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The Physical Properties of Compost

a a
J.M. Agnew & J.J. Leonard
a
Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Published online: 23 Jul 2013.
To cite this article: J.M. Agnew & J.J. Leonard (2003) The Physical Properties of Compost, Compost
Science & Utilization, 11:3, 238-264, DOI: 10.1080/1065657X.2003.10702132
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Compost Science & Utilization, (2003), Vol. 11, No. 3, 238-264
LITERATURE REVIEW
J.M. Agnew and J.J. Leonard
Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The trend toward more efficient methods of compost production and handling re-
quires a complete understanding of the process, the materials involved, and the phys-
ical parameters of the materials such as moisture content, bulk density, and various
mechanical properties. These properties influence the process and product in various
ways from aeration effectiveness to compost-soil interactions. This paper reviews the
influence of the physical properties of composting materials on the production and
utilisation of compost. Methods for measuring moisture content, bulk density, parti-
cle size distribution, airflow resistance and the thermal and optical properties of com-
post are summarised. In addition to techniques for determining theses properties,
Compost Science & Utilization 2003.11:238-264.
typical values for particle density, porosity, and mechanical and electrical properties
of composting materials are presented. Empirical formulas also are included for bulk
density, particle density, free air space, and specific heat capacity, as cited in the re-
viewed literature. In the majority of cases, there is a lack of a specific standard for de-
scribing and measuring compost physical properties. In order to achieve uniformity
in reporting and comparability of data from various sources, acceptable standard
methods of measuring compost properties need to be adopted.
Introduction
Physical properties play an important role in every stage of compost production
as well as the handling and utilization of the end product. From the mixing of various
feedstocks and process monitoring and maintenance to the packaging and shipping of
the final product, parameters such as bulk density, porosity and thermal conductivity
dictate the requirements for the optimum composting environment and the design of
machinery used in the system.
In order to design a material processing or handling system, it is important to have
information on the nature of the materials involved and how the characteristics of the
materials affect the process and the components of the system. In the case of compost
production, this information demands an understanding of the process as well as the
physical means of facilitating the process. A useful description of how physical and bi-
ological parameters are brought together in the design of composting systems is pro-
vided by Keener et al. (1993) in their description of design optimization.
The design of a process should also include a description of the desired product.
Such a description should include physical and chemical characteristics that are like-
ly to be related to the intended use of the product. Thus, desired physical properties
of compost are a function of the end use of the product.
This paper firstly reviews the influence of the physical properties of composting
materials on the production and utilisation of compost. The properties reviewed in-
clude moisture content, bulk density, particle size, porosity, and airflow resistance,
as well as thermal, electrical, mechanical and optical properties. Secondly, literature
relevant to these compost physical properties is reviewed to outline the extent of cur-
rent knowledge and to identify where research is required. To consider the influence
and significance of physical properties on the overall composting system, it is con-
238 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Literature Review
venient to consider separately the production process and the handling and utiliza-
tion aspects of the system.
Relevance of Physical Properties to Compost Production

Compost production may be defined as the process whereby thermophilic, aero-
bic microorganisms convert organic material into a hygienic, biostable product. In or-
der for the microorganisms to thrive and be most efficient in their work, they must be
provided with a suitable nutrient, water and oxygen supply, as well as an environment
in which thermophilic temperatures (greater than 40°C) can be maintained. The tem-
perature and moisture and air contents of compost are physical properties in them-
selves, but each of these requirements are influenced by other physical properties of
the composting materials.
Temperature is an important parameter in composting both as a consequence and
as a determinant of activity. Thermophilic organisms are generally accepted to be more
productive, and the thermophilic temperatures kill pathogens and weed seeds that
may have been present in the initial mixture. Optimum air and moisture contents are
also important in keeping microbial populations active. A constant oxygen supply is

needed to maintain aerobic conditions. Sufficient moisture is required for microbial
nutrition and transport. The bulk density of compost is often used for design and
haulage calculations as well as determining power requirements for operations such
as turning and mixing. Bulk density can also be related to moisture and air contents as
well as strength and compressibility, proving to be a very valuable physical property.
Particle size distribution dictates the surface area available for microorganisms and can
also influence bulk density and ease of compaction. Airflow resistance of compost may
be related to porosity and bulk density while the mechanical properties aid in the de-
sign and maintenance of compost piles. Electrical and optical properties can be used
in describing the quality of the end product.
Relevance of Physical Properties to Compost Utilization, Handling, and Quality

Careful selection and blending of the constituent materials for compost provides
a suitable environment for microorganisms but the material must still be placed and
handled in an optimal fashion during and after processing. The accurate measurement
of compost properties is important for estimating handling, storage, treatment, dis-
posal, and reuse costs for composting (McCartney and Tingley 1998).
Amendment of the soil with compost has been shown to result in decreased bulk
density and strength, increased porosity and enhanced water retention and availabil-
ity of water of plants. Since these benefits can be derived from the use of compost, in-
formation on relevant physical properties should be included in marketing and con-
sumer information available to end-users. However, data on parameters such as bulk
density, particle size distribution and porosity are unlikely to be very meaningful to
users without some interpretation of how these properties will interact with specific
soil types and what application rates are required to achieve these effects.
The need for consumer and marketing information leads into the area of defining,
measuring and ensuring compost product quality. Again, chemical analyses and bio-
assays should be complemented by specification of key physical properties. Inbar et al.
(1993a) reviewed the need for standards in the use of compost in container media.
These authors suggested that a product declaration for composts used in this manner
should include details of bulk density and total porosity, water and air capacity, par-
Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 239

ticle size distribution and the electrical conductivity of the water extract. This list of
characteristics is similar to specifications for the physical properties of peat proposed
over twenty years ago (Puustjarvi 1984).
Lutz (1984) gives details of the Austrian standard for solid waste composts in
which specifications are set out for moisture content, water capacity, bulk density and
electrical conductivity. Stipulations on moisture content, maximum particle size and
electrical conductivity are included under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act
for compost bearing the EcoLogo in Environment Canada’s Environmental Choice
Program (Environment Canada 1992). The Federal Association for Quality Compost
in Germany recommends a maximum water content of 35% (w.b.) for composts to be
marketed in bags (Fricke and Vogtmann 1993) while CAN/BNQ Standards (NSC 1996)
state that the moisture content should not exceed 60% (w.b.).
Optimizing compost properties for different end uses can require secondary pro-
cessing of the compost such as screening, mixing, and adjustment of moisture content.
These operations constitute common materials-handling problems but, as with in
process mixing and turning, they can only be designed properly with a complete
knowledge of the physical characteristics of the materials concerned. The same is true
of any packaging and bagging operation that may be part of a composting operation.
Fricke and Vogtmann (1993) stated that composts should contain no more than 45%
water to facilitate optimal conditions for processing such as sieving, selection of un-
desirables and mixing with additives.
Relatively few studies have focused on physical transformations of substrates as
they become compost, e.g. changes to mass, bulk density, volume and water content.
Changes to these properties are important from a transportation or haulage viewpoint.
Larney et al. (2000) studied a cattle manure and straw mix and noted a dry matter re-
duction in the range of 21-30% and a 3-4 fold increase in bulk density over the active
(thermophilic) composting period and curing stage. Volume loss during the ther-
mophilic phase was greatest during the summer season at 72% and lowest during the
winter phase at 34%. The water mass loss was as high as 83% for active (mechanically
turned) composting during the summer. The authors also noted that a turned windrow
system generally led to larger changes in physical properties of manure than a passively
aerated composting system. Michel et al. (1996) also reported on the transformation of
physical properties over time. Straw, grass and brush compost showed a substantial de-
crease in moisture content while the bulk density increased over the four week trial.
Having blended and manipulated the composting materials to optimize the effi-
ciency of the process, the next question is whether the physical properties can give any
indication of the completeness of the process. Amongst other things, composting is
characterized by a reduction in volume and a change in colour of the materials and it
is conceptually possible that these (or other) physical properties could provide an in-
dication of compost maturity. The need for a reliable test of compost maturity is dri-
ven by the fact that immature compost can be phytotoxic and polluting (Mathur et al.
1993) due to its biochemical properties. Mature compost, on the other hand, should be
biochemically beneficial as a supplier of plant nutrients and is often promoted on this
basis. Nevertheless, as Dick and McCoy (1993) have pointed out, in many cases it is the
physical properties of compost that are of major benefit.
Current Knowledge
From the above, it is apparent that physical properties are of considerable impor-
tance at every stage of compost production and utilization. The following sections pro-

