Numerical Solution of Non-linear Equations

1. Introduction:
The solving of engineering problems may, in part, require the determination of the roots of some
equations. Therefore, the roots of an equation are defined as the values of 𝒙 which satisfy an equation of the
form:

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 − − − − − (𝟏)

Examples of such equations are:

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟎

𝒙𝟓 − 𝟐𝒙𝟒 − 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎

𝒙 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟎

The first two equations are examples of polynomial equations, and the third is an example of a
transcendental equation. The zeros of a function 𝑓(𝑥) are equal to the roots of eq.(1). A function is said to
have zeros, and the equation is said to have roots.

Page 1 of 30
 2. Types of
roots:
In general, equations can have roots which take on as:

 Real and distinct.

 Real and repeated.
 Complex conjugates.
 A mixed of all the above.

The Figures as follows graphically demonstrates all the above cases using fourth-degree polynomials.

Fig.(1) is a plot of the polynomial:

𝒙𝟒 + 𝟔𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎 − − − − − − −

(𝟐)

which has four real and distinct roots at -4, -2, -1 and 1, as indicated by the intersections of the function with x-
f(x)
axis.

-4 -2 -1 1 x

Fig.(1)

Page 2 of 30
Fig.(2) is a graph of the polynomial:

𝒙𝟒 + 𝟕𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎 − − − − − − − − (𝟑)

which has two real and distinct roots at -4 and 1, and two roots real and repeated roots at -2. The point of
tangency with the x-axis indicate the presence of the repeated root [at this point 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝒇′(𝒙)].
f(x)

-2
-4 1 x

Fig.(2)
Fig(.

Fig.(3) is a plot of the polynomial:

𝒙𝟒 − 𝟔𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎 − − − − − − −(𝟒)

which has only four complex roots at 𝟏 ± 𝟐𝒋 and 𝟐 ± 𝒋. In this case there is no intersection with the x-axis of the
Cartesian coordinate system occurs since all roots are located in the complex plane.
f(x)

Fig.(3)
Fig.(3)

Page 3 of 30
Finally, fig.(4) demonstrated the presence of two real and complex roots with the polynomial:

𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 − − − − − − − − (𝟓)

Whose roots are -4, 1 and 𝟏 ± 𝟐𝒋, as expected, the function crosses the x-axis only at two positions: -4, 1
f(x)

-4 1 x

Fig.(4)

Page 4 of 30
 3. Cubic Equation:
4.The upper bound of the roots (cubic equation):
To determine an upper bound of the roots (assuming that all are real), consider the following:

𝒓𝟐𝟏+ 𝒓𝟐 +
𝟐 𝒓 +
𝟐
𝟑 ⋯+ 𝒓
𝟐

𝒏
= (𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒓𝒏)𝟐
− 𝟐(𝒓𝟏𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟏𝒓𝟑 + 𝒓𝟏𝒓𝟒 + ⋯ 𝒓𝟏𝒓𝒏 + 𝒓𝟐𝒓𝟑 + 𝒓𝟐𝒓𝟒 + ⋯ + 𝒓𝟐𝒓𝒏 + 𝒓𝟑𝒓𝟒 + ⋯ + 𝒓𝟑𝒓𝒏 + ⋯ 𝒓𝒏−𝟏𝒓𝒏)
Using Newton’s relations:
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝟑
𝒓 𝟏+ 𝒓 𝟐+ 𝒓 + ⋯ + 𝒓𝒏 = ( ) − 𝟐 ( )
𝟑
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏
And it follows that: ;

𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝟑
∴ |𝒓 𝒎 | ≤ √ ( 𝒂 𝟏) − 𝟐 𝒂 𝟏 )
(6)
𝒂 𝒙 ( ;

Example 1:
Consider the equation:
𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎

 Upper bound (limit) of maximum root is:

−𝟐𝟑 𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | ≤ √ (𝟔𝟐 ) −𝟐
𝟏
( ) ;
𝟏
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | ≤ 𝟐𝟎.
𝟏𝟐 Page 5 of 30
5. Reducing a polynomial degree:
If one root 𝑟1of a polynomial is known, a reduced polynomial is obtained from the polynomial division:

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 − 𝑟1 (𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
This operation is useful in determining all the reminder roots of polynomial equation. This process can be
continued until the reduced polynomial becomes a quadratic equation of the form:

𝒂𝟏𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎;

and the solution will be as follows:

−𝒂𝟐 ∓ √ ( 𝒂 𝟐 ) 𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂 𝟏 𝒂𝟑
𝒙𝒏−𝟏,𝒏 = 𝟐𝒂𝟏

6. Properties of transcendental functions:

 Transcendental functions is defined as a function whose value cannot be determined for any given
argument by a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions and extractions of roots.
 The trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic function, as follows:
𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0
𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 0
These equations can be taking many forms.

