Vascular Plants

Also the next classification of plants is also known as the tracheophytes, vascular plants
have been allowed by evolution to possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) that aid
them to transport water and minerals. All other plants like the members of the Phylum
Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms are classified as vascular plants. The
said plant phyla are described below. The next phylum in this list is the Phylum
Pteridophyta which is composed of almost 12,000 (with over two-thirds are tropical)
species of true ferns and fern allies.

 Pteridophytes are seedless plants; being such, they are incapable of passing on their
genetic material to their offspring using cones, fruits, or seeds. Instead, this classification
of plants produces spores that are located on the underside of their leaves known as
sporophylls.

 Pteridophytes can catapult their spores even at long distances because of the spring-like
structures of these sporangia-containing spores.

 Regarding physical appearance, pteridophytes are extremely diverse, and no single

characteristic can describe them. Leaves of ferns are called fronds, which typically are
coiled until they unroll at maturity. They also have horizontal stems called rhizomes and
have simple leaves roots. Unlike bryophytes, they are already vascular plants and
capable of transporting fluids.

 Through time, pteridophytes have already adapted to a wide range of habitat: they can
be aquatic, terrestrial, and even cold-resistant, but most of them still prefer to thrive in
tropical regions. See the life cycle of Pteridophytes in detail here.

 Pteridophyte Examples :

Salvinia Natans - Salvinia Natans is a species of fern in the Salviniaceae family.

Commonly referred to as floating fern, this plant is one of the few fully aquatic ferns
sold in the aquarium market. The unusual aspect of this flora is its uncanny ability to
float. Furthermore, this fern doesn’t grow long roots like most other floating plants
something to keep in mind when scaping a vivarium that might have limited space
within the aquatic portion of the enclosure.

Horstail - is the only living genus in Equisetaceae, a family of vascular plants that
reproduce by spores rather than seeds

Fern - any of several nonflowering vascular plants that possess true roots, stems,
and complex leaves and that reproduce by spores
 Non-vascular Plants

-The first classification of plants is the non-vascular plants; As their name implies,
nonvascular plants lack vascular tissues that can help them transport water and nutrients.
Nonvascular plants are considered to be the earliest living plants in the planet. However, fossils
have not been found because these types of plants fossilized poorly. The most common non-
vascular plants include the members of the Phylum Bryophyta and is described below. Among
all plant phyla, the members of the Phylum Bryophyta are considered as the simplest.
Regarding physical appearance, mosses are small and inconspicuous. Bryophytes lack
vascular tissue and wood that can render them structural support. They also lack true leaves,
stem, and roots that can help them transport water and nutrients. Because of this, they are
limited to a narrow range of habitats.

 Examples of bryophyta

 Mosses ( lumot ) - Mosses are a phylum of non-vascular plants. They produce spores for
reproduction instead of seeds and don’t grow flowers, wood or true roots. Instead of
roots, all species of moss have rhizoids. The mosses sit within a division of plants called
the Bryophyta under the sub-division Musci.

 Liverwort - (division Marchantiophyta), any of more than 9,000 species of small

nonvascular spore-producing plants. Liverworts are distributed worldwide, though most
commonly in the tropics. Thallose liverworts, which are branching and ribbonlike, grow
commonly on moist soil or damp rocks, while leafy liverworts are found in similar habitats
as well as on tree trunks in damp woods. The thallus (body) of thallose liverworts
resembles a lobed liver—hence the common name liverwort (“liver plant”). The plants
are not economically important to humans but do provide food for animals, facilitate the
decay of logs, and aid in the disintegration of rocks by their ability to retain moisture.

 Hornworts - are a group of non-vascular plants constituting the division

Anthocerotophyta. The common name refers to the elongated horn-like structure, which
is the sporophyte. As in mosses and liverworts, the flattened, green plant body of a
hornwort is the gametophyte plant.
 Process of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis is conveniently divided into two parts: the energy-fixing
reaction (also called the light reaction) and the carbon-fixing reaction (also called the
light-independent reaction or the dark reaction).

Energy-fixing reaction

-The energy-fixing reaction of photosynthesis begins when light is absorbed in

photosystem II in the thylakoid membranes. The energy of the sunlight, captured in the P680
reaction center, causes the electrons from P680’s chlorophyll to move to a higher, unstable
energy level. These electrons pass through a series of cytochromes in the nearby electron-
transport system.

After passing through the electron transport system, the energy-rich electrons eventually enter
photosystem-I. Some of the energy of the electron is used to pump protons across the thylakoid
membrane, and this pumping sets up the potential for chemiosmosis.