Literature Review
vide an overview of what is known regarding selected physical properties and meth-
ods of determining them. Where possible, information specifically pertaining to com-
post is presented in Tables I to VI, but information on other, related materials is also
included. For convenience, the sections are divided according to the various parame-
ters involved, but there is no particular significance in their order of appearance.
Moisture Content and Water Retention

One vital physical factor that needs to be considered in the mixing of materials and
the maintenance of suitable conditions during the composting process is moisture con-
tent. This is well recognized and documented (Haug 1995; Rynk 1992; Jeris and Regan
1973; Snell 1957; McCartney and Tingley 1998; Etc.). Water is both produced by and re-
quired for microbial activity, as it is necessary to support the metabolic processes of
the microbes (Hall et al. 1995). Water provides the medium for chemical reactions,
transports nutrients, and allows the microorganisms to move about (Rynk 1992).
Microorganisms will not be active if the moisture content is too low and, if the mois-
ture content is too high, water can displace air from pore spaces resulting in anaerobic
regions within the material. Also, high moisture contents can affect the strength of the
material matrix allowing it to be compressed more easily. This also tends to reduce the
porosity, leading to the production of anaerobic regions (Haug 1995). Water not only
fills available pore space, but it also tends to decrease pore continuity (Miller 1993). The
combination of moisture filled pores and compression of the matrix will also result in
an increase in thermal conductivity allowing heat to be conducted more easily away
from regions at thermophilic temperature levels. In addition, excessively high moisture
contents result in free water draining through the compost as leachate that removes nu-
trients and has the potential to pollute ground or surface water in the vicinity.
Even if the compost materials are mixed initially to provide a suitable moisture
content, the problem of maintaining a suitable moisture content throughout the ma-
trix for the duration of processing remains. Moisture will migrate within the matrix
by diffusion of water vapour and as a result of forced or free convective air move-
ment. These mechanisms can result in water vapour from high temperature regions
condensing in cooler surface regions or in the outright loss of moisture from the com-
posting mass.
Moisture is also lost when compost is turned even though turning also has the pos-
itive effect of redistributing moisture through the matrix. The fact that heat is redis-
tributed and lost by the turning of piles underlines the fact that heat and mass trans-
fer within a composting mass are closely linked, and both depend on the physical
structure and properties of the materials involved and the matrix in which they exist.
As with heat transfer, moisture movement will be affected by the bulk density and
porosity of the compost. These parameters will also influence the ease with which
moisture can be added if the material becomes too dry.
Biological materials will gain or lose moisture to come into equilibrium with
their surrounding environment (Mohsenin 1986). However, little work has been
done with respect to equilibrium moisture content of compost. Baker et al. (1999) de-
termined the equilibrium moisture isotherms of synthetic food waste and biosolids
compost to investigate the effect of substrate and extent of degradation on the equi-
librium relationship between moisture content and relative humidity. The authors
found that mixtures that had been composted 20 to 30 days had similar isotherms to
those of raw materials, suggesting that degradation did not significantly alter equi-
librium relationships.

Preferred Ranges of Moisture Content and Terminology

Desirable moisture contents of mixtures at the start of composting are well estab-
lished and Rynk (1992) and Jeris and Regan (1973) give a reasonable range as being 40-
65% with a preferred range of 50-60%. Nevertheless, in a number of the cases cited by
these authors, the optimum moisture contents were in the range 60-80% and they point
out that optimum conditions will depend on the nature of the original materials in the
compost mixture. Vallini and Pera (1989) report successfully composting vegetable
wastes with an initial moisture content of over 82%.
Liao et al. (1993) also studied the efficiency of the composting process when the ini-
tial moisture content of the materials was higher than the recommended limit of 60%.
The authors used swine manure solids mixed with sawdust in a 5:1 ratio by weight
with an overall moisture content of 71%. Their results suggest that composting may be
feasible even if the moisture content exceeds 60% as long as there is sufficient air con-
tent in the compost pile to satisfy the oxygen needs of the microbes. In addition,
Leonard et al. (1997) observed that, while composting could be initiated successfully
in a sludge-straw-sawdust mixture with a moisture content of 80%, the structure of the
mixture collapsed on turning and additional straw was required to restore porosity.
Therefore, optimum moisture content is actually a trade-off between providing as
much water for microbial activity as possible while still maintaining a steady supply
of oxygen and sufficient structure. Typical moisture content values for a wide range of
composting materials are outlined in the appendix of The On-Farm Composting Hand-
book (Rynk 1992).
Although not described as such in all cases, these figures can be assumed to be
expressed on a wet basis (w.b.), also termed as-received basis. This is the most com-
mon way moisture contents are reported in the composting industry but, since mois-
ture content of organic materials can be expressed on a dry basis (d.b.) (ASTM 1994a,
ASAE 2000a), care should be taken to remove any ambiguity from reported data. The
Test Methods for the Examination of Compost and Composting (TMECC) (Leege and
Thompson 1997) defines wet basis moisture content as the mass of the water in a sam-
ple divided by the total wet mass of the sample. Dry basis moisture content, on the
other hand, is the mass of water in a sample divided by the dry mass of solids and is
used primarily for geotechnical analyses. In addition, moisture content can also be
reported on a volumetric basis, or the volume of water divided by the total volume
of material. Incomplete descriptions of parameters may lead to confusion and cal-
culation errors.
The use of a weight or volume ratio is a convenient and generally accepted method
of describing the moisture status of materials, but as Miller (1989) has pointed out that
this approach provides little insight into the availability of moisture for interacting
with the compost ecology. In this regard, matric potential, a measure of the effect of a
matrix on a substance’s ability to absorb or release water, may be a more useful mea-
sure and is used in describing soil and growth media (McKeague 1978).
Miller (1989) proposed that a suitable initial matric potential would be in the range
-10 to -20kPa and, using data obtained with cup tensiometers, carried out a regression
analysis for sewage sludge and woodchip compost. Applying this relationship to the
preferred moisture range mentioned above (50-60%) yields a range of matric poten-
tials of -20 to -40kPa. Since matric potential is a function of pore size distribution, dif-
ferent substrate materials could be expected to yield different moisture content-matric
potential relationships but the above figures give an indication of the order of magni-
tude that can be expected.

Literature Review
Measuring Moisture Content

Just as there is a lack of a specific standard for describing compost moisture con-
tent, there is a lack of a standard method of moisture determination. In most cases,
determination has been by means of drying in convection or forced-air ovens, other-
wise known as the gravimetric moisture content method. Microwave techniques have
proved satisfactory for peat (Balascio 1990,1992) and forages (ASAE 2000a) as well as
compost (Cardenas 1977; Ramer and Leonard 1995). Agapting soil moisture mea-
surement techniques to determine matric-potential or electrical properties of compost
and correlating them with moisture content has been studied in recent years, as well
as various other alternative methods of moisture content measurement (Hall et al.
1995, Miller 1989).
With the gravimetric method, the mass of the water in a sample is found by dry-
ing the material and recording the mass loss. Assuming only water is lost during the
drying process, the difference in mass is the amount of water that was present in the
sample. The equations for wet and dry basis moisture contents can then be solved.
Even with convection and forced-air oven methods, there can be considerable vari-
ation in procedural details. For instance, Leege and Thompson (1997) recommended
using 50cm3 aliquots dried at 70°C for 18 to 24h whereas other standards for organic
materials (ASTM 1994a; ASAE 2000a) specify 105°C for 16h and 103°C for 24h respec-
tively. Villar et al. (1993) used 110°C for 24h in determining moisture content of com-
post according to European recommendations. Although these variations in the dry-
ing times, temperatures and power settings used in moisture determinations are
unlikely to result in large errors, standard procedures would lead to easier compari-
son of results.
McCartney and Tingley (1998) reported on the accuracy of gravimetric measure-
ments with a reduced sample size. By using 25 and 5g samples instead of the usual 50g,
the analysis time was reduced to 9 hours. Also, an infrared “moisture balance” which
gave results in as little as 33 minutes, was determined to be accurate for moisture con-
tents above 5% (w.b.).
Ramer and Leonard (1995) studied the accuracy of drying samples of yard waste
and manure composts with a commercially-available microwave oven. Samples were
exposed to microwaves until they reached a constant weight without charring. Drying
times for 20 to 100g samples ranged from 6 to 30 minutes and depended on the mate-
rial, the sample size and the moisture content. Results from the microwaved samples
were within 1.5% of those obtained using conventional oven methods.
The majority of the existing methods of measuring compost moisture content are
adapted from methods of soil analysis. Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that other
methods used in soil moisture determination might be suitable to compost. However,
it should be emphasized that the heterogeneity and porosity of compost make careful
calibration for each material very important. Soil moisture methods, including ten-
siometers and neutron moisture probes, have been studied to determine their suit-
ability for use in compost (Arslan et al. 1997; Pojasok 2000).
Tensiometers measure the tension, or attractive force of water to the surround ma-
trix of soil or compost particles. Thus, a tensiometer can directly indicate matric poten-
tial. One of the advantages of using tensiometers to provide an indication of moisture
status is that they can be monitored in real time in situ (Miller 1989). Thus, it is con-
ceivable that tensiometers could be applied in process monitoring and control. Further
work is required to establish if, in fact, tensiometers can provide the simple, reliable
means of continuous moisture measurement that is required in composting facilities.

