
 CDMA Working

All the users’ data can be transmitted in a similar way to that of wide band
chunk of spectrum. Users Signals are spread over the entire bandwidth by a
unique spreading code. At the receiver end, the same code is used to recover
the signal. CDMA system requires accurate time stamp on each piece of a
signal. Eight and ten separate calls are carried out in the same channel space
as one analog call.

Types of Spread Spectrum Communications: There are three types of spread

spectrum communications:

 Frequency Hopping
 Direct Sequence
Frequency Hopping

Frequency hopping is the easiest of all the spread spectrum modulation

technique to use. The idea behind frequency hopping is to transmit data
across a broad spectrum; the frequency can be rapidly switched from one to
another. The transmitter and receiver are synchronized every time, and an
accurate clocking system, and pseudo generating system make this frequency
hopping very simple.

Direct Sequence

Direct sequence is the most famous spread spectrum technique in which the
data signal is multiplied by a Pseudo-random noise code. A PN code is a
sequence of chips which is given values as -1 and 1 (non polar) or 0 and 1
(polar). The number of chips within one code is known as the period of this
code. The digital data is directly coded at higher frequency, and the code is
generated pseudo randomly. A receiver knows how to generate the same
code and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the data.

Simplified Direct Spread Spectrum System

The above figure shows that one channel is operated in one direction and the
signal transmission consists of the following steps:

1. A pseudo-random code is generated which is different for each channel

and each successive connection.
2. The information data modulates the pseudo-random code, and a carrier
signal gets modulated.
The modulated carrier signal is amplified and broadcasted, and the signal
reception also involves the following steps:

1. The carrier signal is received and amplified.

2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread
digital signal.
3. A pseudo-random code is generated and matched with the anticipated
signal.
4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code
to it.
5. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, and the
information data is extracted.

Advantages
 Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot
more users in comparison to TDMA or FDMA.
 CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the noise
floor making the intrusion of the spectrum difficult.
 CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM. Thus, it
can also be used in rural areas.
 The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.
 CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during the
calls.
 Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
 CDMA has a very low power requirement.

Disadvantages
 CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is provided by
GSM.
 Since there is no limit to the number of users the system performance
degrades with an increase in the number of users.
 Self-jamming problem occurs in CDMA systems because of loss of
orthogonality.
 The problem of channel pollution occurs in CDMA systems which thus
degrades the quality of audio.
 Since most of the mobile companies use GSM thus there is a lack of
handsets for CDMA technology.

General packet radio service (GPRS)

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service. It is a packet oriented wireless data
communication service for mobile communications on 2G and 3G cellular
communication systems. It is non-voice, high speed packet switching technology
intended for GSM networks.
It is based on a modulation technique called Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK). To
enable GPRS on a GSM or TDMA network, we are required to add two core modules: the
Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN).

Benefits of GPRS
o It provides higher data transfer speed than fixed telecommunication networks. Its
optimum speed is 171.2 kbps, almost three times quicker than fixed-telecommunication
speed.
o It provides instant connection and immediate data transfer.
o It is very cost-effective.
o It has innovative and superior applications. It provides internet applications over mobile
and also facilitates Web browsing, IM messages, E- commerce etc.

What is needed to use GPRS?

o An application with a GPRS modem
o A GSM/GPRS network
o A SIM card with GPRS service
o A remote station with access to the internet or the GPRS network

GPRS Architecture
The architecture that works as a network to allow the passage of data is called

GPRS Architecture. It has settings for packet data at a faster rate of 171 kbps.

Multiple users can enter the network and use the resources judiciously.

Involved from GPS, General Packet Radio Service provides packet service in 2G

or 3G mobile data services. Short packets are accessed in a short duration with
proper infrastructure, which provides the connection to GSM infrastructure.

When 2G is provided with data, additional entities are needed for the same.

They are GGSN and SGSN. Additional provisions are given to the architecture

to improve itself.

GPRS is usually attempts to reuse the existing GSM

network elements as much as possible. There are new entities
called GPRS that supports nodes (GSN) which are responsible for
delivery and routing of data packets between mobile stations and
external packets networks. There are two types of GSNs,
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGNS)
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGNS)

These two modesare comparable to MD-IS in CPDP. There is also a new

database called GPRS register which is located with HLR. It stores routing

informations and maps the IMSI to a PDN address. Thus, GPRS Reference

Architecture is shown as-

Subsystems of GPRS Architecture
Mobile Station:

GPRS Services required New Mobile Station as the existing GSM

phones are not capable of handling the enhanced air interface or the
packet data. A wide variety of Mobile stations exist which includes a
high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data
access like PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are
in backward compatibility mode in order to make voice calls which
are used GSM.

Base Station Subsystem:

Each BSC requires the installation of Packet Control Units in addition

to software upgrade. They provide physical and logical data
interface to BSS to estimate packet data traffic. BTS too require a
software upgrade but typically does not involve hardware
enhancements.

When the traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile then it is

transported over the air interface to BTS and then from BTS to BSC,
the same way in standard GSM call. But at output of BSC the traffic
is separated, the voice is sent to the mobile switching centre per
standard GSM and the data is sent to the new device called the
SGSN via the PCU.

GRPS Support Nodes:

 SSGN: The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for
authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration of mobiles in the
network, mobility management, and collecting information for
charging for the use of the air interface.
 GGSN: The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface
and a router to external networks. The GGSN contains routing
information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets
through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving
GPRS Support Node.
Internal Back Network:

The internal backbone is an IP based network which is used to carry

the new packets between different GSN. The process of Tunneling is
used in-between SGSNs and GGSNs, this is done to safe exchange
of domain informations outside the GPRS Network with out
informing internal backbone.

Mobility Support:
In a manner similar to GSM and CDPD, there are mechanism in
GPRS to support mobility. There are two types of Mobility Support in
GPRS Network-
 Attachment Procedure
 Location and Handoff Management
Short Messaging Services in GSM:
For the proliferation of GSM enable the introduction of SMS, which is
similar to peer-to-peer instant messaging on the Internet. Users of
SMS can exchange alphanumeric message of up to 160 char. with in
seconds of submission of the message.

Below are the advantages of GPRS Architecture:

1. Data access time is concise in the architecture so that the data under

any network or under any system can be accessed and used faster. This

makes the network manage the data well under the system with proper

data packets and routing area, and network backbone.

2. All the resources are utilized to the maximum in the network, so that

circuit switching, packet switching, and transmission modes are

managed well. The routing area is described in the network so that

wireless resources are identified and used.

3. Through mobile devices, data is transferred at a faster rate than ever.

GPRS networks can be used in computers so that the data transmission

rate will be faster and can be utilized to its full capacity.

4. Any applications are used in the GPRS network, be it common services

like email or broadcast service in the system or web browsing in the

 network. It is a known fact GPRS provides services in the name as they

stay always connected in the system. With the high transfer rate and

shorter access times, GPRS is preferred in the system by many users.

5. Multimedia messaging and broadcasting is easily done in GPRS. Instant

messaging service is provided in the network to make use of this service

to the maximum if the data transfer rate is slow. Wireless connectivity is

provided in the system when data is at a very faster rate.

6. Availability and accessibility of the GPRS network over all the systems

make it trustworthy among the users.