Page 6 of 30
 There may be a finite number of real roots (fig.5), or an infinite number of real roots (fig.6).
 Graphing is properly the best method to determining the number and approximate locations of the real
roots.

f(x)
f(x) = tanx
f(x) = x2

f(x) =
sinx

x
0  2

f(x) = x
2
f(x) = x
+sinx

Fig. Fig. (6)

(5)

Page 7 of 30
7. Methods of determination the roots of non-linear equation:
7.1 B r a c k e t i n g methods:
8.1.1 Searching Method:
A good first step in determining the roots of equation is to make a search for number and approximate
location of the real root. If the equation that need to find it’s roots is a polynomial, the equation (*) can be
utilized in choosing an interval.
After an interval is chosen, the equation is evaluated at increment values of x until two successive points
with functional values of opposite sign are found. One root must lie between these two points. If the equation
is not polynomial (transcendental equation), an interval can be chosen from graph of the equation.

Example 2:
Find the roots of the following equation:
𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 = 𝟎
by searching method.
Solution:
To find the upper limit of maximum root ;
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒂𝟐 = −𝟏𝟑, 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟐𝟐
−𝟏𝟑 𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | = √ (−𝟐𝟐) −𝟐 ( ) ≤ 𝟖.
𝟐
𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔;
by searching method:𝟐

x 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
f(x) +19 -102 -165 -182 -165 -126 -77 -30 +3 +5 -10.5

Page 8 of 30
First trail:
For first interval (7, 8) with increment ∆𝑥 = 0.2 (one
digit);
x 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0
f(x) -102 -82.82 -61.23 -37.13 -10.42 +19

Second trail:
For first interval (7.8, 8) with increment ∆𝑥 = 0.05 (Two digit);

x 7.80 7.85 7.90 7.95 8.0

f(x) -10.42 -3.31 +3.95 +11.39 +19

Third trail:
For first interval (7.85, 7.90) with increment ∆𝑥 = 0.01 (Two digits);
x 7.85 7.86 7.87 7.88 7.89 7.90
f(x) -3.31 -1.879 -0.433 +1.21 -10.42 +19
The first root by two digits is:
𝒙 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟕 (The value of x that it’s 𝑓(𝑥) closed to zero).
Then, reducing the degree of the given equation by long division as shown:
7.87 2 -13 -22 +3

15.74 21.57 -3.46

add

2 2.74 -0.44 0.432

Reminder
(round off error)

Page 9 of 30
The equation becomes:
𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟎 (by neglecting the reminder),
To find the other two roots by solving the above quadratic equation by:

−𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 ∓ √(𝟐. 𝟕𝟒)𝟐 − 𝟒 ∗ 𝟐 ∗

𝒙𝟐,𝟑 = 𝟐
(−𝟎. 𝟒𝟒)
∗𝟐
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟓, 𝒂 𝒏 𝒙𝟑 = −𝟏.
𝒅 𝟓𝟐

Properties of “Searching Method”:

i. This method is of limited practical value because they are not precise.
ii. This method can be utilized to obtain rough estimates of roots. These estimations can be employed as
starting guesses for numerical methods.
iii. This method is important tool for understanding the properties of functions.