Hall et al. (1995) studied the parallel plate capacitance, time domain reflectometry
and ground penetrating radar methods of in situ moisture measurement. Some ad-
vantages of these alternative methods include quick, convenient, accurate and non-de-
structive results of moisture measurement.
The parallel plate capacitance method measured the capacitance of a material
which is affected by the amount of water held in the matrix. However, consistent mois-
ture prediction is still challenging, as it depends on density and compost maturity. Cal-
ibration of the plates also proved to be difficult since the compost texture, bulk densi-
ty and salinity affected the readings (Mead et al. 1995). Overall, capacitance plates, as
used by these authors, appear to give limited success in measuring moisture content.
Nguyen and Abboud (2000) presented results that indicated an exponential rela-
tionship between moisture content and capacitance probe output, with R2 values rang-
ing from 0.74 to 0.97 for five compost samples. This method seemed to provide an ap-
propriate basis for measuring moisture content in composts, provided that an
evaluation of the relationship between the moisture contents and the probe output was
obtained and verified (Nguyen and Abboud 2000).
The time domain reflectometry (TDR) technique is based on measuring the veloc-
ity of an electromagnetic pulse that travels along a probe and through the medium be-
ing measured. Hall et al. (1995) tested a TDR unit over a range of wet moisture contents
from 40 to 70%, high and low densities, and multiple stages and types of compost. Sep-
arate linear fits based on compost type and density were found with very high corre-
lation factors. The ground penetrating radar method is similar to the TDR technique,
with radar signals being used instead of an electromagnetic pulse.
Advantages of using TDR and ground penetrating radar are that they are non-de-
structive, relatively instantaneous, can be planted at various locations in situ, and, with
sufficient calibration, they are capable of providing accurate moisture measurements
(Hall et al. 1995). However, variations in other parameters like maturity and density
can cause calibration to be difficult, and the sensors must be placed carefully to min-
imise disturbances to the composting matrix. In addition, the long-term reliability is
questionable, and the cost of the sensors may be prohibitive.
Water Holding Capacity and Water Permeability

On the output end of the process, standards or guidelines should protect con-
sumers from paying for excessive water. Austrian standards stipulate an allowable
range of 25-35% (w.b.) (Lutz 1984) whereas the CAN/BNQ (NSC 1996) requirements
are a maximum of 50-60% (w.b.). Perhaps of equal importance to the user, however, is
the ability of compost to hold and retain water. Water retention is an important prop-
erty of horticultural substrates (Wilson 1983) and various composting researchers have
measured and reported it in different ways. Raviv et al. (1987) used a hanging water
column tensiometer to develop moisture retention curves for composted cow manure.
This approach is a logical extension of the matric potential measurements proposed by
Miller (1989) and is well accepted as a method for describing horticultural substrates
(DeBoot et al. 1974; Wilson 1983). Although they did not show actual curves, Gislerød
et al. (1985) used this method and simply provided a tabulation of moisture contents
at tensions of 0.1-1.0m for a number of bark composts.
Using a different approach, Gonzalez et al. (1989) described two composts as hav-
ing field capacities of about 75% water in relation to dry matter. Similar units were
used by Villar et al. (1993) (63% to 96% for four urban waste composts) and Lutz (1984)
in his description of Austrian standards which specify a water capacity of 85-120g per

Literature Review
100g dry solids. The major shortcoming of this approach is that the figures are not as-
sociated with a specified moisture tension. The same is true of the results reported by
Levanon et al. (1988) who measured the “water holding capacity at saturation” of cat-
tle manure compost as being approximately 900% (w.b.) or 90% (g/ml).
Leege and Thompson (1997) defined water holding capacity as the difference be-
tween the percentage of pore space and the percentage of free air space. Measurements
of pore space and free air space are outlined later in that section. Leege and Thomp-
son (1997) also outlined a quick test to approximate the water holding capacity of com-
post where water is allowed to slowly drip onto a sample of as-received compost for
approximately two hours. The sample is then dried and the water holding capacity can
be determined by calculating the amount of water held in the sample.
Just as water holding capacity is related to matrix structure, so is the ease with
which water flows through the compost, or water permeability. Permeability is not ac-
corded the same importance as a descriptor of horticultural substrates as water ca-
pacity but it is worth noting the work of Batzer (1954) in which permeability was cor-
related with the size of particles in the composting medium. Water permeability has
also been shown to be dependent on bulk density (Fogiel et al. 1999). In manure com-
post with increasing wet bulk density, the magnitude of the compost permeability de-
creased significantly. This decrease is expected to be due to the compaction of the com-
post matrix. (Air permeability is discussed later).
Bulk Density
The bulk density of compost is a measure of the mass of material within a given
volume. It determines how much compost can be placed at a certain site or hauled
in a truck of a given size. The density of compost also influences the mechanical prop-
erties such as strength, porosity and ease of compaction. Bulk densities of a wide
range of feedstocks can be found in the appendix of the On-Farm Composting Hand-
book (Rynk 1992).
Relationships and Terminology

Both wet and dry bulk densities are used and can be calculated using the follow-
ing two equations:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
In Equation 1 Mdry is the mass of dry material in kg and Vwet is the volume occupied
by the material before it was dried in m3. Bulk density then has the units of kgm-3. Dry
bulk density is also referred to as unit dry weight (Haug 1995), volume weight (Lev-
anon et al. 1988), apparent bulk density (Wilson 1983) or, simply as bulk density (e.g.,
Snell 1956; Schulze 1962; Raviv et al. 1987; Inbar et al. 1993b). Nevertheless, this should
not be confused with wet bulk density which can be defined as shown in Equation 2
where Mwet is the mass of undried material occupying the volume Vwet.
Confusion can arise because the wet bulk density is sometimes referred to simply
as bulk density (Rynk 1992) although other authors refer to bulk weight (Jeris and Re-

gan 1973), bulk weight (Singley et al. 1979), unit bulk weight (Haug 1995), apparent den-
sity (Seki 1989) and fresh density (Lutz 1984). Leege and Thompson (1997) used the term
bulk density to describe the volume occupied by both a wet and dry sample, depend-
ing on the application. In many cases, it is possible to infer from the values which bulk
density is being quoted. Typical dry bulk densities are in the range 100 to 400kgm-3
whereas wet bulk densities are typically 500 to 900kgm-3. Nevertheless, to avoid con-
fusion, a uniform terminology needs to be adopted and applied consistently.
Wet bulk density has been shown to correlate with moisture content in a linear fash-
ion for poultry manure compost (Glancey and Hoffman 1994) as shown in Equation 3.
. . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
where MCw.b. is represented as a fraction. Because of the dependence of bulk density

on moisture content, it is important for researchers to state the moisture content along
with bulk density values to provide a clear representation of the material.
Bulk density is also dependent on the location within a pile. Fogiel et al. (1999) out-
line this relationship for dairy manure compost. Generally, samples from the bottom
of the pile had higher bulk densities. This is in agreement with data published by
Schaub-Szabo and Leonard (1999), Mu and Leonard (1999) and Van Ginkle et al. (1999).
The latter showed a linear relationship between bulk density and depth for a compost
of chicken manure and wheat straw.
Higher values of bulk density imply an increase in mass and a decrease of poros-
ity and air volume. On the contrary, very low wet bulk density can indicate excessive
substrate aeration and, indirectly, a drop in the available water fraction (Nappi and
Barberis 1993). Miller (1993) and Larney et al. (2000) stated that bulk density increases
with composting time and is also determined by initial ingredients and their prepara-
tion. However, work by Van Ginkle et al. (1999) showed no correlation between un-
loaded bulk density and time. This suggests that the effect of compaction on bulk den-
sity over time is more significant than the effect of substrate degradation over time.
Methods of Measuring Bulk Density

