Fourier Transform

1) The complex or exponential form of a Fourier series:

The form used for the Fourier series in last year consisted of cosine and sine terms. However, there is another form that is
commonly used—one that directly gives the amplitude terms in the frequency spectrum and relates to phasor notation. This
form involves the use of complex numbers. It is called the exponential or complex form of a Fourier series.
By complex notation, we have:
e j 8 = cos 8 + j sin 8 (1)
and e – j 8 = cos 8 − j sin 8 (2)
Adding equations (1) and (2) gives:
e j 8 + e – j 8 = 2cos8
cos 8 = e j 8 +e —j8 (3)
from which, 2
Similarly, equation (1) – equation (2) gives:
e j 8 + e – j 8 = 2sin8

from which, sin 8 =

e j8−e −j8
2j
(4)
Thus, the Fourier series f (x) over any range T

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 œ
2nnx 2nnx
f (x) = a 0 + Σ [a n cos ( ) + bn sin (
T )]T
n =1

may be written as:

œ 2nns 2nns 2nns 2nns

ej T + e– j T j T − e– j T
f (x) = a 0 + Σ [a n ( e )]
2 ) + bn ( 2j
n=1

Multiplying top and bottom of the bn term by −j (and remembering that j 2 = −1) gives:

œ
e j 2nns
T
2nns
+ e– j T ej
2nns
T − e– j
2nns
T
f (x) = a + Σ [a ( ) − jb n ( )]
0
2 2
n n=1

Rearranging gives:
œ
a n − jb n 2nns a n + jb n 2nns
f (x) = a 0 + ) ej T − ( ) e– j T ] (5)
2 2
Σ [(
n =1
The Fourier coefficients a0, an and bn may be replaced by complex coefficients C0, Cn and C−n such that:

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 C0 = a 0 (6)
an –jbn
Cn = (7)
2
a +jb n
And; C−n = n (8)
2
where C−n represents the complex conjugate of Cn. Thus, equation (5) may be rewritten as:
œ ∞
2nns 2nns
f (x) = C0 + j T +Σ – j T (9)
Σ Cne C−ne
n =1
Since e0 =1, the C0 term can be absorbed into the summation since itn=1
is just another term to be added to the summation of the
Cn term when n = 0. Thus,
œ ∞
2nns 2nns
f (x) = Σ Cne j T +Σ –j T (10)
n=0 C−ne
n=1
The C – n term may be rewritten by changing the limits n = 1 to n = ∞ to n = −1 to n = −∞. Since n has been made
negative, the exponential term becomes e j 2 uTn x and C – n becomes Cn . Thus:

œ −∞
2nns 2nns
f (x) = Σ Cne j T + Σ j T

n=0 Cne
n=−1
Since the summations now extend from −∞ to −1 and from 0 to +∞, equation (10) may be written as:

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 œ
2nns
f (x) = Σ Cn e j T (11)
n=–œ

Equation (11) is the complex or exponential form of the Fourier series.

2) The complex coefficients:

From equation (7), the complex coefficient Cn was defined as:
an –jbn
Cn = .
2
However, an and bn are defined by:
2 T⁄2 2nnx
an = ƒ f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx;
T – T ⁄2

and,

2 T ⁄2 2nnx
bn = ƒ f ( x) sin ( T )dx
T – T ⁄2

Thus,

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 2unx
2 T⁄ 2 2unx 2 T ⁄ 2 ƒ (s )sin ( )d s
∫ ƒ ( s ) cos( ) d s – j ∫—T⁄2
Cn = T —T ⁄2 T T T
2
1 T ⁄2 2nnx 1 T ⁄2 2nnx
= ƒ
T – T ⁄2
f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx − j T ƒ f ( x) sin ( T )dx
– T ⁄2

From equations (3) and (4),

1 T ⁄2 ej 2nnx 2nnx
T + e−j T 1 T ⁄2 ej 2nnx 2nnx
T − e−j T
Cn = ƒ f( x) ( ) dx − j ƒ f( x) ( ) dx
T 2 T 2j
– T ⁄2 – T ⁄2