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30
8.1.2 Bisection method (Half-interval):

Fig.(7)

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30
Example 4:
By bisection method, find the roots of the following equation:
𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
=𝟎
Solution:
To find the upper limit of maximum root ;
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒂𝟐 = −𝟏𝟑, 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟐𝟐
−𝟏𝟑 𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | = √ (−𝟐𝟐) −𝟐 ( ) ≤ 𝟖.
𝟐
𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔;
𝟐
By searching method:
x 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
f(x) +19 -102 -165 -182 -165 -126 -77 -30 +3 +5 -10.5

Thus, the root lies between 𝑥 = 7 and 𝑥 = 8. The completion of the problem is given in the table as
follows:
𝒙𝟏 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒇(𝒙𝟏) 𝒇(𝒙 ) 𝒇(𝒙𝟐)
𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
7.0 7.5 8.0 -102 -49.5 +19
7.5 7.75 8.0 -49.5 -17.3437 +19
7.75 7.875 8.0 -17.3437 +0.29297 +19
7.75 7.8125 7.875 -17.3437 -8.65771 +0.29297
7.8125 7.84375 7.875 -8.65771 -4.215636 +0.29297
7.84375 7.859375 7.875 -4.215636 -1.969674 +0.29297
7.859375 7.8671875 7.875 -1.969674 -0.840440 +0.29297
7.8671875 7.87109375 7.875 -0.840440 -0.274257 +0.29297
7.87109375 7.873046875 7.875 -0.274257 0.0092245 +0.29297

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30
The first root by seven digits is:
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟕𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓
Then, reducing the degree of the given equation by long division as shown:

7.873046875 2 -13 -22 +3

15.74609375 21.62012482 -2.990775122 add

2 2.74609375 -0.379875183 0.009225

Reminder
(round off error)

The equation becomes:

𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟑 = 𝟎 (by neglecting the
reminder), To find the other two roots by solving the above quadratic
equation by:
𝒙𝟐,𝟑 = 𝟐
−𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓 ∓ √(𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓
∗ 𝟐 ) − 𝟒 ∗ 𝟐 ∗ (−𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟑)
𝟐

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟔, 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝟑 = −𝟏.
𝒅 𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟔

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 8.1.3 False position Method:

The method of False Position (also called the Regular Falsi method, and the linear interpolation method) is another well-
known bracketing method. It is very similar to Bisection method with the exception that it uses a different strategy to end up
with its new root estimate. Rather than bisecting the interval (a, b), it locates the root by joining f (a1) and f (b1) with a straight line. The
intersection of this line with the x-axis represents an improved estimate of the root.

Fig.8 Method of false position

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑓(𝑏)

𝑥 𝑎
−𝑏 −𝑏
Then;
𝑦 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) …… .
𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑏)
= (7)
−𝑎

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The points 𝑥𝑠where the line intersects the x-axis is determined by substituting 𝑦 = 0 in Eq.(7) and solving the equation for
x. Hence:

𝑥𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑏 𝑓(𝑎) ……
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) (8)

Algorithm for the method of False Position:

1. Define the first interval (a, b) such that solution exists between them. Check f (a) f (b) < 0.
2. Compute the first estimate of the numerical solution 𝑥𝑠using Eq.(8).
3. Find out whether the actual solution is between a and 𝑥𝑠1 or between 𝑥𝑠1 and b.
This is accomplished by checking the sign of the product f (a) f (𝑥𝑠1 ).
If f (a) f (𝑥𝑠1 ) < 0, the solution is between a and 𝑥𝑠1 .
If f (a) f (𝑥𝑠1 ) > 0, the solution is between 𝑥𝑠1 and b.
4. Select the subinterval that contains the solution (a to 𝑥𝑠1 , or 𝑥𝑠1 to b) is the new interval (a, b) and go back to step 2. Steps
2 through 4 are repeated until a specified tolerance or error bound is attained. The method of False Position always
converges to an answer, provided a root is initially bracketed in the interval (a, b).

Example 5:
Using the False Position method, find a root of the function:
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥 – 3𝑥2
to an accuracy of 5 digits. The root is known to lie between 0.5 and 1.0.
Solution:
We apply the
𝑥𝑠 = 𝑎is:
method of False Position with a = 0.5 and b = 1.0. Eq.(8) 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑏 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
The calculations based on the method of False Position are shown in the following Table.