The spent electrons from P680 enter the P700 reaction center in photosystem I. Sunlight
activates the electrons, which receive a second boost out of the chlorophyll molecules. There
they reach a high energy level. The electrons progress through a second electron transport
system, but this time there is no proton pumping. Rather, the energy reduces NADP. This
reduction occurs as two electrons join NADP and energize the molecule. Because NADP
acquires two negatively charged electrons, it attracts two positively charged protons to balance
the charges. Consequently, the NADP molecule is reduced to NADPH, a molecule that contains
much energy.

Because electrons have flowed out of the P680 reaction center, the chlorophyll molecules are
left without a certain number of electrons. Electrons secured from water molecules replace
these electrons. Each split water molecule releases two electrons that enter the chlorophyll
molecules to replace those lost. The split water molecules also release two protons that enter
the cytoplasm near the thylakoid and are available to increase the chemiosmotic gradient.

The third product of the split water molecules is oxygen. Two oxygen atoms combine with one
another to form molecular oxygen (O2), which is given off as the by-product of photosynthesis; it
fills the atmosphere and is used by all oxygen-requiring organisms, including plant and animal
cells.

Described above are the noncyclic energy-fixing reactions (see Figure 5-2). Certain plants and
autotrophic prokaryotes are also known to participate in cyclic energy-fixing reactions. These
reactions involve only photosystem I and the P700 reaction center. Excited electrons leave the
reaction center, pass through coenzymes of the electron transport system, and follow a special
pathway back to P700. Each electron powers the proton pump and encourages the transport of
a proton across the thylakoid membrane. This process enriches the proton gradient and
eventually leads to the generation of ATP.
Figure 5-2 The energy-fixing reactions of photosynthesis.

-ATP production in the energy-fixing reactions of photosynthesis occurs by the process

of chemiosmosis (explained in Chapter 4). Essentially, this process consists of a rush of protons
across a membrane (the thylakoid membrane, in this case), accompanied by the synthesis of
ATP molecules. Biochemists have calculated that the proton concentration on one side of the
thylakoid is 10,000 times that of the opposite side of the membrane.

In photosynthesis, the protons pass back across the membranes through channels lying
alongside sites where enzymes are located. As the protons pass through the channels, the
energy of the protons is released to form high-energy ATP bonds. ATP is formed in the energy-
fixing reactions along with the NADPH formed in the main reactions. Both ATP and NADPH
provide the energy necessary for the synthesis of carbohydrates that occurs in the second
major set of events in photosynthesis.

 Carbon-fixing reaction

Glucose and other carbohydrates are synthesized in the carbon-fixing reaction of

photosynthesis, often called the Calvin cycle after Melvin Calvin, who performed much of the
biochemical research (see Figure 5-3). This phase of photosynthesis occurs in the stroma of the
plant cell.

Figure 5-3 A carbon-fixing reaction, also called the Calvin cycle.

-In the carbon-fixing reaction, an essential material is carbon dioxide, which is obtained from
the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is attached to a five-carbon compound called ribulose
bisphosphate. Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase catalyzes this reaction.

-After carbon dioxide has been joined to ribulose bisphosphate, a six-carbon product forms,
which immediately breaks into two three-carbon molecules called phosphoglycerate. Each
phosphoglycerate molecule converts to another organic compound, but only in the presence of
ATP. The ATP used is the ATP synthesized in the energy-fixing reaction. The organic
compound formed converts to still another organic compound using the energy present in
NADPH. Again, the energy-fixing reaction provides the essential energy. Each of the organic
compounds that results consists of three carbon atoms. Eventually, the compounds interact with
one another and join to form a single molecule of six-carbon glucose. This process also
generates additional molecules of ribulose bisphosphate to participate in further carbon-fixing
reactions.

-Glucose can be stored in plants in several ways. In some plants, the glucose molecules are
joined to one another to form starch molecules. Potato plants, for example, store starch in
tubers (underground stems). In some plants, glucose converts to fructose (fruit sugar), and the
energy is stored in this form. In still other plants, fructose combines with glucose to form
sucrose, commonly known as table sugar. The energy is stored in carbohydrates in this form.
Plant cells obtain energy for their activities from these molecules. Animals use the same forms
of glucose by consuming plants and delivering the molecules to their cells.

All living things on Earth depend in some way on photosynthesis. It is the main mechanism for
bringing the energy of sunlight into living systems and making that energy available for the
chemical reactions taking place in cells.

 The Purpose and Process of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy, which can be used
by organisms for different metabolic processes.