From which,

1 T ⁄2 ej 2nnx
T + e−j 2nnx
T 1 T ⁄2 ej 2nnx
T − −j
2nnx
T
Cn = ƒ f( x) ( ) dx − ƒ f( x) ( e ) dx
T – T ⁄2 2 T 2
– T ⁄2

i.e.
1 T ⁄2 2nnx
−j T dx (12)
Cn = ƒ f( x) e
T – T ⁄2

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Note:
Care needs to be taken when determining C0. If n appears in the denominator of an expression the expansion can be invalid
when n = 0. In such circumstances it is usually simpler to evaluate C0 by using the relationship:
1 T ⁄2
C0 = a 0 = ƒ f ( x ) dx (13)
T – T ⁄2

Example 1:.
Determine the complex Fourier series for the function defined by:
0, wℎen − 2 ≤ x ≤ −1
f (x) = { 5, wℎen − 2 ≤ x ≤ −1
0, wℎen 1≤x ≤ 2
The function is periodic outside this range of period 4.

Solution:
The function f (x) is shown in Figure (1), where the period, T = 4. From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is given
by:

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 Fig.(1)

The function f (x) is shown in Figure (1), where the period, T = 4. From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is given
by:
œ
j
2nns
f (x) = Σ C ne T
n=–œ
where C n is given by:

1 T⁄ 2 2nnx
−j T dx
Cn = ƒ f( x) e
T –T ⁄ 2
With reference to Figure (1), when T = 4,
–1 1 2
1 2nnx
Cn = { ƒ 0 dx + ƒ – 1 5 e
−j 4 dx + ƒ 0 dx }
4 –2 1

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 1
u nx unx u nx 1
5 e
—j 2 –5
Cn = 1 ∫1– 1 5 e –j
2 dx = 4[ ] = [ e –j
2 ]
4 un
– j 2
j 2nn –1
–1
un un
un
–5 un 5 e
j 2
– e
—j 2
– j
j 2nn nn 2j
5 nn2 j 2
Cn = sin ( ) from equation (4)
nn 2

Hence, fromœequation (11), the complex

∞ form of the Fourier series is given by:
2nns 5 nn n n s
j T
= Σ sin e
j 2 (14)
f ( x ) = Σ Cne nn 2
n=–œ
From equation (13), n=−∞

1 T ⁄2 1 1 5 5
C0 = a 0 = T ƒ =
f (x ) dx = 4 ƒ 5 dx = 4 [x ]1−1 2
– T ⁄2 –1
Since,
5
Cn = nn
nn sin 2 , tℎen

5 n 5
C1 = n sin 2 = n
5
C2 = 2n
2n sin 2 = 0

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(in fact, all even terms will be zero since sin nn = 0)
5
C3 = 3n 5
3n sin 2 = − 3n
By similar substitution,
5 5
C5 = 5n , C7 = − 7n and so on.
Similarly,

5 −n 5
C– 1 = − n sin 2 = n

5 −2n = C– 6 and so on.

C– 2 = − 2n sin 2 =0 = C –4

5
C– 3 = −3n 5
−3n sin 2 = − 3n

5 5
C– 5 = 5n , C– 7 = − 7n and so on.
Hence, the extended complex form of the Fourier series shown in equation (14) becomes:

5 5 nx 5 3nx 5 5nx 5 7nx 5 nx 5 3nx 5 5nx 5

j
f (x ) = 2 + n e 2 − 3n e j 2 + e j 2 − e j 2 +⋯+ e−j
2 −
e −j 2 + e −j 2 − e−j 7nx
2 +⋯
5n 7n n 3n 5n 7n

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 5 5 nx nx 5 3nx 3nx 5 5nx 5nx
j −j j 2 + e−j 2 ) + ( ej 2 + e−j 2 ) − ⋯
f ( x ) = 2 + n ( e 2 + e 2 ) − 3n ( e 5n
nx nx 3nx 3nx 5nx 5nx
5 5 ej 2 + e −j 2 5 ej 2 + e −j 2 5 ej 2 + e−j 2
f ( x ) = 2 + n (2) ( ) − (2) ( ) + (2) ( ) −⋯
2 3n 2 5n 2

From equation (3):

f( x) = 5 10 cos (nx 5n
) − 10 cos3nx
( 10 cos
)+ x
+ ) −⋯
2 n 2 3n 2 5n 2
i.e.:
1 1
f ( x ) = 5 10 [cos nx ) − cos 3nx cos ( 5nx
+ ( ( )+ ) −⋯]
2 n 2 3 2 5 2

Hence,
∞
5 nn nn s
j 2 is equivalent to:
Σ sin e
n = –∞ nn 2

5 10 [cos ( nx ) − 1 cos ( 3nx ) + 1 cos ( 5nx

+ ) −⋯]
2 n 2 3 2 5 2

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Example 2:.
Determine the complex Fourier series for the periodic function defined by:
† (t ) = t in the range t = 0 to t = 1.