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30
 n a b 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑏) 𝑥𝑠1 𝑓(𝑥𝑠1 ) Relative error
1 0.5 1 0.89872 −0.28172 0.88067 0.08577 ---
2 0.88067 1 0.08577 −0.28172 0.90852 0.00441 0.03065
3 0.90852 1 0.00441 −0.28172 0.90993 0.00022 0.00155
4 0.90993 1 0.00022 −0.28172 0.91000 0.00001 0.00008
5 0.91000 1 0.00001 −0.28172 0.91001 0.0000 3.7952*10-6
The relative error after the fifth step is:
( 0.91001 − 0.91)
= 3.7952 × 10−6.
( 0.91001
The root is 0.91 accurate to five digits. )

7.2 Open methods:

8.2.1Newton – Raphson
method:

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Example 5:

Find the roots of the following equation:

𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
=𝟎
by Newton-Raphson method.
Solution:
The function is:

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑;

and the derivative of the function is:

𝒇 ′ ( 𝒙 ) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐
To find the upper limit of maximum root ;
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒂𝟐 = −𝟏𝟑, −𝟏𝟑𝒂𝟑𝟐 = −𝟐𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | = √ (−𝟐𝟐) −𝟐 ( ) ≤ 𝟖.
𝟐
𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔;
𝟐
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Taking a first trail from the upper limit at 𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔, and the complete trails shown in the following
table:
𝒙𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇 ′( 𝒙 ) 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )⁄ 𝒇 ′ ( 𝒙 ) 𝒙𝟏
8.0156 21.411 155.1 0.138 7.8776
7.8776 0.6711 145.522 0.0046117 7.8729883
7.8729883 0.00071936 145.20597 0.00000495 7.872983346

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟒𝟔

7.872983346 2 -13 -22 +3

15.7459667 21.618950 -3.000000028 add

2 2.7459667 -0.38104997 -0.000000028

Reminder
(round off error)

The equation becomes:

𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟕𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟕 = 𝟎 (by neglecting the
reminder), To find the other two roots by solving the above quadratic
equation by:
𝒙𝟐,𝟑 = 𝟐
−𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟕 ∓ √(𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟕)𝟐 − 𝟒 ∗ 𝟐 ∗ (−𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟕)
∗𝟐

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕, 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟓
𝒅
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The sources of divergence for (N-R method):

Two instances in which Newton-Raphson method does not converges as:

 First instance shown that, if the slope 𝒇 ′ (𝒙) is closed to zero (fig.9), the succeeding trail value will be
near ∞.
 Second instance illustrates an infinite looping between two trails 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐(fig.10).

f(x)
f(x)

x
x1 x n x
x2 x1 xn

Fig.(9)
Fig.(10)

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2. Secant method:
In fig.(11&12) 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 represent two arbitrary trails, and 𝒇(𝒙𝟏) , 𝒇(𝒙𝟐) represent the functional values at 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐
respectively. Point C on the straight line ABC is taken as a third 𝒙𝟑. A fourth trail 𝒙𝟒 is then determined by using points 𝒙𝟐
and 𝒙𝟑 in the same manner, a fifth point 𝒙𝟓 by using points 𝒙𝟑 and 𝒙𝟒, etc., until the root 𝒓𝟏 is obtained within the desired
accuracy.
 For positive slop:
F(x)

F (x 1 )
A

F (x 2 )
B

C x2 x1 x
e

F i g u r e ( 11 )

The value of e can be determined from the similar triangles as shown:

𝒆 𝒇(𝒙𝟐)
= ; −−−−−− −
(∗)
( 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝒆 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 )
Then C or 𝒙𝟑 that represent the value closer to the required root can be determined after obtains e as 𝒄 = 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒆, and
so on.

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 Example 7:
Consider the equation:
𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 = 𝟎
 Upper bound (limit) of maximum root is:

−𝟏𝟑 𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | = √ (−𝟐𝟐) − 𝟐( ) ≤ 𝟖.
𝟐
𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔;
𝟐
∴ | 𝒓 𝒎 𝒂 𝒙 | ≤ 𝟖. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔
As shown in example 7, the slope of previous equation is positive (+155.1) then the relation (*) is available.
Using:
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟎
𝒆 𝒇(𝒙𝟐) 𝒇(𝒙𝟏) = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟏
= ;
( 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏𝒇)(𝒙
+𝟐)𝒆= 𝟏𝟗
𝒇(𝒙𝟏→) 𝟎(𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕)
𝒆

𝟏𝟗
=
(𝟖. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔 − 𝟖) + 𝒆 𝟐𝟏.
;
𝟒𝟏𝟏
By solving the equation to find e:
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟒
∴ 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒆
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∴ 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟒; 𝒐𝒓
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟕𝟕𝟎𝟔
The process is continued until the root 𝑟1= 7.872983 is reached as illustrated in the following Table.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒
8.0156 21.4110
8.0000 19.0000 0.12294
7.87706 0.592522 0.003957
7.873103 0.017325 0.000119
7.872983 1.66E-05 1.15E-07

7.872983 2 -13 -22 +3

-15.745966 21.6189436 -3.0000503 add

2 2.745966 -0.3810564 -0.0000503

Reminder
(round off error)
As shown, the secant method is less accurate than N-R method.