As well as standard terminology, there is also a need for standardised methods of
determining bulk densities. A starting point in this regard could be existing standards
for peat (ASTM 1994b) or other horticultural substrates, but large errors and inconsis-
tencies can arise from the use of disturbed or compacted samples and the non-homo-
geneity of small samples. Methods of sampling and of treating samples need to be
specified to overcome these problems.
The majority of compost researchers (He et al. 1995; Glancey and Hoffman 1994;
Etc.) use the simple mass per unit volume technique as described in the ASTM stan-
dards. This consists of using a beaker or container of known mass and volume that is
filled with material which is slightly compacted to ensure absence of large void spaces.
The weight of the compost and container is then determined, and the bulk density can
be calculated. However, the disturbance of the material required for these methods
changes the compost matrix, which in turn alters the bulk density, giving erroneous
values. The mass per unit volume technique is good for obtaining quick, general re-
sults when the exact value for the bulk density at a given location is not necessary.
Leege and Thompson (1997) took the mass per unit volume approach one step fur-
ther and recommended allowing partially filled vessels to fall from a 100mm height
onto a rubber mat. This forces the material to settle and collapses any large pores.

Literature Review
While this procedure is a more standardized way to measure the bulk density of a com-
pressible material, it still does not accurately represent the conditions within a pile.
However, it is difficult to measure bulk density in situ without disturbing the sam-
ple or the load on it. Consequently, Schaub-Szabo and Leonard (1999) developed a lab-
oratory method to simulate the variation of density with depth of material. A sample
of material was compressed with weights that simulated the compaction that would
be experienced at various depths in a pile. This method was used with compost, peat,
moss, wood shavings and straw, and resulted in density versus depth data that were
fitted to curves of the form:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
where D is the bulk density (kgm-3) at any depth (z) in meters and the exponent (B) is
an indicator of the compressibility of the material. The constant A is dependent on the
material. Values of A and B for manure compost and a variety of amendment materi-
al can be found in Schaub-Szabo and Leonard (1999). By integrating under the densi-
ty-depth curve, an effective density value could be obtained. The values for the effec-
tive density obtained with this simulation method were in general agreement with
values for compost, straw and peat moss (Rynk 1992; Wilson 1983).
Particle Density
In addition to the confusion surrounding the term “bulk density”, further confu-
sion is added by the term “particle density”. This is also referred to as true or absolute
density (Wilson 1983; Villar et al. 1993), specific density (Levanon et al. 1988) and spe-
cific gravity (Shell 1955; Snell 1957; Schulze 1962). Particle density is the density of the
compost solids themselves and is equal to the mass of the solids divided by the vol-
ume of the solids. Its determination is complicated by the heterogeneous nature of the
material and the difficulty of eliminating trapped air from pore spaces.
Determination of particle density generally requires the measurement of air volume.
A method of measuring the air space of a sample by water displacement is described by
Gabriels et al. (1993) and Leege and Thompson (1997). The volume of water added to a
dried sample until the sample is completely saturated is measured. To ensure all air voids
are filled, a wetting and draining procedure should be repeated up to 4 times. At this
point, all air voids are assumed to be filled and the volume of water added is equal to the
volume of air spaces that was present in the sample. Care must be taken to avoid trapped
air voids and to keep the solid particles from soaking up water. The volume of the parti-
cles can then be determined by subtracting the volume of air from the total dry volume.
Mohsenin (1986) described an air comparison pycnometer, as well as convention-
al pycnometer methods, that could be used in determining particle density. Pycnome-
ters use the same principle as the water displacement method except that gases, and
the ideal gas law, are used instead of water. Wilson (1983) suggested that the best
method of measuring particle volume is with a helium air pycnometer and provided
data for various horticultural substrates.
Indirect methods for determining particle density on the basis of volatile solids
and ash content have been described by Schulze (1962) and Haug (1995). These meth-
ods assume a specific gravity of 1.0 for volatile or organic matter and 2.5 for fixed solids
or ash. Equation 5 shows the empirical relationship among particle density (PD) (kgm-
3), organic matter (%) and ash (%). The denominators in Equation 5 are average values
for the specific gravity of OM and ASH found in various sources.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Van Ginkle et al. (1999) also related the particle density, or true density, of com-
post to the relative fractions of constituent material. The authors determined the true
density of ash, cellulose, and organic matter and found the true density of all materi-
als to fall within the range of 1.5x103 kgm-3 to 2.65x103 kgm-3. The evolution of parti-
cle density of compost over time can be predicted by examining the change of ash and
organic matter contents during the process. Van Ginkle et al. (1999) showed an increase
in relative ash content while McCartney and Chen (2000) and Schultz (1962) reported
an overall decrease in the volatile solids fraction. Depending on the magnitude of the
changes in OM and ASH contents over time, the PD of the mixture will stay constant
during the composting period.
The particle density of compost is often similar to that of soils; however, the bulk
density values are generally much lower than those of soils due primarily to the larg-
er amounts of air space (Villar et al. 1993). Values for particle densities as cited in liter-
ature for several materials are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1.
Particle density values
Particle
Reference Densities (kgm-3) Material
Das and Keener (1997) 1298 – 1434 Biosolids compost

Inbar et al. (1993b) 1750 – 1820 Cattle manure
Levanon et al. (1988) 1230 – 1270 Cattle manure
Schulze (1962) 1200 – 1600 Five mixtures of garbage, sludge cake, paper and vermiculite
Snell (1957)* 1150 Ground vegetable garbage
Villar et al. (1993) 1900 – 2600 Four urban refuse composts
Wallach et al. (1992) 1430 Composted grape marc
Wallach et al. (1992) 2640 ‘Red’ tuff derived from volcanic ash
*Also in Bek (1956)
Particle Size, Porosity and Airspace

Since the microorganisms grow primarily on particle surfaces (Nakasaki et al. 1986,
1987), the availability of the substrate to the microorganisms is a function of the sur-
face area of the particles. This implies that to maximize accessibility to the substrate
and, hence, rate of decomposition, particle size should be minimized. A uniform mix-
ture with relatively small, consistent particles also increases the value of the end prod-
uct. However, if the material is too finely divided, it is likely to be easily compacted to
the point where pore space becomes inadequate to allow sufficient movement of oxy-
gen through the material and to maintain aerobic conditions around the particles.
As mentioned earlier, water holding capacity is obviously related to the structure
of the compost matrix which, itself, depends on the size and distribution of both par-
ticles and pores. These factors also influence the amount of air that can be held in the
compost and, therefore, have a direct bearing on the ability to sustain aerobic decom-
position. The importance of porosity and airspace to the composting process has been
recognised widely. Again, however, there is some diversity in how these parameters
have been measured and reported.
While the particles themselves should be small and evenly distributed, the pore
spaces between the particles play an important role in the composting process. The

Literature Review
porosity of the material, or percentage of air and water filled voids (Baker et al. 1998),
dictates how much water and air is available to the microorganisms and is governed
by particle size and size gradation.
The continuity of voids is also an important factor since this influences how easi-
ly air and water will flow through the material (Rynk 1992). Free air space (FAS) or air-
filled porosity of the unsaturated organic matrix also influences the heat and mass
transport processes and therefore microbial kinetics (Jeris and Regan, 1973; Miller,
1991; Haug, 1995).
Relationships of Porosity to Other Physical Parameters

Porosity is a function of dry bulk density and particle density as expressed in
Equation 6.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
Free air space (FAS), as defined by Haug (1995), is the air filled pore volume of a sam-
ple and is related to porosity as shown in Equations 7a and 7b.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7a)
MCvolumetric is defined as the volume fraction of water in a given volume of solids, or,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7b)
The FAS is expressed as a function of bulk density, moisture content, and particle den-
sity in Equation 8 (Agnew 2002).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
where FAS is the free air space (%), BDwet is the wet bulk density (kgm-3), MCwet is the
wet basis moisture content (%), rhow is the density of water (1000 kgm-3), and PD is
the particle density (kgm-3).
Van Ginkle et al. (1999) offer an equation that predicts the FAS of compost based
on the location within a pile. However, the dry matter content, particle density and
undisturbed bulk density are required, making it useful for modelling purposes but
impractical for use in the field. Data presented by Van Ginkle et al. (1999) and Raviv et
al. (1986) show a general decrease of FAS over time due to settlement and organic mat-
ter degradation. Porosity decreases during processing (Bek 1956; Inbar et al. 1993b; Ra-
viv et al. 1987) and depends on the nature of the materials being composted, as shown
in Table 2.
Oppenheimer et al. (1996) studied the air filled porosity of dog food mixed with
various sizes of woodchips. Their results showed no influence of particle size on FAS,
which is not unexpected given the complex nature of organic aggregates. Like many
soil aggregates, the size and shape of these organic aggregates are influenced by com-
plex mechanisms, such as adsorption, chemical bonding, physical entanglement and
biological cementation (Oppenheimer et al. 1996).