Solution:
The saw tooth waveform is shown in Figure (2):

T
Fig. (2)
From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is given by:
œ
2nnt
f (t) = Σ Cne j T

n=–œ

and when the period, T =1, then:

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 œ

f (t) = Σ Cn e j 2nnt
n=–
where, fromœ equation (12),
T
1 T⁄2 2nnt 1 2nnt
−j T −j T dt
Cn = ƒ f( t) e dt = ƒ 0 f ( t ) e
T – T ⁄2 T
and when T =1 and f (t )=t , then:
1
Cn = ƒ t e −j2nntdt
0
du
Using integration by parts let u = t , from which, dt = 1, and dt = du, and let d r = e – j 2 u n t , from which,

r = ƒ e −j2nnt e −j2nnt
dt =
−j2nn
1
Cn = ƒ t e−j2nnt dt = ur − ƒ rdu
0

1
1
e –j2nnt 1 e – j 2nnt e – j 2nnt e – j 2nnt
=t ] −ƒ dt = [t − ]
−j2nn 0 0 −j2nn −j2nn ( −j2nn ) 2 0

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 e –j2nn e –j2nn

e0
=( − ) − (0 − )
−j2nn ( −j2nn ) 2 ( −j2nn ) 2
Cn = ( cos2nn − jsin2nn − cos2nn − jsin2nn ) + ( 1 )
From equation−j2nn
(2), (−j2nn)2 (−j2nn )2
However, cos2un = 1 and sin2un = 0 for all positive and negative integer values of n.
1 1 1
Cn = ( − ) +( )
−j2nn (−j2nn )2 (−j2nn )2

1 1(j )
= =
−j2nn −j2nn ( j)
j
i.e. Cn 2nn
From equation (13),
1 T⁄2 1 T 1 5
C0 = a 0 = T ƒ f (t ) dt = T ƒ f (t ) dt = 4 [x ]1−1 =
2
– T ⁄2 0

1 1 2 1 1
= ƒ t dt =t [ ]
1 0 2 0 2
=

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Hence, the complex Fourier series is given by:
œ
2nnt
f ( t) = Σ Cne
j T from equation (11)
n=–œ
i.e.
∞
1
f ( t ) = 2+ Σ ej2nnt
n=−∞
œ
1 j j 2nnt
= + Σ e
2 2n n
n =– œ

3) Odd – Even property:

If even or odd symmetry is noted in a function, then time can be saved in determining coefficients. The Fourier
coefficients present in the complex Fourier series form are affected by symmetry. Summarizing from previous lecturer
notes:
An even function is symmetrical about the vertical axis and contains no sine terms, i.e. b n = 0.
For even symmetry,
1 T
a 0 = ƒ f ( x ) dx , and
T 0

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 T
2 2nnx
an = ƒ
T 0
f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx

4 T ⁄2 2nnx
an = ƒ
T 0
f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx

 An odd function is symmetrical about the origin and contains no cosine terms, a 0 = a n = 0.
For odd symmetry,
2 T 2nnx
bn = ƒ f ( x ) sin ( ) dx
T 0 T

4 T ⁄2 2nnx
bn = ƒ
T 0
f ( x ) sin ( T ) dx

a n – j bn
From equation (7), n
2
Thus, for even symmetry, b n = 0 and,

n 2 T ⁄2 2nnx
Cn = f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx (15)
2 = Tƒ0
For odd symmetry, = 0 and,
n

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 −2j T
⁄2
n 2nnx
Cn = = ƒ f ( x ) sin ( ) dx (16)
2 T 0 T
For example 1 the function f (x) is even, since the waveform is symmetrical about the y axis. Thus equation (15) could have
been used, giving:
2 T⁄ 2 2nnx
Cn = ƒ f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx
T 0
2 2 2nnx
= 4 ƒ f ( x ) cos ( T ) dx
0

2
1 1 nnx
= [ ƒ 5 cos ( ) dx + ƒ
2 2
0 dx]
0
5 nnx 1
= [ sin
1 ( 2 )
] = 5 sin nn
2 nn nn 2
( 2) 0

5 nn
Cn = sin
nn 2
which is the same answer as in example 1; however, a knowledge of even functions has produced the coefficient more
quickly.