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  For negative slop:

F(x )

A
F (x 1 )

F (x 2 ) B
’
B D e s i r e d root(r1 )
x
X1 X2 X4
e C=x3 .

F ig u r e (1 2 )

The value of e can be determined from the similar triangle as shown:

𝒆 𝒇(𝒙𝟐)
= ; −−−−−− −
( 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) + 𝒆(∗∗)𝒇(𝒙𝟏 )
Then C or 𝒙𝟑 that represent the value closer to the required root can be determined after obtains e as 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒆, and so
on.

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Complex Roots:
The methods presented so far have been concerned with determining real roots of an equation. Attention will now be
focused upon determining complex or imaginary zeros of polynomials. Complex roots occur in conjugate pairs of the
form:

(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖)

It then follows that after one root, (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖), is determined, a second root is simply (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖).

An nth-order polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) with the zeros (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖) can be expressed in the form:

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) (𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) 𝑓1(𝑥)

Where 𝒇𝟏(𝒙) is a polynomial of degree (n-2). Multiplication of the two factors puts 𝒇(𝒙) in the form:

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)𝑓1(𝑥)

Where; 𝑝 = −2𝑎
𝑞 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
Note that both 𝒑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒒 are
real.

Example 8:
Newton's method will be
used to determine one
complex root of the
equation:
Page 24 of
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏𝟖𝒙
𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 30

− 𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎
𝑥2 − 6𝑥 − 18 =
0
𝑥 = 6 ∓ √36 − 72 = 𝟑 ∓ 𝟑𝒊
2
Upon taking 𝟑 ∓ 𝟑𝒊 as a first trail, 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇 ′( 𝒙 ) can be determined by direct substitution as:
𝒇(𝟑 ∓ 𝟑𝒊) = −𝟓𝟔 − 𝟕𝟐𝒊
𝒇 ′ ( 𝟑 ∓ 𝟑𝒊) = −𝟏𝟑𝟐
The second trail is then determined by Newton's method 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒙𝟏 =by
𝒙𝟎the
− following equation:
𝒇 ′(𝒙 𝟎)
−56 − 72𝑖
𝑥1 = 3 ∓ 3𝑖 − = 2.58 + 2.45𝑖
−13
2
The process is continued as shown in following Table:

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇 ′ (𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) ⁄ 𝒇 ′ (𝒙)

𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊 −𝟓𝟔 − 𝟕𝟐𝒊 −𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝒊
𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 + 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝒊 −𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 − 𝟐𝟎. 𝟑𝒊 −𝟔𝟎. 𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝒊 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝒊
𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑𝒊 −𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟒. 𝟕𝟗𝒊 −𝟑𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝒊 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝒊
𝟐. 𝟎𝟕 + 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝒊 −𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝒊 −𝟏𝟖. 𝟕 − 𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝒊 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝒊 𝟎 --- ---

Thus, two roots of the equation are 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊 and 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒊. The polynomial can now be put in the form:

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2 − 2𝑖) (𝑥 − 2 + 2𝑖) 𝑓1(𝑥)

= (𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 8)𝑓1(𝑥)

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Where the polynomial 𝑓1(𝑥) is determined from long division as:
x2- 2x + 2

x2- 4x + 8 x4- 6x3 +18x2 - 24x + 16

x4- 4x3 + 8x2 Sub.
-2x3 +10x2 - 24x + 16
-2x3 +8x2 - 16x Sub.