TABLE 2.
Porosity values
Reference Porosity Range (%) Material
Bek (1956) 81.3 - 72.9 Ground food (garbage) composts at five temperature levels
Gabriels et al. (1993) 86.5 - 86.1 Bark and peat compost
Gislerød (1985) 91 - 87.8 Six bark composts
Gonzalez et al. (1989) 64.4 Two manure composts
Inbar et al. (1993b) 93 – 87 Separated cattle manure
Levanon et al. (1988) 92 – 91 Cattle manure
Nappi and Barberis (1993) 72.99 Poplar bark and urban sewage sludge compost
Nappi and Barberis (1993) 86.86 Poplar bark compost
Nappi and Barberis (1993) 85.19 Grape stalks and urban sewage sludges
Prasad and Maher (1993) 94.4 - 91.5 Fractionated moss peat
Raviv et al. (1987) 95 – 88 Three cow manure composts
Schulze (1962) 87.5 - 71.3 Five mixtures of garbage, sludge cake, paper and vermiculite
Snell (1957) 78.9 - 73.4 Five ground domestic garbages
Wallach et al. (1992) 84 Composted grape marc
Wallach et al. (1992) 58.7 ‘Red’ tuff derived from volcanic ash
Air content has been shown to be directly related to the moisture content as shown
in Equation 9 for swine manure with moisture contents (w.b.) between 0.5 and 0.8 (Liao
et al. 1993). Both FAS and MC (w.b.) are represented as fractions.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . (9)
As the moisture content increases, it is reasonable to expect the air content to de-
crease. However, the relationship is not necessarily linear, as represented in Equation
9. Moisture content is measured as a percentage of the compost mass while air content
is measured as a percentage of the compost volume. Also, the solid particles in com-
post mixes have the capacity to absorb water, which is added to the water found in the
voids between solid particles to make up the total moisture content (Liao et al. 1993).
Baker et al. (1998) also found that FAS of swine manure at constant dry density de-
creased with increasing moisture content (w.b.). The authors noted the non-linearity
of the relationship when the material neared saturation. Oppenheimer et al. (1996)
demonstrated a linear relationship between FAS and moisture content (d.b.) for a dog
food and wood chip mixture. In other words, the FAS of a compost mixture tends to
decrease linearly with MC (d.b.) but non-linearly with MC (w.b.). Again, since FAS is
dependent on the moisture content, researchers should report both properties when
describing materials to avoid ambiguity.
The relationship between FAS and wet bulk density of several composts has been
documented to be linear in Richard et al (2002) and Agnew (2002) with the regression
equation of the following form being presented in the latter:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10)
where FAS is the free airspace of the material (%) and BDwet is the wet bulk density
(kgm-3). This linear relationship between bulk density and FAS was confirmed in a
study involving paper mill deinking sludge (Brouillette et al. 1996). The researchers
measured the bulk density of the sludge at several pile depths using the mass per unit

Literature Review
volume technique. The FAS was then calculated using an equation similar to Equation
8 and the assumption that the particle density of the sludge was 1250 kgm-3. The rela-
tionship between the bulk density and FAS of the sludge was linear and the resulting
regression equation was equivalent to Equation 10 (Stoffella and Kahn 2001). These re-
sults suggest that, like soils, the particle density of composts may be assumed constant.
Porosity vs Free Air Space

Porosity values give an indication of matrix structure but not necessarily of the po-
tential availability of oxygen within the matrix since the pores can be filled with water.
FAS, on the other hand, is a measure of air-filled pores and, consequently, could be ex-
pected to be related to oxygen availability. Shell (1955) obtained data, which indicates
a highly correlated linear relationship between FAS and relative diffusion rate of oxy-
gen at four different depths in ground domestic garbage compost. Linear regression
analysis of his data yields R2 values of 0.94 to 0.99 for FAS values from 22 to 44.5%.
Although these results have some academic interest, diffusion is not of key impor-
tance in the transfer of oxygen within the compost matrix for large-scale operations
(Shell 1955, Hamelers 1992, Tseng et al 1995). Free or forced convection of air is of greater
importance. These mechanisms depend on the availability of air paths within the ma-
trix and, although it does not provide any indication of the continuity of pores, FAS
should provide some measure of the ease with which these mechanisms can transfer
oxygen through the compost. While diffusion may not be adequate for large-scale oxy-
gen transfer in the gas phase, it may very well be important for short distances in clumps
of material and is critical at a particle scale in the aqueous phase (Hamelers 1992).
FAS values reported by Bek (1956) were in the range of 30 to 36% and Shulze (1962)
proposed that FAS should be at least 30%. Jeris and Regan (1973) observed that maxi-
mum O2 uptake occurred when the FAS was between 25 and 30%. Measured air con-
tents of peat and bark composts ranged from 18.0 to 18.2% (Gabriels et al. 1993) while
the air content of fractionated peat moss was 20.4 to 49.3% (Prasad and Maher 1993).
On the other hand, it is well documented that the optimal porosity for aerobic decom-
position is in the range of 85 to 90% (Rynk 1992; Nappi and Barberis 1993; etc.)
Measuring Porosity and Free Air Space

A quick, reliable method of measuring the porosity and air space of compost in situ
would be valuable in determining the aeration requirements of a system. However, the
only reliable methods cited in literature to date are the air pycnometer and water dis-
placement method described in the previous section. Recently, McCartney and Chen
(2000) presented the potential use of biocells for FAS analysis. The use of biocells al-
lows researchers to subject materials to loads similar to those found in situ. The com-
pacted volumes are then used to calculate the FAS with a standard soil compression
equation (McCartney and Chen 2000). This method eliminates the errors incurred by
using disturbed samples. The air pycnometer and biocell to simulate compressive
loading concepts were combined in one apparatus in Agnew (2002). The FAS of com-
post materials could be directly measured for a variety of simulated loads, yielding ac-
curate FAS profiles for simulated piles up to 3 m in height.
Methods of determining soil porosity and FAS could be extended for use in the
composting industry. The specific gravity bottle and paraffin wax methods fill the air
voids in an organic material with material of known specific gravity (Waller and Har-
rison, 1991) but are messy and time consuming. A water retention apparatus can also

be used to assess the amount of air voids (Raviv et al. 1986; Waller and Harrison, 1991)
but requires several wetting and draining regimes. Mercury porosimetry and nitrogen
adsorption have also been used to asses FAS in dry organic materials such as cellulose
or soil (Marshall and Sixsmith 1974; as cited in Oppenheimer et al. 1996). These meth-
ods are costly and require the material to be completely dry. The problem is one of
measuring FAS of a matrix composed of compounds in all three different phases: in-
soluble organics, liquid water and air (Oppenheimer et al. 1996). Again, the exclusion
of compressive settlement analysis can lead to errors in aeration predictions which
would lead to anaerobic regions in the bottom or middle of a pile.
Gamma-ray attenuation has been used in geology to determine the porosity of core
samples (Bodwadkar and Reis 1994). This method is fast, non-destructive, and pro-
vides characterization of small scale heterogeneities in porosity. However the accura-
cy and suitability of this method for use in compost is undetermined.
Measuring Particle Size Distribution