The Importance of Photosynthesis

-The processes of all organisms—from bacteria to humans—require energy. To get this

energy, many organisms access stored energy by eating food. Carnivores eat other animals
and herbivores eat plants. But where does the stored energy in food originate? All of this energy
can be traced back to the process of photosynthesis and light energy from the sun.

-Photosynthesis is essential to all life on earth. It is the only biological process that
captures energy from outer space (sunlight) and converts it into chemical energy in the form of
G3P (

-Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) which in turn can be made into sugars and other
molecular compounds. Plants use these compounds in all of their metabolic processes; plants
do not need to consume other organisms for food because they build all the molecules they
need. Unlike plants, animals need to consume other organisms to consume the molecules they
need for their metabolic processes.

The Process of Photosynthesis

-During photosynthesis, molecules in leaves capture sunlight and energize electrons,

which are then stored in the covalent bonds of carbohydrate molecules. That energy within
those covalent bonds will be released when they are broken during cell respiration. How long
lasting and stable are those covalent bonds? The energy extracted today by the burning of coal
and petroleum products represents sunlight energy captured and stored by photosynthesis
almost 200 million years ago.

Plants, algae, and a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of
performing photosynthesis. Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are
called photoautotrophs (“self-feeders using light”). Other organisms, such as animals, fungi, and
most other bacteria, are termed heterotrophs (“other feeders”) because they must rely on the
sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs. A third very interesting
group of bacteria synthesize sugars, not by using sunlight’s energy, but by extracting energy
from inorganic chemical compounds; hence, they are referred to as chemoautotrophs.
Photosynthetic and Chemosynthetic Organisms: Photoautotrophs, including (a) plants, (b)
algae, and (c) cyanobacteria, synthesize their organic compounds via photosynthesis using
sunlight as an energy source. Cyanobacteria and planktonic algae can grow over enormous
areas in water, at times completely covering the surface. In a (d) deep sea vent,
chemoautotrophs, such as these (e) thermophilic bacteria, capture energy from inorganic
compounds to produce organic compounds. The ecosystem surrounding the vents has a
diverse array of animals, such as tubeworms, crustaceans, and octopi that derive energy from
the bacteria.

-The importance of photosynthesis is not just that it can capture sunlight’s energy. A
lizard sunning itself on a cold day can use the sun’s energy to warm up. Photosynthesis is vital
because it evolved as a way to store the energy in solar radiation (the “photo-” part) as high-
energy electrons in the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate molecules (the “-synthesis” part).
Those carbohydrates are the energy source that heterotrophs use to power the synthesis of
ATP via respiration. Therefore, photosynthesis powers 99 percent of Earth’s ecosystems. When
a top predator, such as a wolf, preys on a deer, the wolf is at the end of an energy path that
went from nuclear reactions on the surface of the sun, to light, to photosynthesis, to vegetation,
to deer, and finally to wolf.

In plants, the process of photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll of the leaves, inside the
chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts contain disc-shaped structures called thylakoids, which contain the pigment
chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll absorbs certain portions of the visible spectrum and captures energy from sunlight.

Overview of Photosynthesis

-Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water
as substrates. It produces oxygen and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P or GA3P), simple
carbohydrate molecules that are high in energy and can subsequently be converted into
glucose, sucrose, or other sugar molecules. These sugar molecules contain covalent bonds that
store energy. Organisms break down these molecules to release energy for use in cellular work.

-The energy from sunlight drives the reaction of carbon dioxide and water molecules to
produce sugar and oxygen, as seen in the chemical equation for photosynthesis. Though the
equation looks simple, it is carried out through many complex steps. Before learning the details
of how photoautotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy, it is important to become
familiar with the structures involved.

 Photosynthesis and the Leaf

-In plants, photosynthesis generally takes place in leaves, which consist of several layers of
cells. The process of photosynthesis occurs in a middle layer called the mesophyll. The gas
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs through small, regulated openings called
stomata (singular: stoma ), which also play a role in the plant’s regulation of water balance. The
stomata are typically located on the underside of the leaf, which minimizes water loss. Each
stoma is flanked by guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the stomata by swelling
or shrinking in response to osmotic changes.

Photosynthesis within the Chloroplast

-In all autotrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside an organelle called a
chloroplast. For plants, chloroplast-containing cells exist in the mesophyll. Chloroplasts have a
double membrane envelope composed of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Within
the double membrane are stacked, disc-shaped structures called thylakoids.Embedded in the
thylakoid membrane is chlorophyll, a pigment that absorbs certain portions of the visible
spectrum and captures energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll gives plants their green color and is
responsible for the initial interaction between light and plant material, as well as numerous
proteins that make up the electron transport chain. The thylakoid membrane encloses an
internal space called the thylakoid lumen. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum, and the
liquid-filled space surrounding the granum is the stroma or “bed.”