2x2 - 8x + 16
2x2 - 8x + 16
Sub.
0

Then, 𝑓(𝑥)becomes:

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 8)(𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 2)

Therefore; another two roots can be determined for the equation

(𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 2)as:
2 ∓ √4 − 8 = 𝟏 ∓ 𝒊
𝒙𝟑,𝟒 = 2

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 Applied Problems

1. In figure (1), shows a uniform beam subjected to a linear increasing distributed load. The equation for the resulting elastic
curve is:
𝒘
𝒚 (−𝒙𝟓 + 𝟐𝑳𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝑳𝟒𝒙)
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑬𝑰𝑳
𝟎
= 𝒅𝒚
Using the numerical methods to determine the point of max. deflection (that is, the value of 𝒙 where 𝒅 𝒙= 𝟎. Then substitute
this value in the given equation to find the value of maximum deflection. Using the following
parameter values in your
computations:
𝑳 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎; 𝑬𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 ⁄ 𝒄 𝒎 𝟐 ; 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌 𝑵 ⁄ 𝒄 𝒎 .

Figure (1)

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2. The Ergun equation, shown below, is used to describe the flow of a fluid through a packed bed. ∆𝑷 is the pressure
drop, 𝝆 the is the density of the fluid, 𝑮 𝟎 is the mass velocity (mass flow rate divided by cross-sectional area), 𝑫 𝒑 is
the diameter of the particles within the bed, 𝝁 is the fluid viscosity, L is the length of the bed, and 𝜺 is the void
fraction of the bed.
∆𝑷𝝆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟏
𝜺𝟑
𝑫𝑮𝒑𝟎
− 𝜺
𝒑 𝟎
𝟐
+ 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 ∆𝑷
𝑳 𝟏−𝜺 𝑫 𝑮 ⁄𝝁 𝝆𝑮𝟐 = 20.
Given the parameter values listed below, find the void fraction 𝜺 of the bed. 𝑫 𝒑 𝑮 𝟎 ⁄ 𝝁 =
1000; 𝟎
3. The natural frequencies of a uniform cantilever beam are related to the roots βi of the frequency equation:
f (β) = cosh β cos β + 1 = 0, where
𝒎𝑳𝟑
𝜷 𝒊 = (𝟐𝝅 𝒇𝒊 )
𝟒 𝟐
𝑬 𝑰
fi = ith natural frequency (cps)
m= mass of the beam
L = length of the beam
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
Determine the lowest two frequencies of a steel beam 0.9 m long, with a rectangular cross section 25mm wide and
2.5mm in. high. The mass density of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 GPa.

4. Player A will shut out (win by a score of 21–0) player B in a game of racquetball with probability:
21
𝑝 +1
2 ,
𝑃 = (
Where p denotes the probability A will win any 𝑝 specific rally.
) Determine, to within 10−3, the minimal value of p
1−𝑝 +𝑝 2
that will ensure that A will shut out B in at least half the matches they play.

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5. The chemical equilibrium equation in the production of methanol from CO and H2 is:
𝝃(𝟑 − 𝟐𝝃 )𝟐
= 𝟐𝟒𝟗. 𝟐
(𝟏 − 𝝃 )𝟑
where ξ is the equilibrium extent of the reaction. Determine ξ .

6. Gibb’s free energy of one mole of hydrogen at temperature T is:

𝑮 = −𝑹𝑻 𝒍𝒏[(𝑻/𝑻 𝟎 ) 𝟓 ⁄𝟐 ] 𝑱
Where R= 8.31441 J/K is the gas constant and T0 = 4.444 18 K. Determine the temperature at which G=
−105 J.

7. The figure shows the thermodynamic cycle of an engine. The efficiency of this engine for monatomic gas
is: 𝒍𝒏(𝑻𝟐 /𝑻 𝟏 ) − (𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟏 /𝑻 𝟐 )
𝜼 =
𝒍𝒏(𝑻𝟐 /𝑻𝟏 ) + (𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟏 /𝑻 𝟐 )/(𝜸 − 𝟏)
where T is the absolute temperature and γ = 5/3. Find T2/T1 that results in 30% efficiency (η = 0.3).

8. Water is following in a trapezoidal channel at a rate of Q =20m3/s. The critical depth y for such a channel
y
must satisfy the equation:
𝑸𝟐
𝟏− 𝑩 = 𝟎;
𝒈 𝑨𝟐

Where g= 9.81 m/s2, A= The cross sectional area (m2) and B= the width of the channel at the surface (m). For
this case, the width and the cross sectional area can be related to depth y as:

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 𝒚𝟐
𝑩 = 𝟑 + 𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨 = 𝟑𝒚
+
Find the critical depth 𝟐
y.

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