As indicated above, porosity and FAS are influenced by particle size and distrib-
ution and, consequently, measurement of these provides useful information in char-

acterizing compost mixtures. Some researchers have simply provided particle size dis-
tributions derived from sieve analyses (Gislerød et al. 1985; Raviv et al. 1987; Hardy
and Sivasithamparam 1989; Villar et al. 1993). Michel et al. (1996) determined the par-
ticle size distribution of cured compost by sieving the leaves/grass/brush mixture (42-
56% w.b.) through 4.75, 2.36, 2.00 and 0.85mm sieves as recommended by soil analy-
ses standards. Leege and Thompson (1997) have proposed the use of six sieves (50, 25,
16, 9.5, 6.3, 4mm) and using both air dried samples (36°C) and oven dried samples
(70°C) depending on metal, mercury and ammonia contents.
Other researchers have opted for the use of composite descriptors such as fineness
modulus (Batzer 1954) and geometric mean diameter (Meares et al. 1975) but there is
little doubt that these do not provide as much information as size distribution data.
Nevertheless, there is a need to adopt standard ranges of particle sizes in describing
this property of compost.
Perhaps more important than standardizing the sieve sizes used in the characteri-
zation is the use of a universal moisture content for particle size determinations. Wet
samples tend to clump together and develop larger aggregate sizes than are represen-
tative of the samples. Overly dry samples break down in the sieve shaker and a large
portion of fines is recorded. However, as described in Leege and Thompson (1997), the
optimum moisture content for particle size determination will depend on the nature of
the material. The standardization of moisture content for particle size analysis would
make it easier to relate particle size to other properties like porosity and strength.
In addition, difficulty arises in the measurement of particle size distribution when
elongated pieces, like straw, are present in the material. This problem has been recog-
nized in characterizing forage materials and has given rise to a specialized standard
method (ASAE 2000b). However, the equipment required for this method is not gen-
erally available and its use is unlikely to be widely adopted for compost materials.
Puustjärvi (1974) suggested using pore size distribution, as well as particle size dis-
tribution, in describing peat for horticultural use. The Fraunhofer light diffraction the-
ory has recently become popular for measuring particle size distributions in dried milk
and other powders, while laser scattering is now being used for soils (Chen and Lloyd
1994). Forster et al. (1993) performed particle size analysis on various feedstocks using
the hydrometer method. This technique correlates the settling velocity in a known

Literature Review
medium to the size of the particles. More research is required to determine if these
methods provide reliable particle size results with compost materials.
Airflow Resistance and Air Permeability

A problem with both porosity and free air space as indicators of matrix structure
and availability of oxygen is that they cannot be measured directly and it is difficult to
obtain values that are truly representative of undisturbed samples in a composting
mass. A more direct measurement, and one that has direct meaning in aerated piles or
windrows, is that of airflow resistance. Air permeability, a measure of how freely air
can flow through the material (Lynch and Cherry 1996), can be directly calculated from
the airflow resistance as shown in Equation 11.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
where K is the permeability (m2), V is the average air velocity (m/s), µ is the viscosity
of air at the operating pressure and temperature (1.95x10-8 kNsm-2 at 1 atm and 50ºC),
ΔP is the pressure drop across the medium (kPa) and L is the average thickness of the
medium in the direction of airflow (m).
Measuring Airflow Resistance

Several researchers (Das and Keener, 1997; Lynch and Cherry, 1996; Mu and
Leonard, 1999; Keener et al., 1993, McGuckin et al., 1999) have approached the chal-
lenge of measuring the airflow resistance through a compost medium. In all cases an
apparatus was built where air was forced through a cross sectional area of known di-
mensions and the flow rate and pressure drop was measured across the medium. Vari-
ations include a hydraulic setup to simulate loading (Das and Keener, 1997) and a flow
uniformity measurement plate (Mu and Leonard, 1999).
Snell (1957) measured the pressure gradient of air flowing through ground
garbage compost with a moisture content of 58% (w.b.) that had been subjected to two
levels of compaction. Below flow rates of about 15Ls-1m-2, flow was laminar and the
pressure gradient increased linearly with flow rate to values of about 5.3kPa m-1 and
3.3kPa m-1 for the less-compacted and more-compacted material respectively. In the
turbulent flow region (i.e., at flow rates greater than 15Ls-1m-2) the pressure gradient
increased more rapidly in an exponential fashion. The lower pressure gradient in the
more highly compacted material does not make sense intuitively and is in contrast
with the results obtained by Singley et al. (1979) and Taraba and White (1987).
Keener et al. (1993), Mu and Leonard (1999), and Saint-Joly et al. (1989) used an ex-
pression of the form shown in Equation 12 to predict pressure gradients for air flow
through various materials.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
where ΔP is the pressure gradient in kPa m-1, V is the flow velocity in m s-1 and a and
n are constants dependent on the material.
For a range of compost materials, the values of n varied from 1.17 to 2.02 and the values
of a were in the range 1.62x10-5 to 2.69x10-7 when airflow is expressed in m3day-1 and pres-
sure drop in mm of water (Keener et al., 1993). Saint-Joly et al. (1989) published values for a

and n for six classes of manure but the values are not comparable to those values from Keen-
er et al. (1993) and Mu and Leonard (1999) because of inconsistencies in the units. Saint-Joly
et al. (1989) identified the need to obtain basic data on a and n for a wider range of materials.
Mu and Leonard (1999) studied the resistance of a municipal solid waste and
biosolids compost (moisture content 55% w.b.) in a square column of constant cross
section. Air was blown through the material using a centrifugal fan at varying rates
and the pressure drop across the material was measured with a simple u-tube
manometer. Three depths of material were tested, and at each depth the pressure drop
was a power function of flow rate and the coefficients and exponents varied linearly
with depth of material. The relationship developed between pressure gradient and
flow velocity matched the one expressed in Equation 12. Interpreting these results and
using Equation 11, the permeability of immature municipal solid waste and biosolids
compost was between 350µm2 and 780µm2 over the range of depths studied.
McGuckin et al. (1999) considered three pressure-flow models in their investiga-
tion of the effect of bulking agents on airflow resistance in raw food waste compost.
The air velocity and pressure drop relationship followed that of Equation 12, while the
pressure drop decreased exponentially with increasing bulking agent density, sug-
gesting the effectiveness of the bulking agent in reducing the pressure drop.
It is important to note that the equation for the pressure gradient can be expressed
with respect to the flow rate (m3s-1) instead of the flow velocity. However, since dif-
ferent researchers use columns of varying cross-sections, it is easier to compare values
of coefficients if the pressure gradient is expressed with respect to the flow velocity.
Airflow Resistance vs Porosity and Moisture Content

Singley et al. (1979) examined the relationship between airflow resistance and air-
filled porosity. The pressure drop across a 200mm-deep bed of material, with an area
of 0.041m2, was measured for a constant flow rate of 20.8Ls-1. As air-filled porosity was
increased over the range 12 to 65%, the air flow resistance decreased non-linearly from
about 1.4 to about 0.14kPa.
Das and Keener (1997) also published the air-filled porosity and air permeability
relationship for a biosolids mix. The air permeability was calculated from the mea-
sured airflow resistance using Equation 11 and the air-filled porosity was determined
from the particle densities found using the air pycnometer method. The air perme-
ability increased exponentially with increasing air-filled porosity.
Das and Keener (1997) also examined the relationship between permeability and
compressive stress and moisture content. The authors showed that moisture content
has a significant influence on air permeability in biosolids compost. Cow manure was
found to be less sensitive to variations in moisture content. This was possibly due to
the high moisture-absorbing capability of cow manure (Das and Keener, 1997). The air
permeability decreased exponentially with compressive stress, which is expected as
the volume of air-filled voids decreases with compressive loading. The authors re-
ported average permeability values of 2500-25000µm2 for biosolids and 700-8000µm2
for cow manure over a range of compressive stresses from 0-20kPa.
Taraba and White (1987) measured the pressure gradient of air flowing through
compressed, chopped, composted horse manure. Using compost at three dry bulk den-
sities (approx. 105, 170, and 210kg m-3) at each of three moisture contents (29, 45 and
60% w.b.), they found that the pressure gradient was a quadratic function of the air
flow rate. At all moisture contents, pressure gradients were higher for higher bulk den-
sities. The highest pressure gradient measured by these researchers was 1.37kPa m-1.