The Two Parts of Photosynthesis

-Light-dependent and light-independent reactions are two successive reactions that

occur during photosynthesis. In light-dependent reactions, the energy from sunlight is absorbed
by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy in the form of electron carrier molecules like
ATP and NADPH. Light energy is harnessed in Photosystems I and II, both of which are present
in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. In light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle),
carbohydrate molecules are assembled from carbon dioxide using the chemical energy
harvested during the light-dependent reactions.

 Light-Dependent Reactions

-Just as the name implies, light-dependent reactions require sunlight. In the light-
dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and converted into stored
chemical energy, in the form of the electron carrier molecule NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate) and the energy currency molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The
light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes in the granum (stack of
thylakoids), within the chloroplast.

-The two stages of photosynthesis: Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-
dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions). Light-dependent
reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and
NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these
compounds to make GA3P from CO2. The process that converts light energy into chemical
energy takes place in a multi-protein complex called a photosystem. Two types of photosystems
are embedded in the thylakoid membrane: photosystem II ( PSII) and photosystem I (PSI). Each
photosystem plays a key role in capturing the energy from sunlight by exciting electrons. These
energized electrons are transported by “energy carrier” molecules, which power the light-
independent reactions.
Photosystems consist of a light-harvesting complex and a reaction center. Pigments in the light-
harvesting complex pass light energy to two special chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction
center. The light excites an electron from the chlorophyll a pair, which passes to the primary
electron acceptor. The excited electron must then be replaced. In photosystem II, the electron
comes from the splitting of water, which releases oxygen as a waste product. In photosystem I,
the electron comes from the chloroplast electron transport chain.

 Light-Independent Reactions

-In the light-independent reactions or Calvin cycle, the energized electrons from the light-
dependent reactions provide the energy to form carbohydrates from carbon dioxide molecules.
The light-independent reactions are sometimes called the Calvin cycle because of the cyclical
nature of the process. Although the light-independent reactions do not use light as a reactant
(and as a result can take place at day or night), they require the products of the light-dependent
reactions to function. The light-independent molecules depend on the energy carrier molecules,
ATP and NADPH, to drive the construction of new carbohydrate molecules. After the energy is
transferred, the energy carrier molecules return to the light-dependent reactions to obtain more
energized electrons. In addition, several enzymes of the light-independent reactions are
activated by light.Fertilization in Plants.

A plant is nature’s gift as they provide us with the food, oxygen, shelter, clothing, etc. They are
also known as universal or primary producers. Like all other living things, plant respire, grow,
develop, excrete and reproduce. All higher plants reproduce by fertilization. Fertilization in
flowering plants was discovered by Ralph B. Strassburger in the year 1884. Let us have a brief
discussion on fertilization.

 Fertilization in Plants

-What is Fertilization? Fertilization is a process of sexual reproduction in plants, which

occurs after pollination and germination. Fertilization can be defined as the fusion of the male
gametes (pollen) with the female gametes (ovum) to form a diploid zygote. It is a
physicochemical process which occurs after the pollination of the carpel. The complete series of
this process takes place in the zygote to develop into a seed. In the fertilization process, flowers
play a significant role as they are the reproductive structures of angiosperms (flowering plants).
The method of fertilization in plants occurs when gametes in haploid conditions fuse to produce
a diploid zygote. In the course of fertilization, male gametes get transferred into the female
reproductive organs through pollinators (honey bees, birds, bats, butterflies, flower beetles) and
the final product will be the formation of the embryo in a seed.

Fertilization Process-In flowers, the pollen grain germinates after the pollination of the carpel
and grows into the style by creating the pathway for the pollen grain to move down to the ovary.
The pollen tube breaks into the ovule through the micropyle and bursts into the embryo sac.
Here the male nucleus fuses with the nucleus of an egg inside the ovule forming a diploid
zygote, which later swells up and develops into a fruit.
Types of Fertilization-Fertilization process can be grouped into three types and are classified
mainly based on the entry of the pollen tube into the ovule.

Porogamy- It is the common type of fertilization carried out in all angiosperms or flowering
plants. In this type of fertilization, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle.

Chalazogamy- This type of fertilization is carried out in all casuarina species of plants. In this
condition, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the pollen tube.

Mesogamy- This type of fertilization is seen in all Cucurbit plants, such as pumpkin, ridge
gourds, bitter gourd and other gourd plants. In this type of fertilization, the pollen tube enters the
ovule through its middle part or through the integuments of the ovule.

Prepared by; Sarmiento, Clarisse Yelyn V.