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Example 4:
Obtain the Fourier series, in complex form, for the square wave shown in Figure (4).

Fig.(4)

Solution:
The square wave shown in Figure (4) is an odd function since it is symmetrical about the origin. The period of the
waveform, T = 2u.
Thus, using equation (16):

−2j T⁄2 2nnx

Cn = ƒ f ( x ) sin ( ) dx
T 0 T
−2j n 2nnx
= ƒ 2 sin ( ) dx
2n 0 2n
2 n
= −j ƒ sinnx dx
n 0

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 2 −cosnx n
]
= −j [ n 0
n
2
= −j (−cosnπ + cos0)
nn
2

= −j (1 − cosnπ)
nn

It is clear that this method is by far the shorter than the method without even-odd property.
From equationœ (11), the complex Fourier series is given by:
j
2nns
T
f ( t) = Σ Cne
n =– œ
œ
2
f ( t) = Σ −jnn (1 − cosnπ) e j n s
n =–œ

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4) The frequency spectrum:
In the Fourier analysis of periodic waveforms seen in previous lecturer notes, although waveforms physically exist in the
time domain, they can be regarded as comprising components with a variety of frequencies. The amplitude and phase of
these components are obtained from the Fourier coefficients an and bn; this is known as a frequency domain. Plots of
amplitude/frequency and phase/frequency are together known as the spectrum of a waveform.

Example 5:
A pulse of height 20 and width 2 has a period of 10. Sketch the spectrum of the waveform. The pulse is shown in Figure
(5).

Fig.(5)

Solution:
The complex coefficient is given by equation (12):
1 T⁄ 2 2nnt
−j T dt
Cn = ƒ f( t) e
T – T ⁄2

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 1
1 nnt
−j
Cn = ƒ 20 e 5 dt
10 – 1
nnt 1
20 e−j 5 = 20 5 [ e−j nn5 − e j nn
Cn = [ ] 10 −jnn 5]
10 −j n n
5 –1
nn nn
20 e j 5 − e −j 5
]
=
nn [ 2j
i.e.
20 nn
C n = sin from equation (4),
nn 5

From 1equation
T ⁄2
(13), 1 1 20 1
C0 = ƒ f (t )dt = ƒ 20dt = 10 [t ] – 1 = 2[1 − (−1)] = 4
T –T ⁄ 2 10 – 1
20 n
C1 = sin = 3.74 and
n 20 5 −n 20 n
C– 1 = sin 5 = sin = 3.74
−n n 5

Further values of cn and c−n, up to n = 10, are calculated and are shown in the following table:

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 n cn c−n
0 4 4
1 3.74 3.74
2 3.03 3.03
3 2.02 2.02
4 0.94 0.94
5 0 0
6 -0.62 -0.62
7 -0.86 -0.86
8 -0.76 -0.76
9 -0.42 -0.42
10 0 0

 A graph of |cn | plotted against the number of the harmonic, n, is shown in Figure (6).
 Figure (7) shows the corresponding plot of cn against n.
 Since cn is real (i.e. no j terms) then the phase must be either 0 o or , depending on the sign of the sine, as
±180 shown in Figure (8).
 When cn is positive, i.e. between n = −4 and n = +4, angle αn = 0o
 When
. cn is negative, then α n = ±180 ; between n = +6 and n = +9, α n is taken as +180◦, and between
n = −6 and n = −9, α n is taken as −180◦.

Figures (6) to (8) together form the spectrum of the waveform shown in Figure (5).

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 Fig.(6)

Fig.(7)

Page 22 of 24
 Fig.(8)

The coefficients Cn for some functions are real numbers whereas for others are complex numbers> In general, the Cn are
complex numbers and can be written as;
A sin nnaT
| Cn | = |
|
T nnT
And ∅n = − n nTa

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These complex coefficients constitute a discrete complex spectrum where Cn represents the spectral coefficient of the nth
harmonic. Each spectral coefficient couples an amplitude spectrum value |Cn| and a phase spectrum value ∅ n . The
amplitude spectrum tells us the magnitude of each of the harmonic components and has graphs shown on figures (6-8).

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