Literature Review
Thermal Properties
The thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity, or specific heat, of the bulk
material will influence the amount of material required to maintain proper tempera-
tures. The thermal conductivity is influenced by moisture and how closely the parti-
cles are packed, which is described by the bulk density and porosity of the compost.
Both specific heat and thermal conductivity are also functions of moisture content.
Relationships
In some of the earliest work in this area Ali (1973) measured the thermal conduc-
tivity and specific heat of compost made from swine waste and straw (this work was
also reported by Mears et al. (1975)). As might be expected, both thermal conductivity
and specific heat were found to vary with composting time. The specific heat and ther-
mal conductivity of the dry compost increased by about 300% and 200% respectively
over the composting period. One mechanism contributing to these effects is the re-
duction in the proportion of organic material as composting proceeds, resulting in a
relative increase in mineral content.

The dependence of specific heat (Cp) on moisture and mineral content is reflected
in the following equation given by Keener et al. (1993) to estimate the specific heat of
organic materials:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13)
where ASH is the ash or mineral content of the material and the units of Cp are
kJkg-1K-1.
Heat capacity has been reported by Mears et al. (1975) to have a linear relationship
with volumetric water content when the water content is below 50%. Iwabuchi et al.
(1999) also reported on the effect of volumetric moisture content on effective thermal
conductivity and thermal diffusivity, or the rate at which heat diffuses by conduction
through a material (Rahman 1995). The thermal conductivity of dairy manure amend-
ed with sawdust was found to increase with volumetric moisture content, and ranged
from 0.0500Wm-1K-1 at 0% volumetric water content to 0.202Wm-1K-1 at 44.2%. The
thermal diffusivity was not affected by changes in the volumetric water content, and
the mean value was 1.08x10-7 m2s-1.
Rahman (1984) investigated the thermal properties of a variety of sludge composts
and also found linear relationships between moisture content and thermal conductivi-
ty and specific heat. The values for both of these parameters were higher than for the
material investigated by Ali (1973) and the ranges were 0.218 to 0.805Wm-1K-1 and 1590
to 3140Jkg-1K-1 for thermal conductivity and specific heat respectively. These values are
of the same order as those reported by Seki (1989) who gave values of 0.698Wm-1K-1
and 3180Jkg-1K-1 for compost made of chicken and cattle manure with sawdust and rice
hulls. Iwabuchi and Kamide (1993) described a thermal probe for determining thermal
conductivity and diffusivity and measured these parameters for compost made from
dairy manure and sawdust. Values of conductivity obtained were 0.0508Wm-1K-1 and
0.0956Wm-1K-1 for material at moisture contents of 0% and 57.1%(wb) respectively.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of materials affect composting operation in several
ways. The power required to turn the material is a function of material properties as

well as the design of the turning equipment. Also, the reliability and life of machin-
ery could be enhanced if designers had good data on properties such as coefficients
of friction between material and machine elements and the abrasiveness and corro-
siveness of typical composting materials. In addition, there is also a need to quanti-
fy how well materials need to be mixed to allow composting to proceed most effi-
ciently (Hansen et al. 1993).
Mechanical properties encompass a wide variety of parameters including density
and particle size distribution. However, for the purposes of this review, primarly those
properties that affect the strength and handling of compost are considered here. By ex-
tension from soil mechanics and the dynamics of granular materials, these properties
include compressibility, cohesion, internal friction and coefficients of friction on vari-
ous materials used in handling or processing machinery and storage.
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the resistance of the material against mechan-
ical deformations, or more precisely, is the ratio between deformation and stress. Due
to this property, the bulk density is a function of the local pressure and therefore de-
pends on the position in the pile (Van Ginkel et al., 1999).
The coefficient of friction provides a measure of how easily the material slides over
elements of storage and handling facilities. Consequently, the friction coefficient can
influence factors such as the side slopes of storage bins and hoppers, the angle of con-
veyors and chutes, and the materials that are selected for construction of these com-
ponents (Leonard 1998). The coefficient of friction of compost materials was shown to
be linearly dependent on moisture content (Leonard 1998).
Obviously, knowledge of these parameters is not a prerequisite for producing
compost. However, some basic data could help improve production efficiencies and
the design of equipment and facilities. Also, such data could lead to a better under-
standing of how compost can be used to ameliorate relevant physical properties of soil.
In addition, simple compressibility tests, as described by Mears et al. (1975), could pro-
vide a composite indicator of compost strength in much the same way that penetrom-
eter tests provide an index of soil strength. Other, easy to measure, parameters such as
bulk density and dry matter content have been shown to characterize the strength and
compactness of manure substrates (Saint-Joly et al. 1989).
Measuring Mechanical Properties

Existing methods of measuring mechanical properties have been shown to be
successful in determining properties like the angle of repose and friction character-
istics of compost. In Glancey and Hoff-
TABLE 3. man’s (1994) research, the angle of re-
Mechanical properties of various solid waste pose was determined as described by
composts (Glancey and Hoffman 1994) Henderson and Perry (1982) while the
Property Value coefficient of friction for each waste ma-
Angle of repose 30 - 45°
terial was determined for bare cold
Static coefficient of friction
rolled steel, painted steel and plywood.
Bare cold rolled steel 0.49 - 0.73 Results from the work of Glancey and
Painted steel 0.51 - 0.72 Hoffman (1994) are shown in Table 3
Wood 0.55 - 0.75 while the data compiled by Leonard
(1998) is presented in Table 4. The in-
clined plane method described by
Mohsenin (1986) was used to determine all external friction properties (Glancey and
Hoffman 1994; Leonard 1998).

Literature Review
TABLE 4.
Coefficient of friction of various composting materials on steel, wood and rubber (Leonard 1998)
Material Steel Wood Rubber
Composted bio-oxidation sludge 0.55-0.75* (0.6)** 0.5-0.6 (0.5) 0.45-0.60 (0.45)

Composted manure 0.5-0.7 (0.7) 0.55-0.7 (0.65) 0.5-0.75 (0.75)
MSW and biosolids compost 0.6-0.65 (0.65) 0.55-0.8 (0.7) 0.5-0.8 (0.7)
Chopped barley straw 0.35-0.65 (0.65) 0.4-0.65 (0.65) 0.4-0.65 (0.65)
Peat moss 0.6-0.7 (0.7) 0.6-0.7 (0.7) 0.6-0.65 (0.6)
*Coefficients determined for a range of moisture contents (20-60%) wb; **Values in brackets are coefficients at 50%
moisture (wb)
McCullough and Buttry (1993) de- TABLE 5.

termined the angle of internal friction Shear strength parameters
and the cohesion of a sand/compost (McCullough and Buttry 1993)
mixture using a standard soil shear Percent Angle Of Internal
strength test. The results are presented Sand/Compost Friction, Degrees Cohesion (kPa)
in Table 5. Direct shear tests were con- 0/100 40.5 10.342

ducted in accordance with ASTM D3080 20/80 39.4 11.874
(ASTM 1994a). For each sand-compost 40/60 37.4 12.161
mixture, a standard Proctor test sample 60/40 37.7 9.863
was compacted at the optimum water 80/20 37.3 8.954
content (61% w.b.) and maximum dry 100/0 36.2 7.709
unit weight (750 kgm-3). Even though
these tests are designed for soil analyses,
the authors showed that the direct shear
test works well for compost and can be used in the future for measuring the angle of
internal friction and the cohesion of compost.
Seaby (1999) developed two sets of apparatus to measure the “tensile strength”
and compressibility of mushroom compost. The instrument used to determine “ten-
sile strength” was similar to the linear shear apparatus used in soil analysis and con-
sisted of two boxes filled with material sliding on each other. The tensile force required
to pull the boxes apart was related to the “tensile strength” of the compost. The appa-
ratus designed to measure compressibility simply measured the compression or set-
tlement of the material after being compressed with a 20kg mass. Mears et al. (1975)
also provide data on the compressibility of swine waste composts and, as described in
the section on bulk density, the exponent in the density equation of Schaub-Szabo and
Leonard (1999) is a measure of compressibility.
Electrical Properties
The most-measured electrical property of compost is electrical conductivity (EC).
This property gives an indication of the total salt (or electrolyte) content of the material
and, consequently, is of interest to end users of the product (Wilson 1983; Epstein 1997).
Leege and Thompson (1997) outlined three methods for conductivity measure-
ment. The saturated paste method requires a compost sample to be saturated with
deionized, distilled water. The water is allowed to equilibrate with the compost and
the conductivity of the water is measured. However, the salt concentration of an ex-
tract is controlled by the interaction between the compost salt content and water hold-
ing capacity. For example, for two composts differing in water holding capacity but

identical salt content, the extract from the compost with the higher water holding ca-
pacity will exhibit a lower conductivity. In addition, the conductivity varies with oth-
er properties such as bulk density and texture.
The volume ratio method provides a quick and easy alternative for approximating
the relative salt concentration through the addition of a defined volume of water to a
defined volume of compost in a predetermined ratio. Again, variations in moisture con-
tent and water holding capacity are not taken into account in this measurement.
Data obtained by Raviv et al. (1987) and Inbar et al. (1993b) indicated a drop in con-
ductivity early in the composting process followed by a steady increase as the process
proceeds. The initial drop is attributed to the fixing of ammonia and other nutrient ions
during the rapid increase in aerobic microbial population, while the subsequent in-
crease is due to the concentration of minerals in the final stages of active composting.
The increase observed by Inbar et al. (1993b) was more pronounced than that found by
Raviv et al. (1987) and the former authors suggested that electrical conductivity could
be used as one component of a maturity test. Data obtained by Grebus et al. (1994) do
not show an initial decrease in conductivity. However, conductivity was one of a num-
ber of parameters that these authors found to be highly correlated with time of com-
posting and, therefore, potentially useful as a maturity indicator.

Ringer (1997) showed that an EC of the extract from manure compost was in the
range of 0.7 to 1.5 mS cm-1 and had no phytotoxic effects on plants grown in the com-
post-soil mixture. Epstein (1997) suggests that EC levels in excess of 5 mS cm-1 may
lead to phytotoxicity. Examples of electrical conductivity values measured by these
and other authors are shown in Table 6
There appears to be very little in the literature on other electrical properties of com-
post unless cation exchange capacity (CEC) is included under this heading. For the
purposes of this review, CEC is considered a chemical property and will not be dis-
cussed in detail. Suffice to say that a number of researchers have investigated CEC in
composts (e.g.,Harada and Inoko 1980; Harada et al. 1981; Raviv et al. 1987; Grebus et
al. 1994) often with a view to using it as an indicator of maturity. Nevertheless, Math-
ur et al. (1993) indicate that CEC is not reliable in this regard.
One of the gaps in our knowledge of compost physical properties is that of di-
electric properties. These could have application in direct measurement of moisture
content (Kra and Chieng 1992) and in any processes utilising microwave heating.
TABLE 6.
Electrical conductivities
Reference Conductivity Range (mS/cm) Material
Campbell and Tripepi (1991) 1.1 - 1.9 Yard waste compost

Evanylo and Daniels (1999) 1.49 - 1.67 Composted paper mill sludge
Garcia et al. (1991) 2.8 - 4.6 Aerobic sewage sludge
Garcia et al. (1991) 7.8 - 9.8 Organic city refuse
Garcia et al. (1991) 2.8 - 4.6 Grape debris
Gonzalez et al. (1989 3.62 - 3.65 Two manure composts
Grebus et al. (1994) 1.5 - 3.3 Yard trimmings
Inbar et al. (1993b) 2.35 - 5.42 Separated cattle manure
Levanon et al. (1988) 1.2 - 1.4 Cattle manure
Raviv et al. (1987)* 1.2 - 5.3 Three cow manure composts
Villar et al. (1993) 7 - 12 Four urban refuse composts
*Also in Ringer (1997)

Literature Review
Mohsenin (1983) provides data on dielectric properties of a wide range of food and
agricultural materials, many of which would be similar to compost, but specific mea-
surements on composting materials are not readily available in the literature.
Optical Properties
Like the electrical properties mentioned above, optical properties have been in-
vestigated mainly with a view to evaluating maturity. Snell (1957) provided data on
the transmittance of compost and concluded that this could provide a quick indication
of maturity if calibrated against other methods but, on its own, was not a reliable in-
dicator. The work of Hartmann and Neumann (1980) and Jacob and Schwaar (1991) in-
dicated that fluorescence could not be relied on either. However, more recent work re-
ported by Schnitzer et al. (1993) indicates that the optical density of water extract at
665nm could provide a reliable and cost-effective measure of maturity. The quantifi-
cation of compost colour is outlined by Leege and Thompson (1997), but is very sub-
jective as it requires the user to compare the compost with a brown-black palette.
Conclusions
The physical properties of compost play an important role in all stages of compost
production, handling, and utilization. To reduce operation costs and shorten compost-
ing time, producers need to optimize the composting conditions which often include
monitoring and optimizing properties like bulk density and moisture and air contents.
Mechanical and thermal properties are important from a design viewpoint while elec-
trical and optical properties may be useful in determining compost maturity. Since the
measurement of some properties is not always practical, an understanding of the rela-
tionships among properties is useful in predicting the conditions within a system.
Whether they are used to calculate area requirements, mixing ratios or potential
heat transfer, physical properties need to be measured and reported in a uniform, stan-
dardized way. Much work remains in setting the standard measurement conditions,
and developing equations and formulas that relate the various physical properties for
each type of compost feedstock.
The data presented by this review provide a starting point for modelling and de-
sign of systems and for delineating product standards. However, as Puustjärvi (1974)
commented in relation to the physical properties of peat: “Probably we will never ar-
rive at a point at which we can say: ‘Now we know enough’.”
In order to get close to that point, research is required in three general areas:
1. Determining acceptable standard methods of measuring compost properties so
that there is uniformity in reporting and comparability of data from various sources.
Leege and Thompson (1997) have made a significant contribution in this regard but
widespread adoption of the methods outlined in their TMECC has yet to be achieved.
2. Acquiring baseline data on various composts and constituent materials so that
existing empirical relationships (such as Equations 12 and 13) can be verified and so
that mathematical models of composting processes can be developed with greater con-
fidence and higher degrees of accuracy.
3. Investigation of how key physical properties can be manipulated efficiently so
that processes can be controlled and optimized.
Useful contributions can be made by virtually all compost researchers if they are
aware of the needs, and include measurements of physical properties in their experi-
mental plans and to report them in a consistent and uniform way.

Acknowledgements
This work is supported by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council of Canada. The authors acknowledge the substantial contribution made
to an early version of this work by the late Ms Susan Ramer, who died in a tragic acci-
dent in 1994. The authors also acknowledge the assistance provided by staff in Uni-
versity of Alberta’s library system in gaining access to much of the material cited in
this paper as well as the significant contribution of the publication reviewer.
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On: 11 October 2013, At: 03:01

Compost Science & Utilization

The Physical Properties of Compost

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1065657X.2003.10702132

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238 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Relevance of Physical Properties to Compost Production

also important in keeping microbial populations active. A constant oxygen supply is

Relevance of Physical Properties to Compost Utilization, Handling, and Quality

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 239

240 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Moisture Content and Water Retention

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 241

Preferred Ranges of Moisture Content and Terminology

242 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Measuring Moisture Content

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 243

Water Holding Capacity and Water Permeability

244 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Relationships and Terminology

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 245

where MCw.b. is represented as a fraction. Because of the dependence of bulk density

Methods of Measuring Bulk Density

246 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 247

Das and Keener (1997) 1298 – 1434 Biosolids compost

*Also in Bek (1956)

Particle Size, Porosity and Airspace

248 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Relationships of Porosity to Other Physical Parameters

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 249

250 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Porosity vs Free Air Space

Measuring Porosity and Free Air Space

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 251

Measuring Particle Size Distribution

ution and, consequently, measurement of these provides useful information in char-

252 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Airflow Resistance and Air Permeability

Measuring Airflow Resistance

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 253

Airflow Resistance vs Porosity and Moisture Content

254 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

relative increase in mineral content.

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 255

Measuring Mechanical Properties

256 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Composted bio-oxidation sludge 0.55-0.75* (0.6)** 0.5-0.6 (0.5) 0.45-0.60 (0.45)

McCullough and Buttry (1993) de- TABLE 5.

in Table 5. Direct shear tests were con- 0/100 40.5 10.342

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 257

posting and, therefore, potentially useful as a maturity indicator.

Campbell and Tripepi (1991) 1.1 - 1.9 Yard waste compost

*Also in Ringer (1997)

258 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003 259

260 Compost Science & Utilization Summer 2003

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